Professional Documents
Culture Documents
THIS IS A LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT BETWEEN YOU AND THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTI-
Nuclear Power TUTE, INC. (EPRI). PLEASE READ IT CAREFULLY BEFORE REMOVING THE WRAPPING MATERIAL.
BY OPENING THIS SEALED PACKAGE YOU ARE AGREEING TO THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO
embed edinthedocumentpriortopublication.
exportcontrolrestrictonsandanyproprietarylicensedmaterialnotices
notrequireanylicenseagre mentfromEPRI.Thisnoticesupersedesthe
thispublication,thisreportis ubject o nlycopyrightprotectionand oes
Section734.7oftheU.S ExportAdminstrationRegulations.Asaresultof
inac ordancewithSection734.3(b)(3)andpublishedinac ordancewith
EfectiveDecember6,20 6,thisreporthasbe nmadepublicyavail ble
EPRI creates science and technology solutions for age, in any form, in whole or in part, or prepare any derivative work based on this package.
the global energy and energy services industry. U.S. 3. RESTRICTIONS
electric utilities established the Electric Power You may not rent, lease, license, disclose or give this package to any person or organization, or use the information contained in this
package, for the benefit of any third party or for any purpose other than as specified above unless such use is with the prior written
Research Institute in 1973 as a nonprofit research permission of EPRI.You agree to take all reasonable steps to prevent unauthorized disclosure or use of this package. Except as speci-
consortium for the benefit of utility members, their fied above, this agreement does not grant you any right to patents, copyrights, trade secrets, trade names, trademarks or any other
SED WARNING:
intellectual property, rights or licenses in respect of this package. N
customers, and society. Now known simply as EPRI,
A L
LICE
4.TERM AND TERMINATION Please read the License Agreement
the company provides a wide range of innovative on the back cover before removing
R I
This license and this agreement are effective until terminated.You may terminate them at any time by destroying this package. EPRI has
M AT E the Wrapping Material.
products and services to more than 1000 energy- the right to terminate the license and this agreement immediately if you fail to comply with any term or condition of this agreement.
Upon any termination you may destroy this package, but all obligations of nondisclosure will remain in effect.
Technical Report
related organizations in 40 countries. EPRI’s
5. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers
NEITHER EPRI,ANY MEMBER OF EPRI,ANY COSPONSOR, NOR ANY PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ACTING ON BEHALF
draws on a worldwide network of technical and OF ANY OF THEM:
business expertise to help solve today’s toughest (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE
OF ANY INFORMATION,APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE, INCLUDING
energy and environmental problems.
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR Plant
EPRI. Electrify the World INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY’S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS
PACKAGE IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER’S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR Maintenance
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSE-
QUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH Support Equipment
DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS PACKAGE OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS,
METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE.
Reduced
6. EXPORT
Cost Reliability
The laws and regulations of the United States restrict the export and re-export of any portion of this package, and you agree not to
export or re-export this package or any related technical data in any form without the appropriate United States and foreign gov-
ernment approvals.
7. CHOICE OF LAW
This agreement will be governed by the laws of the State of California as applied to transactions taking place entirely in California
between California residents.
8. INTEGRATION
You have read and understand this agreement, and acknowledge that it is the final, complete and exclusive agreement between you
and EPRI concerning its subject matter, superseding any prior related understanding or agreement. No waiver, variation or different
terms of this agreement will be enforceable against EPRI unless EPRI gives its prior written consent, signed by an officer of EPRI.
1003092
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA N
SED
A L
LICE
M AT E
12732851
12732851
HVAC Testing, Adjusting, and
Balancing Guideline
1003092
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
12732851
DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
EPRI
ORDERING INFORMATION
Requests for copies of this report should be directed to EPRI Customer Fulfillment, 1355 Willow Way,
Suite 278, Concord, CA 94520, (800) 313-3774, press 2.
Electric Power Research Institute and EPRI are registered service marks of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc. EPRI. ELECTRIFY THE WORLD is a service mark of the Electric Power
Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2001 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
12732851
CITATIONS
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
HVAC Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing Guideline, EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2001. 1003092.
iii
12732851
12732851
REPORT SUMMARY
Background
Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems serve a key function in nuclear power
plants. Reliable operation and maintenance of these systems are crucial to sustained plant
operation and availability. In many cases, these systems are required to be operable and
functioning according to plant technical specifications. Maintenance and engineering personnel
are often required to understand HVAC system operation and purpose, periodically test and
maintain system components, and respond to problems. The ability of plant personnel to
diagnose and troubleshoot HVAC problems quickly and accurately is vital to maintain plant
availability.
Objectives
• To provide guidance to nuclear plant personnel involved in the balancing of HVAC systems
for nuclear power facilities
• To present an overview of the requirements for developing and performing air and hydronic
systems balancing in order to optimize system performance and ensure that the system meets
all heating, cooling, and flow requirements
• To provide guidance on nuclear power plant HVAC systems, which consist of many different
components that function together as a dynamic system
• To provide inexperienced and experienced engineers with the background necessary to
perform testing, adjusting, and balancing activities on HVAC systems
Approach
In cooperation with the Nuclear HVAC Utility Group (NHUG) and interested Nuclear
Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC) members, a task group of utility engineers and
industry experts was formed. This group met several times during one year to identify and
prepare the guidance found in this report. Experience-proven practices and techniques were
identified and discussed during this effort and are summarized in this report for use by all power
plant personnel.
Results
This report provides a practical approach that can be used by power plant personnel to diagnose
and troubleshoot HVAC system and component performance problems. The guideline is
valuable for both the component and system engineer and provides fundamental background and
techniques for testing, adjusting, and balancing HVAC systems, including information on
commonly used testing instruments and how they are used, flow measurement techniques,
balancing processes and steps, and troubleshooting techniques. Additionally, commonly used
HVAC equipment and systems are discussed, and useful reference information, including
commonly used equations and airflow measurement methodologies, is provided.
v
12732851
EPRI Perspective
The information contained in this guide represents a significant collection of technical
information (including techniques and good practices) related to the testing, adjusting, and
balancing of HVAC systems in power plants. Assemblage of this information provides a single
point of reference for power plant personnel, now and in the future. The intended audience of
this guide includes component, maintenance, and system engineers involved in testing,
maintaining, operating, and troubleshooting HVAC systems. This guide will be helpful in
evaluating system problems, selecting new and replacement components, and understanding
HVAC system performance and reliability.
Keywords
Design engineers
Plant support engineering
Plant maintenance
Plant operations
HVAC
vi
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The following individuals participated on the task group for this report and provided valuable
assistance and plant-specific information during its development:
Ray Runowski, Chairman PSEG, Salem
Peter Breglio, Vice-Chairman Proto-Power Corp
Lee Warnick Dominion Generation, North Anna
Mike Pugh EPRI NMAC
Dennis Adams Exelon, Quad Cities
Frank Johnston Niagara Mohawk, Nine Mile Point
David Scott Nuclear Management Company, Monticello
Eric Banks NUCON
Erick Jun OPPD, Fort Calhoun
Mike Fraughton Pacificorp, Naughton
Clint Medlock Power Generation Technologies
John Cichello PSEG, Hope Creek
Ray Rosten Sequoia Consulting Group
Mike Tulay Sequoia Consulting Group
Deep Ghosh Southern Company
Bob Campbell TVA Corporate
Mark Schwan TVA, Browns Ferry
Mike Walker TVA, Sequoyah
Sam Linginfelter TVA, Watts Bar
Tim Parker TXU, Comanche Peak
Lenny Murphy Vermont Yankee
Burt Copeland Wolf Creek Nuclear Operating Company
vii
12732851
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................. 1-1
1.1 Purpose of the Report ............................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Scope of the Report .................................................................................................. 1-1
1.3 Key Points................................................................................................................. 1-3
ix
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
x
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xi
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xii
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xiii
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xiv
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xv
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
B.6.2.3 Air Cleaning System Configuration and Leakage Classes ......................... B-25
B.6.3 Duct Construction ............................................................................................... B-25
B.6.3.1 Materials.................................................................................................... B-25
B.6.3.2 Rectangular and Round Ducts................................................................... B-26
B.6.3.3 Flat Oval Ducts .......................................................................................... B-27
B.6.3.4 Fibrous Glass Ducts .................................................................................. B-27
B.6.3.5 Flexible Ducts ............................................................................................ B-27
B.6.3.6 Plenums and Apparatus Casings............................................................... B-27
B.6.3.7 Acoustical Treatment ................................................................................. B-27
B.6.3.8 Hangers..................................................................................................... B-27
B.7 Instrument Test Ports .............................................................................................. B-28
B.8 Airflow Measuring Stations...................................................................................... B-29
B.8.1 Multiport with Integral Air Straightener ................................................................ B-29
B.8.2 Traverse Probe................................................................................................... B-29
B.8.3 Pitot Traverse Station ......................................................................................... B-30
B.8.4 Hot Wire Sensor ................................................................................................. B-31
B.8.5 Orifice Plates ...................................................................................................... B-32
B.9 Humidifiers .............................................................................................................. B-32
B.9.1 Heated Pan Humidifiers...................................................................................... B-33
B.9.2 Direct Steam Injection Humidifiers...................................................................... B-33
B.9.3 Electrically Heated, Self-Contained Steam Humidifiers....................................... B-33
B.9.4 Atomizing Humidifiers ......................................................................................... B-33
B.9.5 Wetted Media Humidifiers................................................................................... B-34
B.10 Dehumidifiers ..................................................................................................... B-34
B.11 Centrifugal Pumps .............................................................................................. B-35
xvi
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xvii
12732851
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Fundamental Elements of the HVAC TAB Process Addressed in this Report ........ 1-2
Figure 3-1 Preliminary Evaluation for Troubleshooting and Rebalancing HVAC Systems ....... 3-2
Figure 3-2 Operating Conditions Measured for HVAC System Troubleshooting ...................... 3-8
Figure 3-3 Factors Affecting the Need for Detailed HVAC System Troubleshooting .............. 3-10
Figure 3-4 Detailed HVAC System Troubleshooting and TAB Activities ................................ 3-11
Figure 4-1 Typical U-Tube Manometer.................................................................................... 4-2
Figure 4-2 Typical Inclined/Vertical Manometer....................................................................... 4-3
Figure 4-3 Typical Electronic (Digital) Manometer ................................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-4 Pitot Tube Details................................................................................................... 4-5
Figure 4-5 Typical Negative Static Pressure Pitot Tube and Manometer or
Micromanometer Hookup ..................................................................................... 4-5
Figure 4-6 Typical Positive Static Pressure Pitot Tube and Manometer or
Micromanometer Hookup ..................................................................................... 4-6
Figure 4-7 Typical Pressure Gauge......................................................................................... 4-8
Figure 4-8 Typical Mechanical Rotating Vane Anemometer .................................................... 4-9
Figure 4-9 Typical Electronic Rotating Vane Anemometer .................................................... 4-10
Figure 4-10 Typical Thermal Anemometer ............................................................................ 4-11
Figure 4-11 Typical Flow Hood ............................................................................................. 4-12
Figure 4-12 Typical Smoke Gun............................................................................................ 4-13
Figure 4-13 Typical Contact Reflective Tachometer .............................................................. 4-15
Figure 4-14 Typical Electronic Tachometer ........................................................................... 4-16
Figure 4-15 Typical Sling Psychrometer................................................................................ 4-19
Figure 4-16 Typical Electronic Hygrometer ........................................................................... 4-20
Figure 5-1 Traverse Qualification .......................................................................................... 5-13
Figure A-1 Turbine Room Ventilation One-Line Diagram ..................................................... A-10
Figure B-1 Typical Fan Performance Curve ........................................................................... B-2
Figure B-2 Fan Outlet Velocity Profiles................................................................................... B-3
Figure B-3 Terminology for Centrifugal Fan Components....................................................... B-5
Figure B-4 Terminology for Axial and Tubular Centrifugal Fans ............................................ B-7
Figure B-5 Multiblade Volume Dampers............................................................................... B-12
Figure B-6 DX Coil ............................................................................................................... B-16
Figure B-7 Single-Duct Configuration ................................................................................... B-19
xix
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
xx
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
LIST OF TABLES
xxi
12732851
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
1
INTRODUCTION
This report provides guidance to nuclear plant personnel involved in the balancing of heating,
ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems for nuclear power facilities. The guide
provides an overview of the requirements for developing and performing air and hydronic
systems balancing to optimize system performance and ensure that the system meets all heating,
cooling, and flow requirements. HVAC systems for nuclear power plants consist of many
different components, which function together as a dynamic system. These systems are subject to
changes—some the result of intrusive modifications and some caused by gradual component
changes, such as component wear and instrument drift—that require periodic system balancing
to maintain optimum system performance.
This guide will provide inexperienced and experienced engineers with the background necessary
to develop testing, adjusting, and balancing (TAB) procedures as well as an overview of testing
instruments used, documentation of test data, troubleshooting guidelines, and references.
Figure 1-1 shows the scope of this report. The figure captures the fundamental elements of the
HVAC TAB process and relates each major element to a section and/or appendix in this report.
Figure 1-1 illustrates that the fundamental goal of HVAC TAB is to establish or restore system
parameters to design conditions. System parameters can be air or water flow, heat removal rates,
building air pressure, required temperatures, and humidity. To accomplish this restoration, the
engineer should systematically proceed through each element so as not to adversely affect or
further degrade system performance. Much of Section 3 is devoted to troubleshooting techniques
that support TAB activities.
1-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Introduction
Figure 1-1
Fundamental Elements of the HVAC TAB Process Addressed in this Report
1-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Introduction
Section 3 first provides a schematic flow chart for troubleshooting existing plant systems with
detailed implementation guidance. Section 3 then offers guidance on conducting HVAC TAB
activities for balancing new or existing air and water plant systems as well as temporary
balancing or rebalancing of air and water systems. Section 4 describes the various
instrumentation used during HVAC TAB activities, and Section 5 provides air and water flow
measurement techniques. These three sections constitute the core of the report and are
supplemented with information that may be useful to experienced or newly assigned HVAC
system engineers.
Section 6 provides the reader with a compilation of lessons learned from the experiences of
numerous utility personnel during HVAC system TAB and troubleshooting activities. Section 7
lists the references used to produce this report.
Throughout this report, key information is summarized in “Key Points.” Key Points are bold
lettered boxes that succinctly restate information covered in detail in the surrounding text,
making the key point easier to locate.
The primary intent of a Key Point is to emphasize information that will allow individuals to take
action for the benefit of their plant. The information included in these Key Points was selected
by NMAC personnel and the consultants and utility personnel who prepared and reviewed this
guide.
The Key Points are organized according to the three categories: O&M Costs, Technical, and
Human Performance. Each category has an identifying icon, as shown below, to draw attention
to it when quickly reviewing the guide.
1-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Introduction
Appendix H contains a listing of all key points in each category. The listing restates each key
point and provides reference to its location in the body of the report. By reviewing this listing,
users of this guide can determine if they have taken advantage of key information that the writers
of this guide believe would benefit their plants.
1-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
2
LIST OF ACRONYMS
BI – backward inclined
CM – corrective maintenance
2-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
List of Acronyms
DC – direct current
DI – deionized
DX – direct expansion
2-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
List of Acronyms
NC – noise criteria
NP – nuclear power
NSR – non-safety-related
RC – room criteria
RG – regulatory guide
RH – relative humidity
RO – reverse osmosis
2-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
List of Acronyms
(Note: SCFM is standard cubic feet per minute at 60°F (16°C ) and 14.7 psia (101 kPa). Because
not all countries convert SCFM to SI units in the same way, these measurements are not
converted to SI units in this report.)
SR – safety-related
TR – technical report
TS – technical specification
2-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
3
HVAC TESTING, ADJUSTING, AND BALANCING
GUIDANCE
This section presents a generic process for troubleshooting HVAC performance problems that
lead to TAB activities to rebalance the system. The generic process is divided into a Preliminary
Evaluation (see Figure 3-1) and a detailed Troubleshooting Process (see Figure 3-4) that may
lead to testing, adjusting, or balancing the HVAC system under evaluation.
3-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure 3-1
Preliminary Evaluation for Troubleshooting and Rebalancing HVAC Systems
For the purposes of this report, the terms used in TAB are defined as follows:
Testing – The use of specialized and calibrated instruments to measure temperatures, pressures,
rotational speeds, electrical characteristics, velocities, and air and water quantities for an
evaluation of equipment and system performance [1].
Adjusting – The final setting of balancing devices (such as dampers and valves), adjusting fan
speeds and pump impeller sizes, and setting automatic control devices (such as thermostats and
pressure controllers) to achieve optimum system performance and efficiency during normal
operation [1].
Balancing – The methodical regulation of system fluid flows (air or water) through the use of
acceptable procedures to achieve the desired or specified airflow or water flow [1].
3-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
HVAC system performance issues and component failures may be communicated to an HVAC
system/component engineer in any of the following ways:
• Maintenance work order
• Failed in-service test
• Control room alarms
• Corrective action report
• Performance monitoring (condition monitoring reports)
• Telephone call
• Operations rounds or turnover sheets
• Vendor technical bulletins
• Institute of Nuclear Power Operation (INPO)/U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)
reported industry events
• Engineer walkdowns
Key to addressing any issue is understanding that the plant-specific design/licensing bases need
to be maintained throughout the troubleshooting, TAB, and corrective action processes. In
addition, plant-specific administrative interfaces should be coordinated in accordance with each
plant’s existing procedures (that is, control room interface and operator interface).
3-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Insufficient cooling or heating may indicate reduced system airflow or a change in branch
airflow. These symptoms may also be attributed to either heat transfer problems with heating or
cooling coils or temperature control system problems. These conditions are usually most evident
during ambient temperature extremes.
As previously noted, the HVAC engineer should clearly define the problem before proceeding
with system troubleshooting. The engineer should then identify the scope and nature of the issue
to determine the severity of the problem and the extent to which the problem has been previously
observed in the plant or operating system. To accomplish this, the HVAC engineer should
understand how the problem could apply to other systems/HVAC components of similar design
and applications. The engineer should also attempt to validate the information (symptom) to
ensure that it is reasonable, technically accurate, and representative of observed conditions. A
face-to-face interview with the personnel communicating the HVAC system performance issue
should be considered. Contacting outside sources, such as the National Environmental Balancing
Bureau (NEBB) web site, the original equipment manufacturer (OEM), or NRC Information
Notices may also provide insight into whether the problem has occurred on other HVAC
systems/components of the same design installed in similar applications.
3-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
An exhaust system for potentially contaminated areas typically discharges to the plant stack.
Because a change in operation of any fan in such a system can affect the performance of other
fans in the system, fan problems can significantly impact overall system operation.
Depending on the station design basis, these systems might be considered variable volume
systems. This is true if the station design allows for portions of the common exhaust system to be
secured individually.
Some ventilation exhaust systems installed in newer facilities may be designed with velocity
control systems. These systems have been designed to maintain fan airflow at a constant rate or
to vary airflow in order to maintain a structure or a boundary at a prescribed differential pressure.
The velocity controls may be installed on the supply side, exhaust side, or both. Before acquiring
field performance data for any variable volume system, it must first be determined in what
system operating mode the data will be taken. For systems that control to a specific static
pressure or differential pressure, data can be taken when the system is controlling at set point.
System lineup should be recorded when acquiring air balance data on systems or subsystems that
can be affected by other ventilation systems. This practice can allow for post-test evaluation of
discrepancies and can eliminate the need for re-testing the system.
Particulates - Particulates in the airstream travel through all ventilation systems. Over time,
these particulates collect on obstructions in the system. Depending on the installed air filtering
system (if any) and the nature of the collection points, accumulated dirt can have a serious
impact on system performance. Typical collection points are coils, velocity diffusers, turning
vanes, dampers, filters, air monitoring devices, and some fan blades.
Insulation - In some cases, defective or improperly installed duct lining (insulation) breaks
down with time and may cause system performance problems by plugging coils and reducing
system airflow.
Coils - Coils act as an unintended filter in many systems. Most standard filters have limited
efficiency and some bypass flow. System dirt can build up on coils, possibly compromising
system performance. Routine preventive maintenance (PM) may include inspecting and cleaning
package unit coils or large system coils; however, branch system coils are not often inspected on
a regular basis.
3-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Velocity Diffusers - Velocity diffusers are obstructions (typically perforated metal plates or
screens) usually installed in package equipment or terminal boxes. They ensure uniform airflow
across coils or velocity sensors. For diffusers installed in package equipment, routine PM may
include periodic inspection and cleaning, but for diffusers installed in terminal devices (such as
variable air volume [VAV] boxes or constant velocity boxes), internal inspections are not
typically part of the PM program. Over time, debris buildup can cause significant degradation in
system performance.
Turning Vanes - Most systems with rectangular ductwork have turning vanes at elbows
throughout the system. The clearance between the vanes is usually sufficiently wide (typically
more than 4 inches [10 cm]) to prevent obstruction by dirt and debris. Occasionally, turning
vanes may become blocked with foreign material or debris, adversely affecting system
performance. In some cases, turning vane blades have been found detached and lodged against
internal duct components, causing airflow restriction.
Dampers - The clearance between damper blades is typically wide enough to prevent system
blockage caused by dirt or debris. However, many terminal registers are equipped with terminal
opposed blade dampers (TOBs). These dampers are installed to facilitate terminal balance in
most systems. The open blade clearance for this type of damper is typically about 1 inch (2.5
cm). If previous balancing work has left the TOBs in the nearly closed position, the effective free
area of the damper can, over time, be seriously affected by the buildup of dirt on the damper
blades.
The failure of volume damper linkage has been known to cause a restriction in system airflow.
Typically, when splitter damper linkage fails, the damper blade will fail to one side of the “Y” or
branch fitting. This condition can result in a significant “out-of-balance” condition. Multiblade
volume dampers and control dampers can experience total or partial linkage failure, resulting in
an out-of-balance condition. Drive axle slippage on control dampers can also result in incomplete
opening or closing of the damper.
Belt Drives - Belt drive fans are subject to performance degradation caused by a reduction in fan
speed. Slipping belts can reduce fan speed significantly; however, in severe cases, the condition
is usually detected promptly because of the noise generated.
Sheave wear can also reduce fan speed slightly. Variable pitch sheaves are factory installed on
many fans to allow for field balance during startup. Variable pitch sheaves tend to wear faster
than fixed sheaves. Sheave wear is typically more severe on smaller sheaves installed on the
drive motor, effectively reducing the fan speed. If the replacement fixed sheave is sized based on
revolutions per minute (rpm) data taken from a drive operating with a severely worn sheave, the
result can be a permanent reduction in fan rpm.
3-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Dirty Fan Blades - Most fan designs are not subject to severe performance degradation as a
result of dirt or debris collection on the blades. Backward inclined (BI) blade designs are
typically self-cleaning. However, BI fans that operate at low speed with high particulates have
been found with significant buildup of debris on the blades near the hub. Virtually any
centrifugal fan design is subject to fouling from large objects.
Forward curve fan designs are susceptible to significant performance degradation as a result of
debris caught in the blades. The blade shape for this fan is ideally suited to capture any
particulate—from fine dust to larger pieces of debris. If repeated problems with loaded fan
blades are identified, consideration should be given to improve filtration for supply fans or
changing fan design for exhaust systems.
In some cases, an out-of-balance condition indicated by fan vibration data may be caused by
debris accumulation on fan wheels.
Fan Wheel Clearance - Wheel clearance and centering are critical parameters in some
centrifugal fans. Excess wheel clearance increases bypass flow and reduces discharge airflow.
Wheel clearance can be inadvertently changed by maintenance activities, such as bearing
replacement. Refer to the manufacturer’s recommendation for setting wheel clearance.
Rotation - Incorrect rotation is routinely found to be the cause of fan performance problems. A
routine precaution to check fan rotation when work is performed that disconnects three-phase
power supplies is recommended. For many smaller, single-phase fan motors, rotation can be
changed at the junction box. Care should be taken to ensure that the as-left rotation is correct.
Different fan designs result in different symptoms when rotating backwards. Tubeaxial and
propeller fans move air in the wrong direction. The output of most centrifugal fans is
significantly reduced when the fan operates in the wrong direction. However, reverse rotation of
a BI fan in centrifugal tubular and power roof ventilators can result in near-design flow, masking
the incorrect rotation.
After the issue is clearly defined, the next step in the troubleshooting process is to determine
which operating conditions should be measured or additional information collected as well as
how that information will be validated. Typically, the engineer should consider measuring any of
the plant, system, or component parameters noted in Figure 3-2.
3-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure 3-2
Operating Conditions Measured for HVAC System Troubleshooting
Measurements should be taken using calibrated instruments and reviewed for consistency against
system design basis documents or outputs.
The next step in troubleshooting is to compare the measured parameter(s) against the most recent
or historical operating conditions. The engineer should attempt to detect trends in performance.
If only one isolated parameter changed since the previous conditions were monitored, the first
action might be to validate the calibration of the instrumentation used to take the most recent
measurement.
However, if the comparison reveals that a number of parameters have changed or that the
changes are following a trend and are degrading over time, further investigation is warranted.
The measured data should be compared against maintenance history and design requirements
that can be found in documents such as the following:
• Fan curve
• Nameplate data
3-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The engineer should consider reviewing equipment history and examining the data trends from
the computer monitoring systems to determine if the change has been sudden or gradual. A
review of recent preventive and corrective work orders for conditions and work performed
(including filter changes and vibration readings) should also be considered. A review of recent
performance testing results on related pieces of equipment may also be helpful.
Consideration of industry-wide historical operating conditions of the fan and components, either
at other nuclear sites or at other utilities, should be considered an option at this stage of the
troubleshooting process.
The design documents noted in Section 3.1.4.1 might not provide all of the design information
related to the HVAC system in which the fan and other components are installed. As such, the
following sources of design information should also be considered:
• HVAC system design calculations
• HVAC system descriptions
• Design basis documents
• System process and instrumentation drawings (P&IDs)
• HVAC duct/piping drawings and layouts
• Materials management information system
• Component/system technical specifications
• Component procurement specifications
• Final safety analysis report (FSAR)
• Component assembly drawings
3-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The engineer should make this determination considering the factors shown in Figure 3-3.
Figure 3-3
Factors Affecting the Need for Detailed HVAC System Troubleshooting
Figure 3-3 illustrates that this determination is subjective and varies depending on the level of
conservatism of each engineer and possibly on the work processes and scheduling controls in
place. If the conditions warrant further investigation and more detailed troubleshooting, the
engineer should refer to the detailed troubleshooting guidance provided in Sections 3.1.6 through
3.1.9. If the conditions do not warrant detailed troubleshooting, the engineer should consider
continued or increased monitoring of the HVAC system performance parameters, including the
test parameters. Experience and conservatism may result in performing increased monitoring and
detailed troubleshooting to a reasonable extent.
The person performing the troubleshooting should also ensure that the identifier of the issue is
made aware of the actions taken to that point as well as the justification for not performing any
further troubleshooting activities at that time. This feedback is denoted on Figure 3-1 with a
dotted line.
3-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure 3-4
Detailed HVAC System Troubleshooting and TAB Activities
Figure 3-4 is a continuation of Figure 3-1 and shows the steps associated with the more detailed
aspects of troubleshooting at both the HVAC system and component levels. The engineer should
then perform an eyewitness, hands-on inspection of the equipment to validate the issue and
subsequently define the actual problem. A field walkdown of the HVAC system/component(s) is
recommended at this point. After these actions are taken, the engineer should be able to
understand the issue that was initially communicated, identify the actual symptom(s) of the
HVAC system performance, and begin to focus the scope of further troubleshooting efforts
(including measurement of operating conditions).
3-11
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
As a result of the walkdown, the following types of information should be determined and
documented:
• System lineup
• Damper indications and positions
• Overall system configuration
• Component configuration
• Evidence of damaged or broken equipment
Prior to making any physical adjustments to the system, a detailed troubleshooting plan should
be developed, taking into consideration all of the data collected thus far in the evaluation.
Primarily, the troubleshooting plan should address the following issues to ensure that the
troubleshooting effort will not adversely affect or jeopardize system performance:
• Technically correct problem statement
• Troubleshooting tools to be used
• Personnel assignments for implementers and verifiers
• Actions needed
• Expected results of each troubleshooting step
• The process used during troubleshooting
• Anticipated alarms and actuations
• Acceptance criteria for each test/inspection/measurement
• The awareness of possible consequences of initial intrusion into equipment (for example,
attaching test equipment, lifting leads, and applying power)
• Contingency actions based on the actual readings/measured results
• Documentation requirements
• Personnel safety and “as low as reasonably achievable” (ALARA) issues
• Component/system configuration controls
• Clear definition of work area boundaries and scope of equipment
• Appropriate reference material (including drawings, technical manuals, procedures, and
visual aids)
3-12
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Typically, the level of detail of the plan and the approval authority depend on the risk and
complexity of the troubleshooting activities and the significance of the failure.
Typically, the following four critical parameters are measured when troubleshooting an HVAC
system that is not performing in accordance with its original design basis. These as-
found/baseline readings need only be recorded if they were not already taken during system
troubleshooting or if they have changed since the initial measurements were taken.
• Fan measurements, including pressure, power, speed, and rotation direction
• Flow
• Temperature
• Static pressure
3-13
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Section 4 provides guidance on the various types of instrumentation available to measure HVAC
system parameters. Instrumentation should be selected considering such factors as instrument
accuracy, type of system parameter being measured, physical constraints regarding the
measurement, cost, and schedule.
Section 5 provides guidance on numerous air and water flow measurement techniques. The
tests/measurements should follow the troubleshooting plan and should be taken in a methodical
and structured manner.
If the troubleshooting plan does not provide an adequate indication of the performance problem,
the HVAC engineer should first consider revising the plan. Through an iterative effort, an
appropriate set of tests/measurements should be developed to enable the identification of the root
cause of the performance problem.
The information collected and/or measured should be evaluated to determine if the root cause(s)
of the system performance problems can be identified. This is performed by taking any of the
following actions:
• Comparing static pressures
• Comparing actual flow to the design flow noted on the fan curve
• Comparing all measured data to any previous TAB reports
If the troubleshooting plan provides an adequate indication of the performance problem, the
HVAC engineer should develop the necessary corrective actions to restore the system to design
conditions.
3-14
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
A few of the most common causes of HVAC system performance problems are noted in this
section. The following list is for illustrative purposes only and does not necessarily include all
causes of system performance degradation:
• Inadequate fan performance
• Worn or damaged turning vanes
• Worn, damaged, or missing flow straighteners
• Improper damper performance or adjustment
• Loss of pressure boundary (duct leakage)
• Plugged coils (airside or water side)
• Improper performance (that is, inadvertent closing) of fire dampers
• Airflow monitoring station plugging
• Dirty/damaged/missing/obstructed air distribution grilles
• Excessively dirty filters
• Damaged flex connections
• Inadvertent changes to system configuration
• Adverse ambient and environmental conditions
Multiple causes may exist for a given system. In these cases, system adjustments should be
performed methodically and documented in order to provide a clear indication of the effect each
parameter has on the overall system performance. The actual determination of root cause is an
iterative process.
3-15
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The following activities are inherent to most utility corrective actions and should not be
overlooked when developing a corrective action plan for an HVAC system:
• Perform cause analysis (root cause analysis may take place after the HVAC system
performance has been restored)
• Take the necessary actions to prevent recurrence
3-16
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Adjustments of HVAC systems typically involve adjusting parameters associated with fans and
dampers. In most cases, the HVAC engineer should first ensure that dampers are in adjustment
before changing any fan parameters. Table 3-1 describes typical adjustments that may be
considered for dampers.
Table 3-1
Typical Adjustments for HVAC Dampers
Type of Damper
Type of Adjustment
Isolation Balancing Backdraft Modulating
3-17
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Table 3-2 describes typical adjustments that may be considered for fans.
Table 3-2
Typical Adjustments for HVAC Fans
Type of Fan
Type of Adjustment
Centrifugal Axial
The HVAC system/component engineer should consider retaking the readings as a first option if
the corrective actions taken have not alleviated the performance problems. The data should then
be evaluated to determine whether the resulting system/component performance is acceptable.
These actions can be repeated as necessary in an iterative fashion until design requirements are
met. The engineer should then document the final data and configuration.
Sections 3.2 through 3.5 provide additional guidance on balancing new or existing air and/or
water systems and on temporary balancing/rebalancing of these systems.
The first step in the balancing procedure is to become familiar with the complete system
operation. This requires the engineer to review the reference design documents (such as airflow
diagrams, ductwork physical drawings, P&IDs, control logic drawings and details, electrical
schematics, system descriptions, operating procedures, and reference specifications). The system
design requirements, such as total fan flow, main line and branch flows, individual terminal
flows, and general area pressures, should be documented prior to performing any system
balancing to establish the appropriate acceptance criteria.
3-18
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
In order to provide a complete plan of the system balancing, a markup of the plant physical
drawings and/or the P&IDs should be prepared, depicting the locations of airflow measurements.
All test locations should be labeled on the drawing.
Appendix A provides information on various HVAC systems commonly found at nuclear power
plants. Appendix B provides an overview of the various system components often installed in
these systems.
Prior to starting each system’s TAB work, a walkdown of the system should be made to
determine testability. A general walkdown of major system components, such as fans and filter
housings, should be performed to ensure that maintenance activities are not underway or needed.
The following items should be evaluated at a minimum:
• Identify test port locations (that is, review for adequacy, number, and location); install new
test ports as necessary
• Ensure that scaffolding and ladders are available for access to test ports and/or balancing
devices
• Inspect the condition of the components (including balancing damper locking devices, as-left
position indication, and installation of test ports)
• Ensure that communications equipment is available (for example, radios and sound-powered
phones)
• Verify that adequate lighting is available at the flow measurement and adjustment locations
• Inspect the HVAC system room/envelope walls, penetration seals, floors, and ceilings;
confirm that all doors, windows, and other penetrations are positioned as required
• Verify that test equipment is available, in working condition, and possesses current
calibration certificates
• Inspect damper positions
• Ensure that filters are installed or, if not installed, simulate their pressure gradients
3-19
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) Publication 201-90 [2] provides additional
information, if warranted by the HVAC engineer. System effects are pressure losses that may not
be initially accounted for in the initial fan selection and may result from undesirable fan inlet and
discharge conditions, such as the following:
• Improper inlet and/or outlet connections or configuration
• Nonuniform inlet flow
• Swirl at the fan inlet
System effects are normally introduced because of space or economic restrictions. For example,
because of a fan’s location in relation to other equipment, it may be necessary to install an elbow
close to the fan discharge. This adds a system effect whose magnitude needs to be determined for
the particular configuration, based on the system effect curves found in AMCA 201-90 [2].
System effects can be accounted for by pressure drop calculations through the use of system
effect factors (SEFs). Guidance for use and determination of SEFs for various fan configurations
is provided in AMCA 201-90 [2].
SEFs are given in terms of pressure loss value in units of inches of water gauge ( w.g.). The SEF
is added directly to other calculated system losses to determine the system resistance and is used
to predict the fan performance when connected to the system.
When performing air balancing, system effects can cause low flow (high-pressure drops). The
HVAC engineer needs to be aware that this may occur. To account for low system flows, the
HVAC engineer should observe the inlet and outlet conditions of the system fan and determine
whether any system effect may have been introduced.
For troubleshooting purposes, refer to AMCA Publication 202-98 [3] for initial symptom/cause
diagnosis. System effects are normally associated with low airflow or a high-pressure drop in a
system. Other causes, such as closed dampers or dirty filters, may also be attributed to low
airflow and high-pressure drops in a system. Refer to the fan/ductwork configurations provided
in AMCA 201-90 [2] or other design books to determine whether system effects are affecting
system airflow.
The following actions should be taken to properly define the critical system lineup:
• Identify the condition of any filter in the system.
• If the system has multiple modes of operation, identify and balance the system to the critical
mode of operation. Check air and/or water flows with the system configured for the other
modes of operation, and initiate design changes as necessary to document any deviation.
• Define air/water flow parameters.
• Establish room/envelope differential pressure requirements.
3-20
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The following are key actions necessary to determine overall system flow:
• Begin air balancing with the supply system and repeat for the exhaust/return system.
• Obtain the total system flow. The HVAC engineer should select the flow measurement
location, which could be at the fan suction or discharge or at multiple branch locations.
• Verify fan flow, pressure (total or static), and motor performance with the fan curve.
• Adjust flow as needed to approximately 120% of design flow (within system limitations). To
accomplish this, the following actions may be considered:
– Adjust the inlet and outlet flow control dampers
– Change the fan blade pitch
– Adjust the inlet fan vanes (if present)
– Adjust or replace the fan/motor sheave
Typically, the measurement should begin with the supply system and be repeated for the exhaust
side. The HVAC engineer should adjust flow in branches to achieve approximately 10%
additional flow using volume dampers for each branch.
Flow should be adjusted to achieve approximately ±20% for each grille, if zone flow remains
acceptable. Plant-specific acceptance criteria should be referenced to ensure that design
conditions are being considered.
The ratio method is commonly used to measure/adjust flow at terminal devices in branch lines.
The following is a summary of this method:
3-21
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
5. Compare the percentages of the two points measured. If the percentages are within 10% of
one another, do not make adjustments. If they are not within 10%, make an adjustment to the
most upstream outlet to bring the percentages closer together.
8. Compare the percentages of the two points measured. If the percentages are within 10% of
one another, do not make adjustments. If they are not within 10%, make an adjustment to the
most upstream outlet to bring the percentages closer together.
9. Repeat the process until all the outlets on the branch are proportioned.
11. When the individual outlets have been adequately adjusted on the branches, the branch line
volume dampers can be proportioned using the same process.
12. If the resulting total airflow requires adjustment, make a fan speed or blade adjustment, or
readjust the volume dampers and splitters and repeat the process.
Adjustments should be made to total flow to the upper limit of plant-specific design
requirements. This can be accomplished by adjusting the fan or the main flow control damper.
Certain ventilation systems are needed to maintain credited design conditions, and these systems
should be capable of generating design flows even with a dirty filter condition. Thus, it is
necessary to balance such systems with simulated dirty filter and wetted coil conditions.
Dirty filter and wetted coil conditions should be simulated on both the supply and exhaust
portions of the system. Total flow should again be measured. Adjustments should be performed
in an iterative manner to maintain total flow within the design tolerances of the system.
A final balance or adjustment should be made in the clean mode, considering plant-specific zone
differential pressure gradients, zone temperatures, and humidity requirements.
3-22
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Most nuclear facilities have to maintain their ventilation systems to enhance the movement of air
from areas of low contamination toward areas of higher contamination. A basic corollary to this
requirement is for the facilities to maintain a boundary and pressure differential or pressure
gradient (∆P) between the environment and facility components with radioactive materials. The
boundary is usually a building structure, and the pressure differential is created by the building’s
ventilation system. If a specific pressure gradient is required to be maintained, the ventilation
system or portions of it may have to be temporarily balanced while any equipment used to
maintain that building’s pressure gradient is removed from service for maintenance.
Temporary balancing uses the same techniques as initial balancing, except that the process
begins based on the as-found system balance. The basic steps for temporary balancing are
addressed in Sections 3.3.1 through 3.3.3.
The following preliminary steps should be performed for temporary air system balancing or
rebalancing:
2. Determine system licensing requirements (for example, FSARs and technical specifications
[TSs]).
5. Determine the system configuration necessary to maintain license requirements and design
objectives during the temporary condition.
6. Determine the sequence of component manipulations required to transition from the current
configuration to the temporary configuration, including changes in the condition (that is,
breaching a wall).
3-23
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
7. Determine which system parameters to monitor during the transition to the temporary
condition.
8. Determine the sequence of component manipulations required to restore the system to its
original configuration and which system parameters to monitor during the transition.
9. Prepare work documents as required by the facility’s license and administrative controls,
including a “back-out” provision for situations in which monitored parameters indicate
conditions adverse to license requirements. Use standard balancing forms whenever possible;
however, facility- and activity-specific forms may be desirable to consolidate data and
facilitate review and evaluation.
3.3.2 Execution
The following are the steps in executing temporary air system balancing or rebalancing:
The following steps describe reviewing and documenting temporary air system balancing or
rebalancing:
1. Evaluate the data collected during the manipulations and temporary balancing described in
Section 3.3.2.
3-24
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
2. Determine the minimum critical activities and monitoring parameters for the possibility of
future similar work.
3. Document the entire evolution for future reference, and create actions for any lessons
learned.
The first step in the water balancing procedure is to become familiar with the complete system
operation. This requires the engineer to review the reference design documents, including the
water flow diagrams, piping layout drawing, P&IDs, valve lineup, system descriptions, operating
procedures, and component design requirements. The system design flow requirements (such as
pump flow, system head pressure, branch flows, and flows to various coolers and heat
exchangers) should be documented and appropriate acceptance criteria established prior to
performing any system adjustments.
In order to understand the scope of the balancing effort, the piping layout drawing should be
used in conjunction with the water flow diagram and the P&IDs to depict the locations of flow
measurements. The location of the balancing valves in the system should be noted.
Appendix A is provided to familiarize the reader with various HVAC systems commonly found
at nuclear power plants. Appendix B provides an overview of the various system components
often installed in these systems.
The water systems commonly used in HVAC systems are closed-loop chilled-water systems,
closed-loop hot-water systems, open-loop chiller-condenser water systems, and the plant
service/river/raw water system. Balancing of the plant service water system will not be addressed
in this document. The closed-loop water system is the most prevalent design employed at nuclear
power plants in support of HVAC systems; Section 3.5, “Generic Process for Temporary Water
System Balancing or Rebalancing,” considers this type of water system in the description.
The processes are provided for an initial balance of the water system, and some of the steps may
not be applicable to or recommended for rebalancing.
3-25
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
• Ensure that scaffolding and ladders are available for access to flow measurement stations and
balancing valves.
• Inspect the lineup of the various components in the system (including pump, balancing
valves, and pressure gauges).
• Verify that all required pressure and temperature gauges are calibrated.
• Ensure that communications equipment is available (for example, radios and sound-powered
phones).
• Verify that adequate lighting is available at the flow measurement and adjustment locations.
• Verify that test equipment is available and in working condition and properly calibrated.
• Ensure that the pump suction strainer is flushed and/or clean.
3.4.3 Prerequisites
The following actions should be taken prior to starting any system adjustments to properly define
the critical system lineup:
3-26
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
12. Check and set the operating temperature of the chiller or the boiler.
13. Ensure that applicable sections of the system air balancing are complete.
If the system has multiple modes of operation, identify and balance the system to its critical
mode of operation. Check the flows with the system aligned for the other modes of operation,
and initiate design changes as necessary to document any deviation.
A reverse-return system is characterized by water that flows through similar components (that is,
those components with the same pressure drops) and is configured so that the flow to the first
component is the last one out to the return loop. The system is self-balancing, and it is not
necessary to adjust the flow through those similar components.
3-27
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
• In systems with two-way (thermostatically controlled) valves, the pump usually has a pump
bypass or minimum system flow line with a modulating valve. With the two-way valves
closed, adjust the pump bypass valve to obtain the necessary minimum flow for maintaining
pump stability. Use information from the pump curve if it is not provided in the design
documents.
• Allow the system to operate for 4 to 12 hours to let it equalize, and record the following data:
– Pump and pump motor data: nameplate data, flow, inlet and outlet pressures, and
volt amps
– Chiller or boiler: nameplate data, flow, inlet and outlet temperatures and pressures,
volt amps, and ∆P
– Coil/terminal units: flow, inlet and outlet temperature and pressures, volt amps,
and ∆P
Temporary balancing requires the same techniques that initial balancing does; however, the
permanent system may not need any adjustments. The basic steps for temporary balancing are
addressed in the Sections 3.5.1 through 3.5.3.
The following steps compose the planning phase of temporary water system balancing or
rebalancing:
2. Determine the process to hydrostatically test any temporary piping installation prior to
putting the temporary section in service.
4. Determine the effect of the temporary system on the permanent system design requirements
and objectives.
3-28
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
7. Determine the effect of the temporary system on the permanent system performance.
8. Determine the system configuration necessary to maintain license requirements and design
objectives during the temporary condition.
9. Determine the sequence of component manipulations required to transition from the current
configuration to the temporary configuration and vice versa.
10. Determine which system parameters to monitor during the transition to the temporary
condition.
11. Determine the sequence of component manipulations required to restore the system to its
original configuration and which system parameters to monitor during the transition.
3.5.2 Execution
The following are the steps in executing temporary water system balancing or rebalancing:
5. Adjust or install controls to allow the system to perform adequately in the temporary balance
configuration.
7. Verify that the work that required temporary balance has been completed.
9. Verify that the configuration is compatible with the planned manipulations for restoration.
11. Adjust controls to compensate for actual system performance to achieve a final balance.
3-29
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The following steps describe reviewing and documenting temporary water system balancing or
rebalancing:
1. Evaluate the data collected during the manipulations and temporary balancing described in
Section 3.5.2.
2. Determine the minimum critical activities and monitoring parameters for the possibility of
performing similar work in the future.
3. Document the entire evolution for future reference, and create actions for any lessons
learned.
3-30
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
4
INSTRUMENTATION
Section 4.1 presents various types of TAB instrumentation commonly used to measure the
system or component parameters presented in this report. Section 4.2 provides several tables that
illustrate the proper application of many of these instruments. Section 4.3 provides a table that
illustrates recommended ranges, accuracy, and calibration schedules for different types of TAB
instrumentation.
The manometer is a simple and useful means of measuring partial vacuum and pressure for air
and hydronic systems. It is so universally used that both the inch (mm) of water and inch (mm)
of mercury have become accepted units of pressure measurements. In its simplest form, a
manometer consists of a U-shaped glass tube partially filled with a liquid, such as tinted water or
oil. The difference in height between the two fluid columns denotes the pressure differential.
U-tube manometers are made in different sizes and are recommended for measuring pressure
drops above 1.0 inch w.g. (250 Pascals [Pa]) across filters, coils, fans, terminal devices, and
sections of ductwork; they are not recommended for readings less than 1.0 inch w.g. (250 Pa).
Figure 4-1 illustrates a typical U-tube manometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-1
Typical U-Tube Manometer (Courtesy of Meriam, Inc.)
The inclined and/or vertical manometer for airflow pressure reading is usually constructed from
a solid, transparent block of plastic. It has an inclined scale that provides accurate air pressure
readings below 1.0 inch w.g. (250 Pa) and a vertical scale for reading greater pressures. Instead
of water, this instrument uses colored oil that is lighter than water. This means that although the
scale reads in inches (mm) of water, it is longer than a standard rule measurement. Whenever a
manometer is used, the oil must be at the same temperature as the environment in which the
manometer will be used and of the correct specific gravity; otherwise, the reading will not be
correct. The manometer must be set level and mounted so that it does not vibrate.
Figure 4-2 illustrates a typical inclined/vertical manometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-2
Typical Inclined/Vertical Manometer (Courtesy of Meriam, Inc.)
The electronic manometer is designed to provide accurate readings at very low differential
pressures. Some multimeters measure an extremely wide range of pressures from 0.0001 to 60.00
inches w.g. (0.025 to 15,000 Pa). Airflow and velocity are automatically corrected for the density
effect of barometric pressure and temperature if the appropriate sensors are attached. Readings
can be stored and recalled with average and total functions. A specially designed grid enables the
reading of face velocities at filter outlets, coil face velocities, and exhaust hood openings. Some
multimeters provide additional functions, such as temperature measurements.
Because the meter uses a time-weighted average for each reading, it is often difficult to measure
and identify the pulsations in pressure. For this reason, it may be difficult to repeat single-point
readings, especially at lower velocities.
4-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-3 illustrates a typical electronic (digital) manometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
Figure 4-3
Typical Electronic (Digital) Manometer (Courtesy of Shortridge, Inc.)
The standard pitot tube, which is used in conjunction with a suitable pressure measuring device,
provides a simple method of determining the air velocity in a duct. The pitot tube is of double
concentric tube construction, consisting of a 1/8-inch (3.2-mm) outside diameter inner tube (total
pressure) which is concentrically located inside of a 5/16-inch (8.0-mm) outside diameter outer
tube (static pressure). The outer “static” tube has eight equally spaced, 0.04-inch (1-mm)
diameter holes around the circumference of the outer tube, located 2-1/4 inches (57 mm) back
from the nose or open end of the pitot tube tip. Figure 4-4 illustrates typical details of a pitot
tube. Figures 4-5 and 4-6 illustrate typical configurations of pitot tubes.
4-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-4
Pitot Tube Details
Figure 4-5
Typical Negative Static Pressure Pitot Tube and Manometer or Micromanometer Hookup
4-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-6
Typical Positive Static Pressure Pitot Tube and Manometer or Micromanometer Hookup
Smaller pitot tubes, commonly referred to as micro tubes, are available for use in smaller
ducting. They are designed to maintain the ratio of the hole spacing for both the total pressure
and static pressure sensors but can not, by design, maintain the actual dimensions. These tubes
are typically used when the cross-sectional area of the pitot tube is greater than 1/30 of the cross-
sectional area of the ducting, with the pitot tube in the fully inserted position. At the base end, or
tube connection end, the inner tube is open ended as at the head, and the outer tube has a side
outlet tube connector perpendicular to the outer tube and directly parallel with and pointing in
the same direction as the head end of the pitot tube.
Both tubes have a 90º radius bend in them, located near the measuring end. This bend allows the
open end of the inner “impact” tube to be positioned so that it faces directly into the airstream
when 1) the main shaft of the pitot tube is perpendicular to the duct and 2) the side outlet static
pressure tube outlet connector is pointed in a parallel direction, with airflow (±10º) facing
upstream.
4-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Accuracy of the measurements depends on the uniformity of flow and completeness of traverse.
Several shapes and sizes of pitot tubes are available for different applications. A reasonably large
space is required, adjacent to the duct penetration, for maneuvering the instrument. Care should
be taken to avoid pinching the instrument tubing.
If static pressure, velocity pressure, and total pressure are to be measured simultaneously, three
draft gauges can be connected—depending on the specific application. In any case, the three
values measured will then fulfill the equation: TP = SP + VP, where TP = total pressure, SP =
static pressure, and VP = velocity pressure. In conducting tests, it is often sufficient to measure
only two of these three pressures because the third can be obtained by simple addition or
subtraction. Care should be taken, however, that the signs of the pressures monitored are correct.
If measuring static pressures within the duct is required, the pitot-tube-to-instrument connection
will be affected. If measuring a negative pressure duct, the static pressure port from the pitot tube
must be connected to the low-pressure side of the instrument. If the static pressure in the duct is
at a positive pressure, the pitot tube must be connected to the high-pressure side of the
instrument.
The various connections between the pitot tube and gauge are frequently made with a good grade
of clear surgical tubing. Precaution must be taken so that all passages and connections are dry,
clean, and free of leaks, sharp bends, and other obstructions. The branching out of the rubber
hose can be accomplished by the use of a T-fitting or a two-stem nipple adapter.
The lines and various connections should be periodically tested for leaks. This leak check should
be performed as an integrated test to ensure that no one component may be attributing to
erroneous readings.
4-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
The Magnehelic® pressure gauge is operated by magnetic field linkage only, which makes it
extremely sensitive and accurate. However, the construction of the gauge makes it resistant to
shock and vibration. A zero calibration screw is located on the plastic cover. There are
approximately 30 available pressure ranges for this instrument.
Measurements should be made in midrange of the scale. The gauge should not be mounted on a
vibrating surface. The gauge should be held in the same position as when it is zeroed and should
be checked against a known pressure source with each use (some models are designed for
vertical use only). Figure 4-7 illustrates a typical Magnehelic ® pressure gauge commonly used in
HVAC systems.
Figure 4-7
Typical Pressure Gauge (Courtesy of Dwyer, Inc.)
The basic propeller or rotating vane anemometer consists of a lightweight, wind-driven wheel
connected through a gear train to a set of recording dials that read the linear feet (meters) of air
passing through the wheel in a measured length of time. At low velocities, the friction drag of the
mechanism is considerable. To compensate for this, a gear train that overspeeds is commonly
used. For this reason, the correction is often additive at the lower range and subtractive at the
upper range, with the least correction in the middle of the 200–2000 feet per minute (ft/min)
(1–10 meters per second [m/s]) ranges. Most older instruments are not sensitive enough for use
below 200 ft/min (1 m/s). Newer instruments can read velocities as low as 30 ft/min (0.15 m/s).
Because other instruments read in feet (meters), a timing instrument must be used to determine
velocity. Readings are usually timed for one minute, in which case the anemometer reading
(when corrected according to a calibration curve) will give the result in feet per minute or meters
per minute. For moderate velocities, it may be satisfactory to use a one-half minute timed
interval, repeated as a check.
4-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
In the case of coils or filters, an uneven airflow is frequently found because of entrance or exit
conditions and/or stratification. These variations are taken into account by moving the instrument
in a fixed pattern traverse to cover the entire surface so that the varying velocities may be added
and averaged. NEBB “Procedural Standards for Testing, Adjusting, and Balancing of
Environmental Systems” [1] provides additional guidance on how these instruments may be
used. Figure 4-8 illustrates a typical mechanical rotating vane anemometer commonly used in
HVAC systems.
Figure 4-8
Typical Mechanical Rotating Vane Anemometer
The electronic rotating vane anemometer is a battery-operated, direct digital or analog readout
anemometer. Some have interchangeable remote rotating vane heads. The digital readout of the
velocity is automatically averaged for a fixed period, depending on the measured velocity and
the type of instrument. Analog instruments are direct readout with a choice of velocity scales.
Figure 4-9 illustrates a typical electronic rotating vane anemometer commonly used in HVAC
systems.
4-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-9
Typical Electronic Rotating Vane Anemometer
The deflecting vane anemometer operates by having pressure exerted on a vane that causes a
pointer to indicate that measured value. It does not depend on air density because of the sensing
of pressure differential to indicate velocities. The instrument is provided and always used with a
dual-hose connection between the meter and the probes, except as noted in the following
paragraph.
One type of deflecting vane anemometer uses three interchangeable velocity probes: the lo-flow,
diffuser, and pitot probes. The lo-flow probe is used in conjunction with the 0–300 ft/min (0–1.5
m/s) scale for measuring terminal air velocities in rooms or open spaces and for measuring face
velocities at ventilating hoods, spray booths, and fume hoods. The lo-flow probe is directly
mounted to the anemometer without the use of hoses. The pitot probe is used to measure
airstream velocities in ducts. The diffuser probe is used to measure air velocity through both
supply and return air terminals, using the proper air terminal “K or A k” factor (effective area) for
the airflow calculation. This will return a result in cubic feet per minute (ft 3/min).
4-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
The operation of the thermal anemometer depends on the fact that the resistance of a heated wire
will change with its temperature. The probe of this instrument is provided with a special type of
wire element that is supplied with current from batteries contained in the instrument case. As air
flows over the element in the probe, the temperature of the element is changed from those that
exist in still air, and the resistance change is indicated as velocity on the indicating scale of the
instrument. This instrument is used to measure very low air velocities (such as a filter velocity),
room velocity, and the velocity of hood openings. Figure 4-10 illustrates a typical thermal
anemometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
Figure 4-10
Typical Thermal Anemometer (Courtesy of TSI, Inc.)
The probe that is used with this instrument is directional and must be located at the proper point
on the diffuser, grille, or traverse, as indicated by the manufacturer. Probes are subject to fouling
by dust and corrosive air. Because this type of instrument displays data for standard conditions,
corrections must be made if actual feet per minute are to be recorded.
4-11
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
The flow measuring hood is a device that covers the terminal air outlet device to facilitate taking
air velocity or airflow. The conical or pyramid shaped hood can be used to collect all of the air
supplied to or returned from an air terminal and guide it over flow measuring instrumentation.
Hoods are generally constructed so that the outlet tapers down to an effective area of 1 ft 2
(0.09 m2). A velocity measuring grid and calibrated manometer in the hood will read the airflow
in cubic feet per minute.
The balancing cone or hood should be tailored for the particular job. The large end of the cone
should be sized to fit over the complete diffuser and should have a gasket around the perimeter to
prevent leakage. Some digital instruments have memory, averaging, and printing capabilities.
Flow measuring hoods should not be used where the discharge velocities of the terminal device
are excessive or severely stratified. The best results are obtained when the flow measuring hood
has repeat readings on similar terminals in the same direction. Figure 4-11 illustrates a typical
flow hood commonly used in HVAC systems.
Figure 4-11
Typical Flow Hood
Smoke devices generally are used to study airflow and detect leaks. These devices come in
various sizes with different durations of burning time. Smoke devices employ a chemical
reaction from which highly visible, nontoxic smoke readily mixes with air, simplifying the
observation of flow patterns. When testing for leaks, sufficient smoke should be used to fill a
volume 15 to 20 times larger than the duct or enclosure volume to be tested. Air motion rates
below 10 ft/min (0.5 m/s) can be measured with a stopwatch and distance determinations.
4-12
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Smoke sticks conveniently come in different sizes and provide an indicating stream of smoke.
Some produce a single puff of smoke, and others smoke continuously for a few minutes to a
maximum of 10 minutes. Smoke guns are valuable in tracing air currents and determining the
direction and velocity of airflow and the general behavior of either warm or cold air in
conditioned rooms. Figure 4-12 illustrates a typical smoke gun commonly used in HVAC
systems.
Figure 4-12
Typical Smoke Gun
Aspirated fine powders, such as zinc sterate, may also be used in locating drafts, determining the
velocity of slow moving currents in a room, and obtaining a better understanding of air motion.
The fine powders suspend in air for a significant time and float with the air currents. The powder
can be used to mark leakage points on doors with gaskets because it tends to stick to the surface
at the leak. Zinc sterate and other powders are usually chemically inert and may often be used
where chemical smoke is prohibited.
The calibrated pressure test gauge should be of a minimum “Grade A” quality; have a Bourdon
tube assembly made of stainless steel, alloy steel, Monel, or bronze; and a nonreflecting white
face with black letter graduations conforming to ANSI/ASME Specification B40.1 [4]. Test
gauges are usually 3-1/2 to 6 inches (8.9 to 15.2 cm) in diameter, with bottom or back
connections. Dials are available with pressure, vacuum, or compound ranges.
Dial gauges are used primarily for checking pump pressure; coil, chiller, and condenser pressure
drops; and pressure drops across orifice plates, valves, and other flow calibrated devices.
Pressure ranges should be selected so that the pressures to be measured fall in the middle two-
thirds of the scale range. The gauge should not be exposed to pressures greater than the
maximum dial reading. Similarly, a compound gauge should be used where it could be exposed
to negative pressure (vacuum). Pressure pulsations can be reduced or eliminated by installing a
needle valve between the gauge and the system equipment or piping. Under extreme pulsating
conditions, a pulsation dampener or snubber may be installed.
4-13
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
A differential pressure gauge is a dual-inlet, “Grade A” dual Bourdon tube pressure gauge with a
single indicating pointer on the dial face, indicating the pressure differential between the two
measured pressures. The gauge can be calibrated in psi, inches w.g., or inches mercury. The
differential pressure gauge will automatically read the difference between two pressures.
Using a single test gauge, the gauge is alternately valved to the high-pressure side and the low-
pressure side to determine the pressure differential. Such an arrangement eliminates any problem
concerning gauge elevations and virtually eliminates errors as a result of gauge calibration.
Because the timing is automatically synchronized with the operation of the revolution counter,
the human error that can occur when a revolution counter and separate stopwatch are used is
eliminated. In general, the chronometric tachometer is the preferred type of instrument when the
shaft end is accessible and has a countersunk hole.
Newer hand tachometers are available, capable of producing instantaneous rpm measurement
readings on a dial face (eddy current type); solid-state instruments with digital readouts are also
available.
Contact tachometers are available in either liquid crystal display (LCD) or light-emitting diode
(LED) displays in multi-ranges. Some have a memory feature to recall the last reading as well as
maximum and minimum readings. In addition, most have a measuring wheel for linear speeds.
Figure 4-13 illustrates a typical contact reflective tachometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-14
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-13
Typical Contact Reflective Tachometer
The optical or photo tachometer uses a photocell that counts the pulses as the object rotates.
Then, by use of a transistorized computer circuit, the tachometer produces a direct rpm reading
(either digital or analog) on the instrument dial. Several features make it adaptable for use in
measuring fan speeds. It is completely portable and is equipped with long-life batteries as its
light and power source. It has good accuracy, and any error can be reduced by using more than
one reflective marker at a different location on the rotating device. Its calibration can be
continually checked on most jobs by directing its beam to a fluorescent light and comparing the
indicated reading against 7,200 on the rpm scale (at 60 Hz).
The optical tachometer does not have to be in contact with the rotating device. It indicates
instantaneous speeds using a contrasting mark on the rotating device or reflective tape. It is a
good instrument to use on in-line fans and other equipment where shaft ends are not accessible.
It also may be used on equipment rotating at high speed.
The stroboscope is an electronic tachometer that uses an electrically flashing light. The
frequency of the flashing light is electronically controlled and adjustable, and when it is adjusted
to equal the frequency of the rotating machine, the machine will appear to stand still. Figure 4-14
illustrates a typical stroboscope commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-15
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-14
Typical Electronic Tachometer (Stroboscope)
The stroboscope does not need to make contact with the machine being checked. Rather, the
stroboscope light needs to be pointed toward the machine to illuminate a moving part for the
operator. The light flashes are of extremely short duration, and their frequency is adjustable by
turning a knob on the stroboscope. When the frequency of the light flashes is the same as the
speed of the moving part being viewed, the part will be seen distantly only once each cycle, and
the moving part will appear to stand still. The corresponding frequency, or rpm, can be read from
an analog or digital scale on the instrument.
Care should be taken to avoid reading multiples (or harmonics) of the actual rpm. Readings
should be started at the lower end of the scale. The number of flashes per second should be
slowly increased until a single image is obtained. To ensure that the reading is not a harmonic of
the actual rotational speed, increase the number of flashes per minute by twice the current value.
If a double image is observed, the original reading was the true rpm of the equipment. What is
being observed is that the strobe is operating at twice the speed of the true rpm. If, on the other
hand, a single image is obtained after doubling the number of flashes per minute, the strobe was
set at a subharmonic of the actual rpm. This process should be repeated until the first double
image is obtained. The last reading before the double image appears will be the actual rpm of the
rotating equipment. The best results are obtained when the strobe is shined on a rotating object
having one unique mark, such as a keyway on the end of a shaft.
The dual-function tachometer provides both optical and contact measurements of rotation and
linear motions. Many allow a choice of up to 19 ranges, depending on the application. A digital
display always indicates the unit of measurement to identify the operating range. The memory
feature may often be used to recall the last, maximum, minimum, and/or average readings. This
tachometer’s compact size and light weight allow easy one-handed operation.
4-16
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Mercury-filled glass tube thermometers have a useful temperature range from -40°F (-40°C) to
over 400°F (204°C). They are available in a variety of standard temperature ranges, scale
graduations, and lengths. Mineral spirits thermometers have a typical useful range of -40°F to
200°F (-40°F to 93°C).
The complete stem immersion calibrated thermometer, as the name implies, must be used with
the stem completely immersed in the fluid in which the temperature is to be measured. If
complete immersion of the thermometer stem is not possible or practical, a correction must be
made for the amount of emergent liquid column. Thermometers calibrated for partial stem
immersion are more commonly used in conjunction with thermometer test wells designed to
receive them. No emergent stem correction is required for the partial stem immersion type.
When the temperatures of the surrounding surfaces are substantially different from the measured
fluid, there is considerable radiation effect upon the thermometer reading if the thermometer is
left unshielded or otherwise unprotected. Proper shielding or aspiration of the thermometer bulb
and stem can minimize these radiation effects. Thermometer wells are used to house the test
thermometer at the desired location and permit the removal and insertion of a thermometer
without requiring the removal or loss of the fluid in the system.
Dial thermometers have either a rigid stem or a flexible capillary. They are constructed with
various size dial heads, 1-3/4 to 5 inches (4.5 to 12.7 cm), with a stainless steel encapsulated
temperature sensing element. Hermetically sealed, dial thermometers are rust-, dust-, and leak-
proof and are actuated by sensitive bimetallic helix coils. Some can be field calibrated. Sensing
elements range in length from 2-1/2 to 24 inches (6.4 to 61 cm) and are available in many
temperature ranges, with and without thermometer wells.
Dial thermometers are more rugged and more easily read than are glass tube thermometers, and
they are fairly inexpensive. Small dial thermometers usually use a bimetallic temperature sensing
element in the stem.
The flexible capillary dial thermometer has a large temperature sensing bulb connected to the
instrument with a capillary tube. The instrument contains a Bourdon tube, as with pressure
gauges. The temperature sensing system consisting of the bulb, capillary tube, and Bourdon tube
and is charged with either a liquid or a gas. Temperature changes at the bulb cause the contained
liquid or gas to expand or contract, causing a pointer to move over a graduated scale.
In using a dial thermometer, the stem or bulb must be immersed a sufficient distance to allow
this part of the thermometer to reach the temperature being measured. Because dial thermometers
have a relatively long time lag, enough time must be allowed for the thermometer to reach a
steady temperature measurement.
4-17
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
In piping and duct applications, note that the surface temperature of the conduit is not equal to
the gas or fluid temperature and that a relative comparison is more reliable than an absolute
reliance on readings at a single circuit or terminal unit.
There are many types of rugged, lightweight, battery powered digital electronic thermometers
that are highly accurate with interchangeable probes and/or sensors. Types include resistance
temperature detectors (RTDs), thermistors, thermocouples, and diode sensors with either LCD or
LED displays. Response time and ease of use vary among models and types.
Electronic thermometers may be used to check air or liquid temperatures, either immersed in the
fluid stream or from surfaces. Resistance thermometers have longer response times than the
thermocouple type. Electronic thermometers have the advantages of remote reading, good
precision, and a flexible temperature range. Additionally, some electronic thermometers have
multiple connection points on the instrument case and a selector switch, enabling the use of a
number of temperature sensors placed in different locations and read one at a time by use of the
selector switch.
These devices are rugged and simple to use. Most are equipped with a laser pointer to facilitate
determining the location of the temperature measuring point. These devices work on the
principle of infrared energy (which all objects above absolute zero radiate), rapidly respond to
temperature changes, and, at close ranges, are useful for determining hot spots. The average
effective range depends on the size of the object being measured and the clarity of the air
between the object and the detector.
4.1.4.6 Psychrometers
The sling psychrometer consists of two liquid-filled thermometers, one of which has a cloth wick
or sock around its bulb. The two thermometers are mounted side-by-side on a frame fitted with a
handle by which the device can be whirled with a steady motion through the surrounding air. The
whirling motion is periodically stopped to permit readings of the wet and dry bulb thermometers
(in that order) to be taken until consecutive readings become steady. Because of evaporation, the
wet bulb thermometer indicates a lower temperature than the dry bulb thermometer does (unless
the airstream is at 100% relative humidity [RH]; then both the wet bulb and dry bulb
temperatures are the same). The difference is known as the wet bulb depression. Figure 4-15
illustrates a typical sling psychrometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-18
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-15
Typical Sling Psychrometer
Accurate wet bulb readings require an air velocity of 1000–1500 ft/min (5–7.5 m/s) across the
wick; otherwise, a correction must be made. Therefore, an instrument with an 18-inch (46-cm)
radius should be whirled at a rate of two revolutions per second. Significant errors will result if
the wick becomes dirty or dry; therefore, a constant supply of distilled water should be used.
Temperatures below 32°F (0°C) require special handling conditions.
Digital battery powered versions of the sling psychrometer are available that blow the ambient
air over the wetted wick. These instruments are accurate and can be placed into confined areas
where there is insufficient room to whirl a sling psychrometer.
Unlike the psychrometer, the thermohygrometer does not use the cooling effect of the wet bulb
to determine the moisture content in the air. Instead, a thin film capacitance sensor is used as a
sensing element in many instruments. As the moisture content and temperature change, the
resistance in the sensor changes proportionally. The readout is normally in percent RH. Because
the instruments do not rely upon evaporation for measurement, the need for airflow across the
wetted wick or sock is eliminated. The sensing element needs only to be held in the sampled air.
Typical measuring rate is 10–98% RH, 32–140°F (0–60°C). Figure 4-16 illustrates a typical
electronic hygrometer commonly used in HVAC systems.
4-19
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Figure 4-16
Typical Electronic Hygrometer
The thermohygrometer can be used to determine the psychrometric properties of air in much the
same way as the sling psychrometer. The reading can be plotted on a standard psychrometric
chart from which all other psychrometric properties of the air can be determined. At RHs above
90%, the accuracy of the sensor is decreased because of swelling of the sensing element.
These simple devices employ a temperature sensitive, chemically treated spot on a strip that
changes color at certain specified temperatures. There are no moving parts, and employment is
usually specified by the manufacturer.
4.1.5.1 Voltammeter
The clamp-on voltammeter, with digital or analog readout, is used for taking field electrical
measurements. This voltammeter often has trigger operated, clamp-on transformer jaws that
permit the taking of current readings without interrupting electrical service. Most meters have
several scale ranges in amperes and volts. Two voltage test leads are furnished, which may be
quick-connected into the voltammeter.
4-20
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
When using the voltammeter, the proper range should first be selected. When in doubt, the user
should begin with the highest range for both voltage and amperage scales. Readings may be
taken at the motor leads or from the load terminals of the starter. To determine the amperages of
single-phase motors, the clamp should be placed around one wire after the motor has been
started. When involved with three-phase current, readings should be taken on each of the three
wires and averaged. If the average voltage delivered to the motor varies by more than a few volts
from the nameplate rating of the motor, several things can occur. A rise in voltage may damage
the motor and cause a drop in the amperage reading. A drop in the voltage will cause a rise in the
amperage and may cause the overload protectors on the starter to trip. In either case, it is
advisable to document and report high- or low-voltage situations.
To measure voltage with portable test instruments, the meter should be set to the most suitable
range and the test lead probes connected firmly against the terminals or other surfaces of the line
under test.
The annular flow indicator is a flow sensing and indicating system that is an adaptation of the
principle of the pitot tube. The upstream sensing tube has a number of holes that face the flow
and so are subjected to the total pressure (velocity pressure plus static pressure). The holes are
spaced to be representative of equal annular areas of the pipe, in the manner of selecting pitot
tube traverse points. An equalizing tube arrangement within the upstream tube averages the
pressures sensed at the various holes, and this pressure is transmitted to a pressure gauge. The
downstream tube is similar to a reversed impact tube and senses a pressure equal to the static
pressure with minimum velocity pressure; this pressure is also transmitted to a gauge. The
difference between the two pressures will indicate flow in gallons per minute. A differential
pressure gauge is used to directly read the pressure differential.
4-21
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Calibrated balancing valves perform dual duty as flow measuring devices and as balancing
valves. They are similar to ordinary balancing valves; however, the manufacturer has 1) provided
pressure taps into the inlet and outlet and 2) calibrated the device by setting up known flow
quantities while measuring the resistance that results from the different valve positions. These
positions usually are graduated on the valve body (as a dial), and the handle has a pointer to
indicate the reading. The manufacturer typically provides a chart or graph that illustrates the
percentage open to the valve (the dial settings), the pressure drop, and the resulting flow.
Ultrasonic flow meters are nonintrusive devices that measure fluid flow using ultrasonic sound
waves transmitted across the direction of flow within the pipe. When faced with a system flow
balance or when questions of adequate flow arise, these instruments may be significant when
there are no system-installed flow orifices, which is normally the case. These ultrasonic flow
measuring devices have been found to be as labor-saving at balancing a hydronic system as an
air data multimeter is in balancing a ventilation system. However, because there is an element of
uncertainty regarding the application and the resulting accuracy of these devices, the user should
consider referring to the guidance found in EPRI TR-109634, Flow Meter Guideline [5].
The v-cone flow meter is a differential pressure flow measurement device, somewhat similar to
the venturi tube or orifice plate. A cone is positioned in the center of the pipe to increase the
velocity of the flowing fluid and create a differential flow rate. Two taps are provided to allow
sensing the high and low pressures. Compared to other techniques, this device generally provides
accurate results with shorter lengths of straight pipe upstream and downstream of the measuring
element.
The principle of measurement for the Coriolis mass flow meter is based on the concept of an
element of fluid traveling at constant velocity in a pipe. This element of fluid exhibits zero
acceleration because the velocity is constant. If the pipe were rotated at the same time that the
element of fluid passes through, a Coriolis acceleration component would be produced on the
fluid. The Coriolis acceleration component produces a force on the pipe that is proportional to
the mass flow rate and, as such, is the measured value in this type of flow meter. The Coriolis
force is induced by sinusoidally vibrating the tube in which the fluid is flowing about an axis
formed between the inlet and the outlet sides of the tube, at the natural frequency of the device.
On the inlet side of the tube, the fluid flows away from the axis of rotation while on the outlet
side, the flow is toward the axis of rotation. At any time, each half of the tube has a Coriolis
acceleration force that is equal but opposite in direction.
4-22
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
The principle of measurement for a vortex flow meter is based on a phenomenon first explained
by von Kármán in 1912. This phenomenon can be produced when a bluff body is immersed in a
steady stream of fluid. As the flow approaches the bluff body, the flow is split into two streams.
The instability of the shear layer as a result of this splitting of the flow causes the fluid to roll up
into a well-defined vortex. After formation, the vortex sheds, and a second vortex begins to form
on the opposite side of the bluff body. Under steady flow, the time required for the formation of
the first and second vortexes is the same, and the formation time is proportional to the velocity of
the fluid stream.
Flow measuring devices, including the orifice, venturi, and other types described in this section,
give accurate and reliable readings only when fluid flow in the line is uniform and free of
turbulence. Because pipe fittings, such as elbows and valves, create turbulence and
nonuniformity of flow, flow measuring elements must be installed far enough away from elbows,
valves, and other sources of flow disturbance to permit both turbulence to subside and flow to
regain uniformity.
This rule applies particularly to conditions upstream of the measuring element and, to a lesser
extent, to conditions downstream. The manufacturers of flow measuring devices usually specify
the lengths of straight pipe required upstream and downstream of the measuring element.
Lengths are specified in numbers of pipe diameters, so that the actual required lengths depend on
the size of the pipe. Requirements vary with the type of element and the types of fittings at the
ends of the straight pipe runs, ranging from about 5 to 25 pipe diameters upstream and 2 to 5
pipe diameters downstream.
Table 4-1 lists the commonly employed airflow measuring instruments along with their
recommended uses and limitations. Section B.8 describes different types of permanently
installed airflow measuring devices.
4-23
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Table 4-1
Airflow Measuring Instruments
4-24
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Table 4-3 lists the commonly employed rotation measuring instruments along with their
recommended uses and limitations.
Table 4-3
Rotation Measuring Instruments
Revolution Contact measurement of rotating Requires direct contact of the rotating shaft.
counter equipment speed. Must be used in conjunction with accurate
timing devices.
Chronometric Contact measurement of rotating Requires direct contact of the rotating shaft.
tachometer equipment speed.
Contact Contact measurement of rotating and Requires direct contact of the rotating shaft
tachometer linear speeds. or device to be measured.
Electronic Noncontact measurement of rotating Readings must be started at the lower end of
tachometer equipment. the scale in order to avoid reading multiples
(stroboscope) (or harmonics) of the actual rpm.
Optical Noncontact measurement of rotating Must be held close to the object and at the
tachometer equipment. correct angle. The rotating device must use
reflective markings.
Dual-function Contact or noncontact measurement Same limitations as the optical tachometer.
tachometer of rotating equipment and linear
speeds.
4-25
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Table 4-4 lists the commonly employed temperature measuring instruments along with their
recommended uses and limitations.
Table 4-4
Temperature Measuring Instruments
Glass tube Measurement of temperatures of air Ambient conditions may impact the
thermometers and fluids. measurement of fluid temperature. Glass
tube thermometers require immersion in fluid
or adequate test wells. Some applications
prohibit the use within the work area of
instruments containing mercury.
Electronic Measurement of temperatures of air Use this instrument within the recommended
thermometers and fluids. Measurement of surface range. Use thermal probes in accordance
temperatures of pipes and ducts. with the recommendations of the
manufacturer.
Portable Identification of hot spots on Does not work effectively in dusty or smoky
noncontact equipment, general area temperature atmospheres. The size of the measuring spot
thermometers measurement, and checking the is a function of the thermometer’s distance
temperature of uninsulated ducts. from the object.
Psychrometers Measurement of dry and wet bulb air Accurate wet bulb measurements require an
temperatures. air velocity between 1000 and 1500 ft/min (5
and 7.5 m/s) across the wick, or a correction
must be made. Dirty or dry wicks will result in
significant error.
Electronic Measurement of dry and wet bulb air The accuracy of measurement above 90%
thermo- temperatures and direct reading of RH is decreased as a result of swelling of the
hygrometer RH. sensing element.
4-26
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
Table 4-5 provides recommended ranges, accuracy, and calibration schedules for different types
of TAB instrumentation and is presented for illustrative purposes only. Licensees typically have
plant- or site-specific measuring and test equipment calibration and accuracy requirements,
which should always be used in lieu of the values listed in Table 4-5.
Table 4-5
Air and Hydronic Measuring Instruments
Temperature measuring (air) -40 to -120°F Within 1/2 of scale division 12 months
instrument (-40 to -84°C)
Air pressure measuring 0 to 0.5 inch w.g. ±0.01 inches w.g. (±2.5 Pa) 12 months
instrument (0 to 125 Pa)
±0.02 inches w.g. (±5 Pa)
0 to 1 inch w.g.
(0 to 250 Pa) ±0.20 inches w.g. (±50 Pa)
0 to 18 inches w.g.
(0 to 4500 Pa)
4-27
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Instrumentation
30 in. Hg to 60 psi
(101 to 414 kPa)
4-28
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
5
AIR AND WATER FLOW MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES
The location of the traverse in a duct is very important. Ideally, airflow should be fully
developed and uniform at the traverse location; the only exception is lower velocities nearer to
the duct edge. The pitot tube must be held within ±10° of the airstream direction to ensure the
accuracy of this method. For the most accurate results, the traverse location should be at least
5-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
eight duct diameters (the larger of the two values for rectangular ducts when the two sides are
not equal) downstream of any disturbances and a minimum of two diameters upstream of any
disturbances. When this is not possible (in many existing duct systems), the accuracy of the
traverse location should be evaluated when obtaining flow rates.
Currently, three methods can be used to determine the layout of a traverse: equal area, log linear,
and log Tchebycheff (the original spelling is Chebyshev). Sections 5.1.1.1 through 5.1.1.3
provide illustrations of these methods, which are also used to determine the location of the test
ports to be installed in the ducting.
All three methods will return almost identical results for round ducts. However, substantial
differences between the log linear and the log Tchebycheff methods can exist when compared to
the equal area method results for rectangular ducts. This difference results in part from the equal
area method not taking into account the lower velocities near the duct wall. In most cases, a
positive error (that is, overestimated flow rate compared to the other two methods) nearly always
results when the equal area method is used. Results using the equal area method should be
closely evaluated because overestimation is nonconservative when flow is near required
minimum values. The evaluation of flow measurement method, adjacent flow disturbances, the
instrument type, the variation among test personnel, and nonstandard air conditions are all
factors that should be considered.
Rectangular Ducts
The most common method used in the United States is the equal area method. For a rectangular
duct, this method divides the traverse plane into equal areas with the centers of each area no
greater than 6 inches (15.2 cm) from the center of an adjacent area. The exception to this is in
very large ducts where the total number of velocity readings would exceed 64. Under these
circumstances, the distance between points may be greater than 6 inches (15.2 cm). The equal
area method does not take into account the reduced airflow at the perimeter of the duct as do the
other two methods. Each velocity reading is given equal weight in the averaging process. For
rectangular ducts, to determine the number of points that the pitot tube is to be positioned inside
the duct or where the test ports are to be located on the duct, take either the L (x) axis or the M
(y) axis, in inches, and divide by six. If this number has a remainder, round up to the next higher
integer with no remainder. This is the minimum number of points to be used on this axis.
5-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Example:
Assume a duct that has a dimension of 19 inches in the M (y) axis and 30 inches in the L (x) axis.
To calculate the minimum numbers of points at which the pitot tube is to be positioned inside the
duct when traversing the 19-inch (M) axis, perform the following:
N = M(y)/6
Pitot Position 1 (PP1): (M/N)/2 = (19/4)/2 = 2.375” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 2: M/N + PP1 = 19/4 + 2.375 = 7.125” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 3: M/N + PP2 = 19/4 + 7.125 = 11.875” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 4: M/N + PP3 = 19/4 + 11.875 = 16.625” from the edge of the duct.
Table 5-1
Equal Area Method for a Rectangular Duct
5-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
If we desire to traverse the 30” (L) side, to calculate the position of the test ports that will need to
be installed on the duct, perform the following:
N = 30/6 = 5.0 (This is the minimum number of test ports that will need to be installed.)
Test Port Position 1: (L/N)/2 = (30/5)/2 = 3.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: (L/N) + TTP1 = (30/5) + 3.0 = 9.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 3: (L/N) + TTP2 = (30/5) + 9.0 = 15.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: (L/N) + TTP3 = (30/5) + 15.0 = 21.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 5: (L/N) + TTP4 = (30/5) + 21.0 = 27.0” from the edge of the duct.
Calculate the position of each test port with regard to the edge of the duct using Table 5-1:
Test Port Position 1: 30 x 0.10 = 3.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: 30 x 0.30 = 9.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 3: 30 x 0.50 = 15.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: 30 x 0.70 = 21.0” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 5: 30 x 0.90 = 27.0” from the edge of the duct.
Round Ducts
The equal area method can also be applied for round ducts. It divides the cross-sectional area of
the traverse plane into equal area “doughnuts.” Typically, two traverse planes are established 90°
apart. The distance between each velocity measurement point increases as the traverse progresses
from the edge of the duct (lower velocity) toward the center of the duct (higher velocity).
Conversely, the distance between points decreases as the traverse passes the center of the duct
and progresses to the opposite edge. No velocity readings are taken in the center of the duct. The
minimum number of readings can be 12 for very small ducts or up to 40 for very large ducts.
Standard practice suggests ducts that are 8 inches (20.3 cm) in diameter or smaller should use 12
points (6 in each plane); ducts between 8 and 12 inches (20.3 and 30.4 cm) should use 16 points
(8 in each plane); and ducts larger than 12 inches (30.4 cm) should use a total of 20 or 40 points
(10 or 20 in each plane). For ducts smaller than 12 (30.4 cm) inches, a micro pitot tube should be
used. In all cases, each velocity reading is given equal weight in the averaging process.
5-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Table 5-2
Equal Area Method for a Round Duct
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1–10 0.026 0.082 0.146 0.226 0.342 0.658 0.774 0.854 0.918 0.974
1–20 1 and 2 and 3 and 4 and 5 and 6 and 7 and 8 and 9 and 10 and
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
1–10 0.013 0.039 0.067 0.097 0.129 0.165 0.204 0.250 0.306 0.388
11–20 0.612 0.694 0.750 0.796 0.835 0.871 0.903 0.933 0.961 0.987
Example:
Assume a round duct that has a diameter of 18 inches. Using Table 5-2, calculate the pitot tube
position in each plane:
Pitot Position 10: 18 x 0.974 = 17.53” from the edge of the duct.
5-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The second method is known as the log linear method and is based on the Nikuradse formula for
fully developed flow. This is not a common method and is more complex than the other two
methods. Each velocity measurement point is based on a logarithmic distribution in one plane.
The pitot tube position for each test port location uses a logarithmic value. This method is further
complicated by the weighting values applied to each velocity reading for a rectangular duct, as
opposed to a round duct, where all velocity readings are weighted equally. For a rectangular
duct, each velocity reading is multiplied by a weighting value (for example, 2/96, 3/96, 5/96, or
6/96); all of these weighted values are then added to arrive at the average air velocity.
This method differs from the equal area for a round duct in that it uses three test port penetrations
that are 60º apart, as opposed to the two duct penetrations that are 90º apart. Tables 5-3 and 5-4
illustrate the log linear method. The minimum number of points for a rectangular duct is 26 and
can be anywhere from 18 to 30 for a round duct.
Three diameters are shown, with each diameter having six points.
Table 5-4
Log Linear Method for a Round Duct
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10 0.019 0.077 0.153 0.217 0.362 0.638 0.783 0.847 0.923 0.981
5-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Example:
Assume a rectangular duct that has a dimension of 17” x 17” and that there is a transition to a
round duct with a diameter of 18”. For the rectangular duct, the test ports are to be added to the
bottom of the duct. According to Table 5-3, this would be along the L (x) axis. Test ports need to
be installed at the 1 and 5 positions relative to the duct centerline.
Test Port Position 1(1): 17 x 0.408 = 6.94” away from the center of the duct.
Because it is not always practical to mark the duct using the center as the reference point, the
edge of the duct should be used. Because the center of the duct is 8.5” from the edge, subtracting
6.94 from 8.5 will give the location relative to the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 1(1): 8.5 – 6.94 = 1.56” from the edge of the duct.
Perform the same operation to determine the position of the second test port (number 5 on
Table 5-3):
Test Port Position 2(5): 17 x 0.132 = 2.24” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 2(5): 8.5 – 2.24 = 6.26” from the edge of the duct.
Once the duct center has been reached, the 8.5 will now be additive and not subtractive.
Test Port Position 3(5): 17 x 0.132 = 2.24” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 3(5): 8.5 + 2.24 = 10.74” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 4(1): 17 x 0.408 = 6.94” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 4(1): 8.5 + 6.94 = 15.44” from the edge of the duct.
After the test port position has been determined, the ports would be drilled out and test port
covers installed. The next step will be to determine the pitot tube position at each duct test port
penetration.
According to Table 5-3, it is determined that the pitot tube will traverse along the M (y) axis.
Test ports one and four will have the same pitot tube spacing but differ from test ports two and
three, which are also the same. Likewise, test ports one and two and test ports three and four
have several pitot positions that are the same: position one and five and positions three and six.
To calculate pitot positions 1, 2, 3, and 4 below the center of the duct, for test ports 1 and 4
perform the following:
Pitot Position 1: 8.5 – 7.92 = 0.58” from the edge of the duct.
5-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Pitot Position 2: 8.5 – 6.94 = 1.56” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 3: 8.5 – 4.25 = 4.25” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 4: 8.5 – 0.0 = 8.5” from the edge of the duct.
To calculate the pitot positions that are above the centerline of the duct, perform the following:
Pitot Position 1: 8.5 + 7.92 = 16.42” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 2: 8.5 + 6.94 = 15.44” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 3: 8.5 + 4.25 = 12.75” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 4: 8.5 – 0.0 = 8.5” from the edge of the duct.
To calculate the pitot tube positions below the duct centerline for points 5, 6, and 7, at test ports
2 and 3, perform the following:
Pitot Position 5: 8.5 – 7.92 = 0.58” from the edge of the duct.
5-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Pitot Position 6: 8.5 – 4.25 = 4.25” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 7: 8.5 – 2.24 = 6.26” from the edge of the duct.
The calculation for those points above the centerline of the duct is as follows:
Pitot Position 5: 8.5 + 7.92 = 16.42” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 6: 8.5 + 4.25 = 12.75” from the edge of the duct.
Pitot Position 7: 8.5 + 2.24 = 10.74” from the edge of the duct.
The round duct is calculated in the same was as the equal area method; however, the values from
Table 5-4 are used. To calculate the test port location, first calculate the circumference of the
duct using the following formula:
C=2πr
where:
C= circumference (inches)
π= 3.14159
r= radius (inches)
5-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Divide the circumference by 360 (because there are 360 degrees in a circle), and multiply this
number by 60 (because the test ports are 60 degrees apart). This will give the distance between
the test ports.
2 x π x 9 = 56.55”
56.55/360 = 0.1571 x 60 = 9.42” (This is how far apart the test ports will be from one
another.)
The third method is known as the log Tchebycheff method. It is similar to the log linear method
for both the rectangular and round ducts; however, it is less complicated. This method uses a
logarithmic distribution of velocities near the wall of the duct and polynomial distribution
elsewhere. Tables 5-5 and 5-6 describe this method. All velocities are weighted equally.
Five rows are shown, with each row having six points.
Table 5-5
Tchebycheff Method for a Rectangular Duct
5 0 ±0.212 ±0.426
Example:
Using Table 5-5, assume a duct that has a dimension of 30” in the L (x) axis and 19” in the M (y)
axis. To determine the location of the test ports that are to be installed on the bottom of the duct,
perform the following:
Test Port Position 1: 30 x 0.439 = 13.17” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 1: 15 – 13.17 = 1.83” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: 30 x 0.265 = 7.95” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: 15 – 7.95 = 7.05” from the edge of the duct.
5-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Test Port Position 3: 30 x 0.063 = 1.89” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 3: 15 – 1.89 = 13.11” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: 30 x 0.063 = 1.89” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: 15 + 1.89 = 16.89” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 5: 30 x 0.265 = 7.95” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 5: 15 + 7.95 = 22.95” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 6: 30 x 0.439 = 13.17” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 6: 15 + 13.17 = 28.17” from the edge of the duct.
To calculate the pitot tube position for each test port, use the 5-point section from Table 5-5 as
follows:
Test Port Position 1: 19 x 0.426 = 8.09” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 1: 9.5 – 8.09 = 1.41” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: 19 x 0.212 = 4.03” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 2: 9.5 – 4.03 = 5.47” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 3: 19 x 0.0 = 0.0” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 3: 9.5 – 0.0 = 9.50” from the edge of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: 19 x 0.212 = 4.03” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 4: 9.5 + 4.03 = 13.53” from the edge of the duct.
5-11
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Test Port Position 5: 19 x 0.426 = 8.09” from the center of the duct.
Test Port Position 5: 9.5 + 8.09 = 17.59” from the edge of the duct.
Two diameters are shown, with each radius having four points.
Table 5-6
Tchebycheff Method for a Round Duct
10 0.019 0.076 0.155 0.205 0.357 0.643 0.795 0.845 0.924 0.981
The round duct is calculated in the same way as the equal area method; however, the values from
Table 5-6 are used.
Figures C-2 and C-3 illustrate the documenting of traverse data for round and rectangular ducts,
respectively.
To determine if a traverse is located at a qualified position, apply the following from Figure 5-1.
For any given traverse, round or rectangular, first find either the highest velocity in feet per
minute or velocity pressure in inches of water. Divide this number by 10. Of all the readings
combined, 75% or greater must be equal to or greater than this number. If the traverse does not
meet these criteria, the traverse must not be used and will need to be relocated. Relocation of the
traverse may require that more than one traverse will need to be located at various branch lines
servicing the system.
As of this writing, this qualification standard is currently under review. The new proposal is as
follows:
• A total of 80–90% of the velocity measurements is greater than 10% of the maximum
velocity for any given traverse.
• Airflow should be at right angles to the traverse plane.
5-12
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure 5-1
Traverse Qualification (Courtesy of AMCA 203)
5.1.1.6 Examples
The following examples are for use in calculating the airflow from a traverse and determining if
it is in a qualified location:
• The equal area method for a rectangular duct
• The log Tchebycheff method for a round duct
• The log linear method for a rectangular duct
• Traverse qualification method
Given a 17” x 17” duct with a design flow rate of 4500 SCFM and a velocity profile shown in
Table 5-7, calculate the airflow using the equal area method.
Table 5-7
Example of the Equal Area Method for a Rectangular Duct
5-13
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
5-14
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
For round duct of 18” that has a design of 4500 ft 3/min and the velocity profile shown in Table 5-8, calculate the airflow using the log
Tchebycheff method.
Table 5-8
Example of the Log Tchebycheff Method for a Round Duct
Position 0.34”* 1.37” 2.79” 3.69” 6.43” 11.57” 14.31” 15.21” 16.63” 17.66” Subtotal
Vertical 2,113 2,123 2,192 2,178 2,192 2,626 2,738 2,749 2,522 2,231 23,664
Horizontal 2,549 2,605 2,588 2,492 2,349 2,525 2,818 2,808 2,616 2,197 25,547
* 1 inch = 2.5 cm
Duct area in square feet = π r /144 = 3.14159 x 9 /144 = 254.47 in /144 = 1.77 ft
2 2 2 2
Given a 17” x 17” duct with a design flow rate of 4500 SCFM and a velocity profile shown in Table 5-9, calculate the airflow using
the log linear method.
5-15
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Table 5-9
Log Linear Method for a Rectangular Duct
Position 0.58”* 1.56” 4.25 “ 6.26” 8.50” 10.74” 12.75” 15.44 16.42
(1 and 5) (2) (3 and 6) (7) (4) (7) (3 and 6) (2) (1 and 5)
* 1 inch = 2.5 cm
Position 0.58”* 1.56” 4.25” 6.26” 8.50” 10.74” 12.75” 15.44” 16.42”
(1 and 5) (2) (3 and 6) (7) (4) (7) (3 and 6) (2) (1 and 5)
* 1 inch = 2.5 cm
5-16
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Table 5-11 shows the velocities after the weighting values are applied.
Table 5-11
Velocities after the Weighting Values Are Applied
Position 0.58”* 1.56” 4.25” 6.26” 8.50” 10.74” 12.75” 15.44” 16.42”
(1 and 5) (2) (3 and 6) (7) (4) (7) (3 and 6) (2) (1 and 5)
Subtotal 205.4 76.4 370.0 276.9 289.6 277.4 373.2 89.1 210.6
* 1 inch = 2.5 cm
ft/min = 205.4 + 76.4 + 370.0 + 276.9 + 289.6 + 277.4 + 373.2 + 89.1 + 210.6 = 2168.6 ft/min
Duct area in square feet = 17” x 17”/144 = 289 in 2/144 = 2.01 ft2
5-17
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
First, identify the velocity that is the highest and the total number of points that compose the
traverse. The highest velocity is 2472 ft/min, located at the center of the duct at positions 8.5
inches and 15.44 inches, and the total number of traverse points is 26. The highest velocity value
is then divided by 10.
2472/10 = 247.2
For any traverse, 75% of the total number of points must be larger than this calculated number.
Therefore:
26 x 0.75 = 19.5 (At least 20 of the 26 velocity readings must be above the value of
247.2 ft/min.)
Because there are no readings less than 247 ft/min, this is a qualified traverse. If, however, there
had been more than six velocity readings that were less then 247, this traverse would need to be
relocated or other methods would need to be applied.
5.2.1 Background
The TAB process for water systems is described in Sections 3.4 and 3.5. In general, water side
flow measurement normally consists of direct measurement of a pressure drop across an orifice
or ultrasonic measurement techniques that directly measure water flow rate.
Section 2 of EPRI TR-109634 [5] provides a detailed description of flow measurement principles
along with information on the following:
• Continuity of flow equation
• Bernoulli’s equation of energy
• Reynolds number
Section 2.12 of EPRI TR-109634 [5] provides a table comparing the relative costs of employing
various types of flow meters for measuring water flow.
Sections 5.2.2 through 5.2.8 are excerpts from EPRI TR-109634 [5] that are provided as an
overview of the various methods available to measure the flow of incompressible fluids. EPRI
TR-109634 [5] should be consulted for additional information on mathematical equations used to
calculate flow using each type of measuring device.
5-18
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The principle of measurement is based on the introduction of a differential pressure device (such
as orifice, nozzle, and venturi) into a flow stream for which a fluid is measured. The introduction
of the differential pressure device creates a dynamic pressure difference between the upstream
and downstream sides of the device. The square root of the differential pressure is proportional to
the velocity of the fluid. Differential-pressure-producing flow meters determine an area-averaged
throat velocity from the measured pressure differential.
The multiport averaging pitot operates like a classical pitot tube, with the following exceptions:
• Instead of a static wall tap, an averaging pitot senses low pressure on the downstream side of
the tube, increasing the net differential pressure measured by the flow element.
• The multiport averaging pitot has multiple ports (some types have multiple ports on both the
upstream and downstream sides), which are located so that if weighted equally, the ports are
representative of the average flow in the pipe.
• Certain types of multiport averaging pitot tubes have a noncircular shape in order to negate
boundary layer separation problems associated with cylindrical-shaped averaging pitot tubes.
This design tends to provide a consistent point of separation over a large range of Reynolds
numbers.
The principle of measurement for a pitot tube traverse is based on the integration of equal
annular area point velocities over the flow area. As a result, this method provides the average
flow through the pipe (if the pipe is full). The pitot tube traverse method is used extensively in
the cooling tower industry to accurately determine the flow of water in the riser pipes of both
natural and mechanical draft cooling towers. The pitot tube traverse is based on a minimum of
two perpendicular traverses of the pipe diameter. This methodology is intended to accurately
provide an average fluid velocity profile at the measurement plane.
5-19
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Ultrasonic flow meters operate by transmitting an ultrasonic signal into a flow stream to
determine the velocity of the fluid. The velocity is then converted to a volumetric flow
measurement, using the flow area dimensions and flow profile coefficient. The following types
of ultrasonic flow meters are used for measurement of flow in closed conduits:
• Transit-time
• Doppler
• Cross-correlation
Although all methods provide a viable means of measuring fluid flow, the transit-time and cross-
correlation methods are the most applicable for measuring fluid flow.
The magnetic flow meter is based on Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. When a
conductive fluid passes through an applied magnetic field, a voltage is generated at right angles
to the axis of fluid flow and the applied magnetic field. The generated output voltage is a
summation of individual voltages generated by differential volumes moving at discrete velocities
across the plane of the pipe. In 1961, Shercliff demonstrated that the voltage output signal
represents the average velocity for an asymmetric velocity profile. If the magnetic field is
constant and the distance between the electrodes is fixed, the induced voltage is directly
proportional to the average velocity of the fluid.
The principle of measurement for a turbine flow meter is based on a rotating element, which is
positioned in the flow stream such that the rotational speed of the rotor is proportional to the
fluid stream velocity and, therefore, the flow through the measurement plane. A turbine flow
meter (the primary element) typically outputs a low-amplitude frequency signal, which is input
into a signal conditioner (the secondary element). The signal conditioner converts the meter
output to an analog signal proportional to the flow. Each meter has a characteristic K-factor,
which relates output frequency to a volumetric unit (for example, pulses per gallon). These types
of flow devices are generically categorized as linear flow meters.
5-20
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
6
LESSONS LEARNED
Situation: Within 12 hours of placing an air-handling unit (AHU) in an abnormal flow alignment,
the fan experienced catastrophic failure. Subsequent review identified the abnormal flow path
that had resulted in the operation of the fan at a point on its curve outside of its associated
operating class limits.
6.2 Estimating Filter Pressure Gradients for Clean and Dirty Conditions
Situation: The initial balancing of a nuclear air cleanup system was performed using a simulated
filter differential pressure for clean and dirty conditions to protect the air cleanup components. A
subsequent system flow check after installation of the permanent filters identified flows higher
than expected. A review of filter pressure drop identified that the actual clean filter condition was
less than the design values, which are based on the manufacturer’s nominal values. The
associated fan was slowed down to achieve its design airflow.
6-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
Situation: During a control room isolation, it was identified that the main control room pressures
were less than required. Subsequent system troubleshooting identified an access door, open in a
common duct, which penetrated the pressure boundary. The access door had apparently opened
from duct vibration and years of system startups and shutdowns. The access door and similar
critical duct access doors were secured closed using screws.
6-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
The flow test was re-performed with a different pair of technicians collecting the data, and
similar results were obtained. The results of the flow data for the north and south pipes were
significantly below the SBGT train design flow. Train design flow is 9000 ft3/min, and the results
3
indicated flow in the 4000-ft /min range. To confirm train flow, a vane anemometer was used to
measure the average velocity at the SBGT suction grille on the refueling floor. These results
yielded a flow of slightly more than 9000 ft 3/min.
Based on the data obtained from the suction grille face traverse, the technicians’ attention was
focused on the test equipment used on the south pipe pitot traverse. The pitot tube was closely
inspected and found to be in good condition. The 0- to 0.5-inch (0- to 13-mm) inclined
manometer was then inspected. This manometer is fitted with integral shutoff valves at the high-
and low-pressure connections, which allowed the device to be transported without fear of losing
the measuring fluid. A small leak on the high-pressure shutoff valve was discovered. Both valves
were replaced and the flow test repeated. Results of the test were acceptable, and the surveillance
test was resumed.
6-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
Situation: During a routine surveillance test to perform airflow measurements, airflows were
incorrectly recorded because of instrument misuse.
Technicians were to perform an airflow measurement on a safety-related AHU. They were using
a standard pitot tube that was attached to a 0- to 10-inch (0- to 25.4-cm) vertical inclined
manometer. The instruments were obtained from the instrumentation and control (I&C) shop,
which has a temperature controlled environment. The test instruments were taken to the job
location and set up. The ambient temperature of the job location was lower than that in the I&C
shop.
The manometer uses a liquid as its indicating medium. Setup of the manometer consisted of
leveling the instrument, attaching the pressure sensing lines, and zeroing the display. After this
was accomplished, the technicians took a break before returning to the job site.
After they returned, they began to perform the required surveillance test. After all of the data
points were obtained, the airflow was calculated. The calculated airflow was found to be below
the lower limit of the technical specification (TS) limits, which required the licensee to enter into
a limited condition of operation (LCO) of 24 hours.
After further evaluation, it was determined that the fluid in the manometer may have shrunk as a
result of the cooler environment in which the instrument was being used. Because the manometer
had not been re-zeroed after it had been introduced into the new temperature environment, the
zero point had shifted to below the actual indicating zero point of the instrument.
After re-zeroing the manometer in the new environment, airflow measurements were performed
again. The test results indicated that the airflow was within the acceptable limits of the TS, and
the LCO was exited.
6-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
Situation: The original task was to replace the adjustable sheaves on all six exhaust fans and two
supply fans with a fixed sheave assembly. The modification documents were prepared by design
engineering to accomplish this task. A maintenance contractor working with the licensee
discussed this modification with maintenance management and suggested that this modification
would be a candidate for using a timing belt arrangement with a cogged wheel in lieu of using
fixed sheaves.
Maintenance selected an arrangement for using a cogged wheel and a timing belt. This change
caused the fan speed to increase, and design engineering recalculated the resulting airflow as
~4% increase (which was within the ±10% tolerance of the airflow requirements of the system).
The modification was completed and the fans returned to service. After the fans were returned to
operation, the fan breakers tripped. It was determined that the originally 60-Hp (4.5-W) fan
motors had been rewound to provide 75 Hp (5.6 W); however, the electrical motor cables were
never replaced. A review of the cable design determined that it was adequate for 100-amp
service. The breaker setting was 105 amps. Because the breakers can take ~25% over the rating,
they were reset for 110 amps. This additional load was then given to the electrical engineering
department to revise the diesel loading calculation. However, the calculation determined that the
diesels could not support the increase in load.
The mechanical engineering department then determined that the inlet guide vanes (IGV) on the
fans could be throttled closed ~15% to decrease the load and still be able to maintain the proper
cable load and breaker set point. The airflow for the fans was measured and found to be too low
(~15% below the required amount). The airflow requirement was further reviewed to determine
if the lower airflows were sufficient for this application. New (75-Hp) fan motors were also
ordered for this application.
During this time, the fans operated for approximately five days when both the inboard and
outboard bearings failed. New bearings were ordered by maintenance without coordinating with
design engineering. After receipt, it was discovered that the bearings would not fit into the
bearing housing, which then had to be modified. A calculation also was required to ensure the
suitability of the new bearings for this application. During the final step, it was discovered that
the fan guard would not fit back over the new belts and bearings. A new fan guard was then
specified and procured.
6-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
Situation: This plant has four control room emergency ventilation system (CREVS) fans; each
fan is rated at 1000 ACFM and tested every 18 months to be within 900–1100 ACFM. Three of
the four CREVS fans have two sets of test ports in the fan suction ductwork: one at ground level
in a short section of duct between the filter heater and filter housing and one in a straight section
of duct in the overhead. The overhead test port location is not easily accessible; however, there
are many diameters of straight duct before and after the test ports. Both locations are 12-inch
(30.5-cm) round duct. Prior testing had been done using a hot-wire anemometer at the ground
level test ports. The next surveillance test was performed with an electronic air data multimeter
at the overhead test ports. The individual CREVS unit was declared inoperable as a result of a
flow measurement of 794 ACFM (the previous surveillance test had measured 917 ACFM). The
throttling valve on the fan suction was adjusted to increase the fan flow rate. Testing of the other
two units with test ports in straight duct resulted in similar out-of-specification low
measurements. A licensee event report (LER) was submitted. Test results showed that although
the two different instruments provided slightly different results, using the same instrument at the
two locations provided results differing by over 10%.
Situation: During a training class, an electronic micromanometer was used that had a temperature
probe for automatically converting velocity measurements to standard conditions (that is, flow
result was SCFM). Station personnel then purchased two electronic micromanometers of
different models by the same manufacturer. During system testing by two individuals, conflicting
flow results were obtained. One person did not use the temperature probe and instead used the
temperature correction calculation to convert the instrument reading to SCFM. The other person
used the temperature probe and assumed that the velocity reading was automatically converted to
standard conditions for SCFM results. Closer review of the instruction manuals determined that
using the temperature probe converts to actual conditions (that is, flow results in ACFM) and that
these models do not have the option for converting the velocity reading to standard conditions. If
the temperature probe is not used, the instrument reading must be converted by calculation to
either ACFM or SCFM results.
6-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
Situation: The station’s emergency core cooling system (ECCS) pump room exhaust air cleanup
3
system (PREACS) fans consist of two redundant standby fans, each rated at 36,000 ft /min. The
fan flow rate (fan inlet damper position) was controlled by suction vacuum. A plant modification
was performed, which changed the flow control method from a “suction vacuum” signal to a fan
“discharge flow” signal. The controls for each fan were modified and individually functionally
tested. Functional testing did not include simultaneous start of both fans. A few months later,
during emergency bus functional testing, both ECCS PREACS fans automatically started as
designed in response to a simulated safety injection signal—but then both fans tripped.
Investigation concluded that the fans had tripped when suction vacuum exceeded a trip point.
The high-suction vacuum trip had not been modified and was still required in the controls. When
fans were started individually, the trip point was not exceeded. A justification for continued
operation (JCO) was written, and controls were put in place to have the fans start at 18,000
3
ft /min (one-half the flow rate), with administrative controls to manually adjust one fan to full
flow if only one fan is available.
Six months later, during functional testing on a different emergency bus, both ECCS PREACS
fans automatically started as designed in response to a simulated safety injection signal, and then
both fans again tripped. Investigation concluded that the testing following the previous recovery
effort had not actually performed a complete system functional test, with dampers in the
unfiltered lineup. That testing had pre-positioned all of the affected dampers, and then manually
started the fans—both individually and simultaneously. An attempt was made to provide a time-
delay to allow for damper repositioning prior to fan start; however, this did not resolve the
problem. Extensive troubleshooting was performed, with round-the-clock engineering and
technician coverage for over two weeks as the system was studied and tested. System controls
were adjusted and modified, and the previous JCO and administrative controls were revised to
allow the system to be declared operable. Several plant modifications were initiated in order to
correct the design concerns.
Situation: Because of low airflow conditions in the auxiliary building ventilation (ABV) system,
a team of engineers from design, testing, and systems was assembled to troubleshoot the cause of
the low-flow condition. The team was divided into smaller teams as follows. Some were to
prepare the necessary documents to submit to the U.S. NRC to assure them that the plant could
be operated safely even though the airflow through the ABV system was lower than the
minimum specified in the TSs. Others prepared documents to realign the system for optimum
conditions, and still others reviewed drawings of the building and the system to determine other
possible corrective actions.
6-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Lessons Learned
One engineer was assigned the task of performing a system walkdown for proper damper
alignments. The result of the walkdown was the identification of a fire damper that was only
partially closed (it did not drop properly and hung up in mid-position). If the fire damper had
been completely closed, an alarm would have sounded in the control room. The reduced airflow
through that duct section caused higher airflow through another duct section that contained a
high-energy line break (HELB) damper. The HELB damper closed, as it should have with an
increase of more than 25% airflow through it. This closure caused the reduction in the overall
system airflow rate and is the reason that the TS airflow through the filters was inadequate
(below 10% of nominal flow). When the fire damper was repositioned, the HELB damper
reopened—and the system flow rate returned to normal.
6-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
7
REFERENCES
In-Text References
2. Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) 201-90, “Fans and Systems,” 1990.
6. Air Movement and Control Association (AMCA) 203-95, “Field Performance Measurement
of Fan Systems,” 1995.
10. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Part 20, “Standards
for Protection Against Radiation.”
11. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Regulatory Guide 1.52 dated March 1,1978, “Design,
Testing, and Maintenance Criteria for Post Accident Engineered Safety Feature Atmosphere
Cleanup System Air Filtration and Adsorption Units of Light-Water–Cooled Nuclear Power
Plants.” June 1973. (Revision 1, 1976; Revision 2, 1978; Revision 3, 2001).
7-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
References
12. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Part 100,
“Revocation, Suspension, and Modification of Licenses and Construction Permits for
Cause.”
13. Code of Federal Regulations, Title 10 Nuclear Regulatory Commission, Part 50, Appendix
A, “General Design Criteria for Nuclear Power Plants.”
17. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., IEEE 484, “Recommended Practice for
Installation Design and Installation of Vented Lead-Acid Batteries for Stationary
Applications,” 1996.
18. HVAC Fans and Dampers Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 1999. TR-112170.
19. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),
Chapter 18, HVAC Systems and Equipment Manual.
20. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE),
Chapter 41, Applications Manual.
21. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 90A, “Standard for the Installation of
Air Conditioning and Ventilating Systems,” 1999.
22. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard 181, “Factory-Made Air Ducts and Air
Connectors.”
23. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 91, “Standard for Exhaust Systems
for Air Conveying of Vapors, Gases, Mists, and Noncombustible Particulate Solids,” 1999.
24. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association (SMACNA), “HVAC
Duct Construction Standards – Metal and Flexible,” 1995.
25. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association (SMACNA),
“Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards,” 1980.
26. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), “Manual of Steel Construction,” 1989.
27. American International Supply, Inc. (AISI), “Cold Formed Steel Design Manual,” 1989.
28. USNRC Generic Letter 89-13, “Service Water System Problems Affecting Safety-Related
Equipment,” July 18, 1989.
7-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
References
29. American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) E 2029-99, “Standard Test Method for
Volumetric and Mass Flow Rate Measurement in a Duct Using Tracer Gas Dilution,” 1999.
30. American National Standards Institute/American Society for Heating, Refrigerating, and Air
Conditioning Engineers (ANSI/ASHRAE) 111-88, “Practices for Measurement, Testing,
Adjusting, and Balancing of Building Heating, Ventilation, Air Conditioning, and
Refrigeration Systems,” 1988.
Other References
Associated Air Balance Council (AABC), “Procedures for Testing, Adjusting and Balancing.”
Hydramotor Actuator Application and Maintenance Guide. EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2000.
TR-112181.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association (SMACNA), HVAC
Systems - Testing, Adjusting and Balancing. Second Edition, July 1993.
7-3
12732851
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
A
TYPES OF HVAC SYSTEMS
This appendix describes the various types of HVAC systems that are commonly installed in a
nuclear power plant. Much of the information contained in this appendix has been presented
generically in several industry-wide standards; ASHRAE “1999 Applications Handbook Chapter
25 – Nuclear Facilities” [8] provides additional information on HVAC system design.
There are two types of commercial nuclear power plants currently in operation in the United
States: the pressurized water reactor (PWR) and the boiling water reactor (BWR). The systems
described in this appendix are typical of these two types of nuclear power plants but are not
representative of any particular plant design. Furthermore, a system described here may be
applicable to one type of nuclear power plant and not to the other. As such, users should consult
their own plant-specific system design documents to determine system design parameters and
configurations. This appendix also provides an example of a typical nuclear HVAC process
airflow diagram.
These applications are common for the main plant areas and individual buildings (for example,
the radwaste building and the turbine building). The ventilation systems normally used in these
applications include large supply and exhaust fans. Heating coils are installed on the supply side.
In addition, the ventilation requirements consider the relative building pressure requirements
with respect to adjacent buildings and the outside atmosphere.
These systems are designed to provide cooling to essential components necessary for safe
shutdown or mitigation of an accident. The building exhaust and supply are sized to maintain the
building temperatures in a range that maximizes equipment life by keeping ambient temperatures
reasonably low (usually less than 104°F [40°C] for unoccupied spaces and less than 80°F [27°C]
for occupied spaces).
A-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
These systems may be in the form of a simple ventilation system, consisting of a supply and/or
exhaust fan; an area/room cooler; or cooling coils installed on the normal ventilation supply units
for the building. Equipment area/cooling systems are normally maintained in normal alignment
and are automatically actuated during an accident event. Other systems are used only during an
accident event, such as those used for cooling the diesel generator units, emergency service water
pumps, and ECCS/engineered safety feature (ESF) pump rooms. A room cooler consists of fan
coil units supplied by a safety-related cooling water source from either the plant service water or
an ESF chilled water system.
Ventilation systems may control the flow of potentially radioactive effluent by 1) maintaining
the building or area at a negative (or positive) pressure relative to adjacent buildings and the
outside atmosphere and/or 2) using a nuclear air cleanup unit.
The air cleanup unit usually consists of a demister, an electric heater, a prefilter, a high-
efficiency particulate-air (HEPA) filter, and a charcoal adsorber followed by a second HEPA
filter or a final filter. The non-safety-related units are used for filtering air from exhaust systems
prior to release into the atmosphere and may be governed by Regulatory Guide (RG) 1.140 [9].
This ensures that the plant maintains off-site radioactive releases within the limits required by
10CFR20 [10] for normal operations. These units are typically found on ventilation exhaust
systems within buildings housing radioactive or potentially radioactive materials. They may also
be found on vent headers, such as waste gas disposal or condenser vacuum exhaust.
The safety-related units are used for filtering air in the event of a design basis accident and may
be governed by RG 1.52 [11]. These units may be used for filtering exhaust air or for filtering
supply or recirculation air for habitability zones, such as the main control room and/or technical
support center (TSC). For exhaust units, the system is used for maintaining the associated
building pressure at a slight negative pressure, typically -0.25 inch w.g. (-63 Pa), to ensure that
all leakage is into the building and properly filtered prior to being exhausted. This ensures that
the off-site radioactive release is within the limits required by 10CFR100 [12] for accident
mitigation. The supply/recirculation filter unit is typically a component of the associated
habitability zone’s ventilation system. This system maintains the habitability zone at a slight
positive pressure, typically 0.125 inch w.g. (32 Pa), to ensure that all leakage is directed outward.
This ensures that the operator and TSC staff dose is maintained within the limits required by
10CFR50, Appendix A [13]. These safety-related systems are typically designed to ANSI N509
[14] or the AG-1 Code [15] and are tested in accordance with ASME N510 [16].
The buildings in which heating and cooling services are installed can also designate HVAC
systems at nuclear power plants.
A-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Upon detection of abnormal plant conditions (such as high radiation in the exhaust air path) or
upon loss of negative pressure, the normal HVAC system is deactivated and the reactor building
isolated. After it is isolated using fast-closing, low-leakage isolation dampers, the reactor
building serves as a secondary containment boundary. This boundary is designed to contain any
leakage from the primary containment or refueling area following an accident.
After the secondary containment is isolated, the standby gas treatment system (SGTS) is started
to draw down the secondary containment and maintain the building at a negative pressure
relative to the environment. The SGTS exhausts air from the secondary containment to the
environment through a safety-related filtration system. The capacity of the SGTS is based on the
amount of exhaust air needed to reduce the pressure in the secondary containment in about 120
seconds and maintain it at a negative pressure for the duration of the accident event. In addition
to the SGTS, some designs include safety-related recirculating air systems within the secondary
containment to mix, cool, and/or treat the air during accident conditions. These recirculation
systems use portions of the normal ventilation system ductwork.
Safe shutdown components are usually located in the secondary containment and, if the isolated
secondary containment area is not cooled during accident conditions, it is often necessary to
determine the maximum temperatures that could be reached during the accident event. All
safety-related components in the secondary containment must be environmentally qualified to
operate at these temperatures. In most plant designs, safety-related unit area/room coolers
provide the necessary cooling for the ECCS pumps.
A-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The following systems are typical for containment cooling in a PWR plant.
Reactor Containment Coolers - These units remove most of the heat load. Distribution of the
air supply depends on the containment layout and the location of the major heat sources.
Reactor Cavity AHUs or Fans - These units are usually transfer fans without coils that provide
cool air to the reactor cavity.
Control Rod or Control Element Drive Mechanism (CRDM or CEDM) AHUs - The CRDM
and CEDM are usually cooled by an induced-draft system using exhaust fans. Because the flow
rates, pressure drops, and heat loads are generally high, it is desirable to cool the air before it is
returned to the containment atmosphere.
Essential Reactor Containment Cooling Units - The containment air cooling system (or a part
of it) is normally designed to provide cooling after a postulated accident. The system is capable
of performing at high temperature, high pressure, high humidity, and a high level of
radioactivity. Cooling coils can be provided with chilled water and/or raw service water. System
design must accommodate both normal and accident conditions. The ductwork is designed to
endure the rapid pressure buildup associated with accident conditions. Fan motors are sized to
handle the high-density air associated with accident conditions.
This system usually consists of a supply and filtered exhaust system. At some plants, these
systems are licensed to operate continuously and at others, they are operated as needed for pre-
access into the containment.
Ventilation is required to control the level of airborne radioactivity during refueling operation.
Because the reactor is not under pressure during refueling, there are no restrictions on the size of
the penetrations through the containment boundary. Large openings of 42 to 48 inches (106 to
122 cm), each protected by double containment isolation valves, may be provided. The required
ventilation rate is typically based on one air change per hour. The system consists of a supply
AHU, double containment isolation valves at each supply and exhaust containment penetration,
and an exhaust fan. As a minimum, HEPA filtration is recommended.
A-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
steam at elevated temperatures to release hydrogen into the containment. Therefore, redundant
hydrogen recombiners are needed to remove the air from the containment atmosphere,
recombine the hydrogen with the oxygen, and return the air to the containment. The recombiners
may be backed up by special exhaust filtration trains.
The HVAC system in the turbine building typically provides both general ventilation and heat
removal. In a BWR plant, radioactive steam is directly supplied to the main turbine, and a leak in
the general area could cause a release of airborne radioactivity. Release of airborne radioactivity
is a possibility in turbine buildings, and thus the buildings are typically maintained at a negative
pressure. The exhaust air from the turbine building is exhausted to the environment using non-
safety-related filtration systems. Filtration requirements are based on the plant and site
configuration.
In a PWR plant, the air is typically exhausted to the outside without filtration, and no radiation
detection equipment is required.
The auxiliary building contains a large amount of support equipment, much of which handles
potentially radioactive material. The building is usually air conditioned for equipment protection,
and the exhaust air is filtered prior to its discharge into the environment to minimize the release
of radioactivity.
The HVAC system is a once-through ventilation system. Localized cooling systems (that is,
area/room coolers) augment the ventilation system as needed. The building is maintained at
negative pressure relative to the environment.
Sometimes, the normal and essential cooling functions may be provided by an area/room cooler
that has 1) normal and essential cooling coils and 2) a safety-related fan powered from a Class
1E bus. The normal coil is served by the normal chilled water system and the essential coil from
the ESF chilled water system or the plant service water system.
The control room HVAC system serves the control room habitability zone, that is, those spaces
that must be maintained habitable following a postulated accident to allow the orderly shutdown
of the reactor. The control room HVAC system performs the following functions:
• Controls the environmental conditions in the main control room
• Pressurizes or isolates the control room to prevent infiltration
• Reduces the radioactivity level in the room
• Protects the area from hazardous chemical fume intrusion
• Protects the area from noxious fumes, such as smoke from surrounding or outside areas
A-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
These rooms house the electrical switchgear that operates essential or safety-related equipment.
The switchgear rooms are usually cooled in order to ensure that useful life of the electrical
component in the room is maintained and to prevent the loss of power circuits as a result of
temperature-related problems.
These rooms are located directly above and/or directly below the main control room. They may
be cooled by the same AHUs that serve the switchgear rooms or the main control room or
independently cooled and/or ventilated with a dedicated system.
The diesel generator building is usually ventilated with 100% outside air. The ventilation system
consists of a combination of a supply fan and an exhaust fan or one of the two fans with exhaust
or inlet louvers.
Batteries produce the necessary dc control power for use during loss of off-site power. In safety-
related systems, battery rooms are normally maintained in standby status. Batteries generate
hydrogen during charging and are temperature dependent for prolonging service life or
maintaining adequate capacity. Different types of batteries are available, and the optimum
temperature for all batteries is 77°F (25°C) for maintaining service life and capacity. Older plants
may not meet this temperature requirement because the battery room may be ventilated simply to
control the amount of hydrogen. In these cases, the minimum room design temperature should be
factored into the capacity sizing of the batteries. Higher room temperatures should be considered
in evaluating the service life of the batteries and determining the hydrogen evolution rate. The
exhaust system is designed to limit the hydrogen concentration to about 2% of the room volume
or the lowest of the levels specified by IEEE 484 [17], Occupational Safety and Health
Association (OSHA), and the lower explosive limit (LEL). If the ventilation rate is not
determined based on the hydrogen generation rate, it can be established at a minimum rate of one
air change per hour.
New and spent fuel is stored in the fuel-handling building. The building is air conditioned for
equipment protection and ventilated with a once-through air system to control airborne
radioactivity. Normally, the level of airborne radioactivity is so low that the normal exhaust may
not be filtered, although it is typically monitored. If significant airborne radioactivity is detected,
the building is isolated and a safety-related exhaust system activated to maintain the area at a
negative pressure.
A-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
For nuclear power plants, this area usually includes decontamination facilities, laboratories, and
medical treatment rooms.
Cooling water pumps are protected by houses that are often ventilated by fans to remove the heat
from the pump motors. If the pumps are essential or safety-related, the ventilation equipment is
also classified as safety-related.
Radioactive waste other than spent fuel is stored, shredded, baled, or packaged for disposal in
this building. The building is air conditioned for equipment protection and ventilated to control
potential airborne radioactivity. The air may require filtration through HEPA filters and/or
carbon adsorbers prior to release to the atmosphere.
The TSC is a facility located close to or within the control room complex and is designed for use
by plant management and technical support personnel to provide assistance to control room
operators during accident conditions.
In case of an accident, the TSC HVAC system must provide the same comfort and radiological
habitability conditions maintained in the control room. The system is generally designed to
commercial HVAC standards. An outside air filtration system (composed of HEPA-charcoal-
HEPA) pressurizes the facility with filtered outside air during emergency conditions. The TSC
HVAC system is not typically designed to safety-related standards.
Two types of water systems are commonly used in HVAC systems for temperature control: the
hot water heating system and the chilled water cooling system.
For a hot water system, a hot water or a steam boiler is used as the heat source. If a steam boiler
is used as the heat source, a steam-to-water heat exchanger is used to generate hot water. For a
chilled water system, a water chiller is used as the cooling source. The chiller may be air-cooled
or water-cooled. In the case of a water-cooled system, a condenser water system is used to reject
chiller condenser heat.
A-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
where:
500 is a constant, based on the specific heat and density of the water
A.3.3 Hot and Chilled Water Systems with Ethylene or Propylene Glycol
The user should be aware that the addition of glycol in the system affects the selection criteria of
the heat transfer source (that is, chiller or boiler), the size of the cooling or heating coils, the
performance of the recirculating water pump, and the pressure loss in the piping system. For
example, a 20% glycol/80% water mixture in a heating or cooling system reduces the heat
transfer capacity by as much as 10% and the pump efficiency by about 5% and increases the
system pressure drop by about 25% at 50°F (10°C).
A-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The constant of 500 used in the flow rate calculation needs to be corrected for systems with
glycol because the amount of glycol in the system affects the heat transfer rate.
where:
The condenser water system consists of a water-cooled chiller, a recirculating water pump, and
an open- or closed-loop heat sink. Often a heat sink is used to reject the compression heat of a
chiller. The condenser water flow is sized based on the chiller selection, and the chiller
manufacturer usually furnishes the condenser water flow rate.
Raw water or service water may be used as a source of cooling water in heat exchangers installed
in HVAC systems.
The following equations are provided to assist the user when determining coil performance,
ensuring that temperature and pressure corrections are made as needed:
Total heat load, q (Btu/h) = 4.5 x Airflow (ft 3/min) x ∆h (change in air enthalpy)
Sensible heat load, q (Btu/h) = 1.1 x Airflow (ft 3/min) x ∆T (change in air temperature)
Latent heat load, q (Btu/h) = 4840 x Airflow (ft 3/min) x ∆W (change in air humidity
ratio)
Figure A-1 illustrates a typical HVAC system diagram. It is provided for illustrative purposes
only and should not be used to perform plant-specific evaluations or analyses.
A-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure A-1
Turbine Room Ventilation One-Line Diagram
A-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
B
TYPES OF HVAC EQUIPMENT
The information provided in Sections B.1 and B.2 is extracted from EPRI TR-112170, HVAC
Fans and Dampers Maintenance Guide [18]. TR-112170 [18] provides additional information on
fan and motor condition assessment as well as fan and damper maintenance issues and
recommendations.
B.1 Fans
The primary mechanical component in a ventilation system is the fan. Some industrial
applications require fans to move not only air, but also dispersed quantities of solid materials. In
nuclear power plant applications, fan systems are typically designed for “clean-air” service. This
allows the system designer to select from almost any of the basic fan types. Table 18.2 of
ASHRAE “HVAC Systems and Equipment Manual” [19] describes the essential characteristics
of various fan types.
A suitable type of fan can be selected so that the conditions and requirements unique to a given
application can usually be accommodated. Four types of fans are available for selection by the
designer:
• Centrifugal
• Axial
• Propeller
• Tubular centrifugal
Regardless of the type of fan, performance and selection criteria are described by the airflow
quantity and developed pressure. For a given fan speed and size, the airflow quantity delivered is
directly related to the pressure loss imparted between the fan inlet and outlet. These performance
parameters are plotted on a graph and result in a curve that describes the amount of flow that fans
can deliver at a given pressure (see Figure B-1). Additional information available on typical fan
curves can include required horsepower and efficiency throughout the operational range of flows
and pressures described by the curve.
B-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-1
Typical Fan Performance Curve (Courtesy of AMCA 201-90)
In addition to methods directly related to the fan, dampers in ducted systems can also be adjusted
to effectively increase or decrease flow within the limits of the fan curve. This adjustment can be
accomplished automatically or manually. Many ducted systems incorporate flow sensing devices
that provide a control signal to a damper actuator that adjusts damper position as required to
deliver the desired flow. In addition, manual balancing dampers are positioned to establish the
initial system flow conditions and are adjusted as necessary to selectively deliver flow to the
various areas served by the ducted fan system. In either case, damper adjustments alter the
system’s pressure characteristics, defining the operational point on the fan curve.
B-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Ventilation systems most frequently include ductwork to distribute and direct airflow throughout
the desired spaces and areas that they serve. Ducted systems also provide the designer with
additional flow control options because the systems accommodate modulating or manual
balancing dampers. System design should include an evaluation of the length of straight duct
sections connected directly to the discharge of the fan. If insufficient straight duct is installed on
the fan’s discharge, performance is compromised because of the additional pressure losses
imparted. This system effect results from the flow profile at various distances from the discharge
of each type of fan (see Figure B-2). For axial fans, the minimum effective duct length is
determined by the fan diameter and the resulting air velocity at design flow. For centrifugal fans,
the minimum effective duct length is determined by the ratio of blast area and outlet area in
conjunction with the orientation of the first fitting attached to the straight duct. The longer the
straight section attached to the fan discharge, the less the resulting pressure loss. For proper
application of SEFs to a specific ducted configuration, see AMCA 201-90 [2].
Figure B-2
Fan Outlet Velocity Profiles (Courtesy of AMCA 201-90)
B-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Although nuclear power plant facilities have large equipment rooms and service areas, the
primary ventilation system fans are typically large and, therefore, require long straight discharge
ducts to minimize system effect pressure loss and maximize performance. This requirement is
frequently difficult to accommodate, resulting in flow patterns that tax the prescribed capabilities
of the specified fan.
Un-ducted ventilation systems (for example, wall-mounted propeller fans and roof-mounted
propeller or centrifugal fans) are used in applications designed to transfer air between two
spaces.
Centrifugal fans are the most widely used because of their efficiency in moving both large and
small quantities of air over a wide pressure range (see Figures B-3 and B-4a). The fan operates
by using a rotating impeller mounted inside of a scroll-type housing to impart energy to the air.
For a given set of performance requirements (such as airflow quantity and developed pressure),
centrifugal fans are typically larger than their vaneaxial counterparts. Flexibility in performance
characteristics can be achieved in part by selecting from the available impeller styles. The
impeller blades can be forward curved, backward curved, airfoil, or radial. For greatest
efficiency, backward curved airfoil-shaped blades are usually preferred. Some space saving
might be realized with forward curved impeller wheel design. Standard configurations also
include single- or double-width impellers and inlets. There is one drawback to a double-width,
dual-inlet centrifugal fan. In dual-inlet systems with inlet vane damper control, potential
implications exist for bearing damage if one of the inlet dampers fails to open or close. In this
case, with one inlet damper open and the other closed, there is an unbalanced force on the
impeller of the fan. This will cause excess thrust wear on the impeller bearings. This thrust wear
can limit bearing life and result in unnecessary maintenance or equipment unavailability if the
problem goes unresolved. The consequences of this maintenance issue are normally taken into
consideration during the design of the system.
Available drive types include direct and belt drive. Airflow quantity delivered by centrifugal fans
can be adjusted by means of inlet vanes positioned in line with the air inlet. By adjusting the
position of these vanes (partially open and closed), pressure loss is imparted to the airstream,
altering the operating point on the fan head-flow curve. As pressure is induced to the airstream
by the inlet vanes, flow decreases as described by the fan curve (see Figure B-1). The speed of
the impeller wheel can also be altered on belt-driven fans by changing the sheave sizes. This
alters the speed of the wheel and, therefore, the performance characteristics of the fan. The
maximum impeller speed is limited by design and should not be exceeded. However, with this
type of alteration, the fan produces new flow and pressure characteristics and operates at flow
and pressure conditions different from those described by the original fan curve. As can be seen
in Figure B-3, the discharge of a centrifugal fan can be slightly obstructed by the lip of the scroll
housing. The reduced cross-sectional area of the discharge that results from this obstruction is
called the blast area and is considered when determining the configuration of ductwork attached
to the discharge of a centrifugal fan.
B-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-3
Terminology for Centrifugal Fan Components (Courtesy of AMCA 201-90)
In general, fans in the axial flow category tend to be smaller and less expensive than a centrifugal
fan with comparable capacity. However, a unique characteristic of an axial fan is an increased
level of noise. Silencers can be installed to compensate for this effect; however, an additional
resistance is imparted to the system with this device. In this fan, as in all axial flow fans, air
flows parallel to the fan shaft. Additionally, the fan hub and propeller blades are placed within a
cylindrical housing. Guide vanes are used before and/or after the blades to reduce airstream
rotation. The hub ratio in these types of fans is typically high, with fairly large hub diameters.
The blades extend radially from the hub outward toward the housing, with the blade tips in fairly
close tolerance with the inside of the housing surface. Flow in axial fans can be controlled by
B-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
adjusting the pitch of the blades. Stamped marks are provided on the blade shafts, which can be
rotated to produce different performance characteristics. In addition, templates can be obtained
from the fan manufacturer that result in more accurate positioning of the blades. As with
centrifugal fans, axial fans can be configured with either direct or belt drives. For belt drives,
sheave sizes can be changed to alter the fan’s performance characteristics. Table B-1 provides a
general characterization of fan types; Figure B-4 presents commonly used terminology for axial
and tubular centrifugal fans.
Table B-1
General Fan Attributes
B-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-4
Terminology for Axial and Tubular Centrifugal Fans (Courtesy of AMCA 201-90)
B-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
B-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
B.2 Dampers
Dampers are used in ventilation systems to control environment pressures, temperatures, and
flow rates. The types of dampers that are most commonly used in the nuclear industry are the
isolation, control, backdraft, and fire damper. Dampers can be constructed with parallel or
opposed blades, which can be flat or airfoil-shaped. Parallel blade dampers are better suited for
isolation applications because of the undesirable flow pattern through the blades at partially open
positions. Either type of damper will benefit from an airfoil blade design, which will improve
performance of the system by reducing pressure loss associated with an open damper blade
obstructing the airstream.
B-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Parallel blade dampers are generally more rugged, less expensive, and simpler in design than
opposed blade dampers. Parallel blade dampers should not be used in modulating applications
because of their nonlinear flow characteristics (differences are described in detail in ASHRAE
“Applications Manual” [20]). The flow characteristics of an opposed blade damper are more
linear than those of parallel blade dampers.
A further specialized type of isolation damper is the “bubble tight” damper. The bubble tight
damper provides the optimum effectiveness in airflow isolation between spaces. Whereas most
isolation dampers are rated for various amounts of leakage (based on the area of the damper),
bubble tight dampers can provide zero leakage at reasonable differential pressures. These
dampers often resemble valves in appearance and bulk, with a single blade providing a positive
seal. A heavy-duty actuator that will produce sufficient closing torque to the sealing surfaces is
also required. The cost of these dampers is high, and enhanced structural support is often
required.
Control dampers are used to balance ventilation system flow rates and pressures. Control
dampers include two-position and modulating dampers. Specialty isolation dampers used in the
nuclear industry vary in design while most control dampers are either parallel blade or opposed
blade. The control damper can be operated automatically (using an actuator) to modulate the
damper and to allow an appropriate amount of airflow to achieve the desired operating parameter
(that is, flow rate or temperature). As in the isolation damper, the actuator can be driven by
pressurized air, an electric motor, or a motor-hydraulic unit (that is, electrohydraulic). The
damper can also be operated manually and secured at the desired position based on similar
operating conditions. The control flexibility of a manual damper is limited because it is set
infrequently, usually during a system balance. Opposed blade configurations are normally the
preferred option because these dampers are usually positioned at some point between fully open
and fully closed. This positioning eliminates the directionally deflected downstream flow
characteristic of the parallel blade damper. In addition, the flow characteristics of an opposed
blade damper are more linear than those of parallel blade dampers.
Most ventilation systems include manual balancing dampers. These dampers are usually
manipulated only during the initial terminal air balance or subsequent balance verification
efforts. The following are the four primary types of manual balancing dampers:
• Terminal opposed blade dampers (OBDs or TOBs) are part of the supply, return, or exhaust
termination device. These termination devices are commonly called diffusers, grilles, outlets,
or registers; however, each has a specific function-related definition.
• Duct restricting volume dampers, usually referred to simply as volume dampers, can be 1)
single or multiple blade and 2) parallel or opposed blade. These dampers are designed to
restrict the flow through the duct by reducing the free area (see Figure B-5).
B-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
• Splitter dampers are installed at duct branch fittings or “Y” fittings. These dampers are
usually made from a single sheet of metal hinged at the neck of the fitting, with one or more
adjusting rods at the movable end. The dampers control the flow through the branch duct by
controlling the effective cross-section of the branch and main duct.
• Scoop dampers are similar to splitter dampers but are used only with supply air outlets that
are installed on the main supply or trunk ducts. These dampers can be constructed from a
single sheet or multiple curved blades attached to rails. The damper movable end is extended
into the airstream to direct the required airflow out of the outlet.
B-11
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-5
Multiblade Volume Dampers (Courtesy of SMACNA)
B-12
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
In some applications, dampers are added at the inlet of a fan. In many cases, this is done to
control the fan’s output characteristics or inlet swirl of the flow. In other cases, it is done to
control other system characteristics, such as system resistance. These inlet vane dampers often
have radially mounted blades. The movement of the blades can be used to induce variable
direction swirl or to reduce flow to a fan, which will affect the operating point on the fan curve.
Inlet vane dampers with fixed vanes are called inlet guide vanes (IGVs). IGVs are used to
enhance the performance characteristics of a fan. The need for IGVs is determined during the
design of a particular system. IGVs are often used with axial flow fans and compressors. They
provide direction to the flow before it enters the rotating blades.
Inlet vane dampers and IGVs should be maintained similarly to the other dampers and turning
vanes. For variable vane dampers, the seals should be inspected to ensure that no damage has
occurred and that the seal is sufficiently leak tight. The dampers should be inspected to ensure
that no debris is or could be caught in them. Debris in the dampers or ductwork could get caught
in the fan, causing damage. The dampers should be operated at a reasonable frequency, both
manually and with any associated actuators. This operation will allow for the identification of
any inappropriate wear or mechanism damage. Finally, the components of the damper and the
actuator should be visually inspected for signs of wear and/or damage.
In dual inlet systems with inlet vane damper control, potential implications exist for bearing
damage if one of the inlet dampers fails to open or close. In this case, with one inlet damper open
and the other closed, there is an unbalanced force on the impeller of the fan. This unbalanced
force will cause excess thrust wear on the impeller bearings, illustrating the importance of proper
inspection of these dampers.
Backdraft dampers are used to allow the flow of air in one direction only. They also prevent
backflow through nonoperating fans. This type of damper is useful in preventing the spread of
contamination during times of unwanted reverse airflow (which could occur when a ventilation
system is intentionally or unintentionally shut down). The backdraft damper is designed so that
the damper blades will open when there is a differential pressure across the damper in the correct
airflow direction. The damper blade linkage might have counterweights attached so that only a
small differential pressure will force open the damper. If the differential pressure across the
damper is eliminated or if a reverse differential pressure is created, the damper will close—
preventing the flow of air in the reverse direction. There are drawbacks to backdraft dampers,
however. There is an increased head loss associated with forcing the damper open and, because
of the relatively small differential pressure that is needed to manipulate the damper, friction
losses can alter the damper performance and even prevent its operation.
B-13
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Fire protection dampers are used to mitigate the spread of fire from one location to another by
providing a barrier between areas that would otherwise share a pathway through which a fire
could spread. As with many large commercial structures, nuclear plants have partitions, floors,
and ceilings capable of confining a fire to a given area for some specified time. When an air duct
passes through one of these fire barriers, a fire damper is generally required. Some of these
dampers are held open by fusible links, and others are actuated by smoke detectors or similar
devices.
Smoke dampers are used to control the spread of smoke through a ventilation system. These
dampers might have actuators or be self-actuated and activated in a manner similar to fire
dampers. Although fire dampers are rated by hours of fire resistance, smoke dampers are rated
by leakage at pressure.
B.2.1.7 Louvers
Louvers are bladed assemblies designed for installation at interfaces between HVAC systems
and the outdoors. Louvers prevent weather (that is, precipitation) and large airborne objects (for
example, birds and leaves) from entering the system. Adjustable louvers operate like parallel
blade dampers; however, they do not travel 90 degrees to full-open—rather, travel is limited to
ensure that a downward-sloped surface is presented to the outside of the building. Depending on
climate, louvers might be required to isolate freeze-sensitive components (that is, steam coils or
chilled water coils) from freezing temperatures when the ventilation system is not operating.
Damper actuators are used to control the position of the dampers based on given input signals.
These actuators could modulate the damper to any number of positions, or they could control the
damper to only the open or closed positions. The input signals are typically sent from a controller
that monitors specific parameters. When a monitored parameter travels outside of a specified
range, the controller sends a signal to the actuator, which then adjusts the damper to bring the
parameter back into the specified range. The typical monitored parameters are temperature, flow
rate, and pressure. Actuators primarily used in the nuclear power industry are the electric,
electrohydraulic, and pneumatic. The electric actuator is a motor connected to the damper and
uses gears to adjust the damper. The electrohydraulic actuator uses a motor to pressurize a
hydraulic system. The input signals are sent to the hydraulic system that controls the position of
a piston, connected to the damper linkage. The pneumatic actuator uses pressurized air and a
manifold to control the damper position. Pneumatic actuators are typically pneumatic piston
actuators. Compressed air acts on a flexible diaphragm to position a shaft connected to the
damper.
B-14
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Air heating and cooling coils are used to heat or cool the air under forced convection. The total
coil surface may consist of a single coil section or several coil sections assembled into a bank.
The coils described in this section apply primarily to comfort heating and cooling for personnel
and equipment.
Steam coils can be categorized as basic steam, steam distributing, or face-and-bypass. Basic
steam coils generally have smooth tubes with fins on the airside. The steam supply connection is
at one end, and the tubes are pitched toward the condensate return, which is usually at the
opposite end. Steam distributing coils most often incorporate perforated inner tubes that
distribute steam evenly along the entire coil. The perforations perform like small steam ejector
jets that, when angle positioned in the inner tube, assist in removing condensate from inside the
outer tube. Face-and-bypass steam coils have short sections of steam coils separated by air
bypass openings. Airflow through the coil section or the bypass section is controlled by coil-and-
bypass dampers that are linked together. As a freeze protection measure, large installations use
face-and-bypass steam coils with vertical tubes.
Normal temperature hot water heating coils can be categorized as booster coils or standard
heating coils. Booster coils (duct-mounted or reheat) are commonly found in variable air volume
systems. Standard heating coils are used in run-around systems, makeup air units, and heating
and ventilation systems. Most use the standard construction materials of copper tube and
aluminum fins.
Fin and tube coils for cooling and dehumidifying air are made in two general classes: direct
expansion and chilled water.
Direct expansion (DX) coils, as illustrated in Figure B-6, are commonly used in air conditioning
refrigeration applications as well as many types of commercial refrigeration systems. To be
cooled or dehumidified, air is circulated through the finned surface. In these coils, refrigerant
evaporates inside the tubes, while air flows over the fins. Multiple rows and various tube patterns
are used to achieve the desired heat transfer from the air to the circulating refrigerant. Copper
tubes with copper or aluminum fins are most commonly used for efficient heat transfer.
B-15
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-6
DX Coil (Courtesy of RAE Corporation)
Air conditioning systems need to operate efficiently at maximum design loads and partial load
conditions. Many types of system capacity controls are used to match the load requirement with
system capacity. With refrigerant evaporator coils, this generally takes place in the form of
surface reduction and/or one of the following:
• Single circuit
• Face split circuits
• Row split circuits
• Intertwined circuits
VAV systems use buildup coil banks or large AHUs with one refrigeration system. To balance
system-capacity-to-load requirements, some form of face or row control is required. During the
time of reduced capacity, it is imperative to maintain a fully active dehumidification process at
the heat transfer coil. This is best accomplished by row control on standard DX coils or by use of
“intertwined” refrigerant circuits. Row control is used for partial load surface balance.
Whichever circuit is deactivated first results in full-face area operation of the remaining circuit,
keeping the full volume of air in contact with active coil surfaces.
In this type of coil, chilled water or brine circulates through the tubes to the coil, and air flows
over the fins attached to the outside surface of the tubes. In most coils that use water as the
cooling medium, the flow of water and air through the coil is in the opposite direction of each
other. Such an arrangement is known as counterflow. Parallel flow, in which the water and air
flow through the coil in the same direction, is seldom used in commercial applications because of
the additional surface required for a given set of conditions. In the counterflow design, the cold
water enters the coil where the coldest air is leaving the coil. In parallel flow, the cold water
enters the coil at the end the warm air is entering.
B-16
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Inlet water connections to chilled water cooling coils are usually made at the bottom tapping so
that the water flow is up through the coil and out the top tapping. There are two reasons for
connecting water coils in this manner. First, all of the air in the coil will be pushed ahead of the
water and accumulate in the top part of the coil, where it can be vented easily. Second, the coil
will remain completely filled with chilled water even though the control valve is closed.
B.4 Filters
HVAC filtration systems can be designed to remove either radioactive particles and/or
radioactive gaseous iodine from the airstream. These systems filter potentially contaminated
exhaust air prior to discharge to the environment and may also filter potentially contaminated
makeup air for power plant control rooms and TSCs.
The composition of the filter train is dictated by the type and concentration of the contaminant,
the process air conditions, and the filtration levels required by the applicable regulations (for
example, RG 1.52 [11], RG 1.140 [9], ASME AG-1 [15], ASME N509 [14], 10CFR20 [10], and
10CFR100 [12] [for the United States]). Filter trains may consist of one or more of the following
components: prefilters, HEPA filters, charcoal filters (adsorbers), sand filters, heaters, and
demisters.
B-17
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Electric heating coils and/or demisters may be used to meet the RH conditions required for
charcoal filters. For safety-class systems, electric heating coils should be connected to the
emergency power supply. Interlocks should be provided to prevent heater operation when the
exhaust fan is de-energized.
Demisters (mist eliminators) are required to protect HEPA and charcoal filters if entrained
moisture droplets are expected in the airstream. Demisters should be fire resistant.
Air terminals are the most noise-sensitive of all HVAC products because they are almost always
mounted in or directly over occupied spaces. They usually determine the residual background
noise level from 125 to 2,000 Hz. The term air terminals has historically been used to describe a
number of devices that control airflows into occupied spaces at the zone (or individual
temperature control area) level. There are two types: those that control the amount of airflow to a
temperature zone (air control units [ACUs] or, more commonly, boxes) and those that distribute
or collect the flow of air (grilles, registers, and diffusers [GRDs]). On some occasions, the two
functions are combined. Because these two elements are both the final components in many
built-up air delivery systems and the components closest to the building occupants, both
elements are critical components in the acoustical design of a space. A critical interplay also
exists between acoustics and the primary function of these devices, providing a proper quantity
of well-mixed air to the building occupants.
B-18
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Diffusers are commonly specified and reported in noise criteria (NC), rather than room criteria
(RC). In most cases, there is no difference between NC and RC for diffusers because they
usually peak in the 500–2,000 Hz region, and the resultant numerical specification is the same
for both NC and RC.
Different types of terminal devices and physical configurations are described in Sections B.5.1
through B.5.9.
B.5.1 Single-Duct
This basic terminal consists of casing, a damper, a damper actuator, and associated controls. In
response to control signals from a thermostat or other source, the terminal varies the airflow
through a single-duct handling hot or cold air (see Figure B-7). In some applications, the same
terminal is used for both heating and cooling; a dual-function thermostat, together with the
necessary changeover circuitry, makes this possible. Controls can be pneumatic, electric, analog-
electronic, or direct digital electronic. Accessories such as round outlets, multiple outlets, and
sound attenuators may be added. The single-duct terminal is most often used in an interior zone
of the building for cooling only.
Figure B-7
Single-Duct Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
Essentially the same as two single-duct terminals side-by-side, this terminal modulates the flow
of hot and cold air in two separate streams supplied by a dual-duct central AHU (see Figure B-8).
Because there is no provision for mixing the two airstreams, this terminal should not be used for
simultaneous heating and cooling, which would result in stratification in the discharge duct.
(When stratification occurs, the several outlets served by the terminal may deliver air at
noticeably different temperatures.) The nonmixing dual-duct terminal is best used in an exterior
zone, in which zero-to-low airflow can be tolerated as the temperature requirement shifts from
cooling to heating.
B-19
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-8
Dual-Duct, Nonmixing Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
Here the terminal is designed specifically for mixing hot (or tempered ventilation) and cold air in
any proportion (see Figure B-9). When the terminal is equipped with pneumatic controls, there is
a velocity sensor in the hot air inlet but none in the cold air inlet. A velocity sensor at the
discharge measures the total flow of air and sends the signal to the cold air controller. In the
mixing cycle, the hot airflow changes first, and a change in cold airflow follows in order to
maintain a constant total (mixed) volume. When equipped with direct digital controls (DDCs),
both hot and cold inlets have velocity sensors, with the summation of flows computed by the
microprocessor. No discharge velocity sensor is used. This dual-duct terminal is often used in an
exterior zone of a building or to ensure proper ventilation rates.
Figure B-9
Dual-Duct, Mixing Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
Figure B-10 shows a single-duct terminal with a heating coil (either the hot water or the electric
type) added. The hot water coil is usually modulated by a proportioning valve controlled by the
same thermostat that controls the terminal. Control for the electric coil is either 100% on/off or
in steps of capacity, energized by contactors in response to the room thermostat working through
a multiple-step relay. The single-duct terminal with heating coil is most often used in an exterior
zone with moderate heating requirements because the terminal normally handles its minimum
cubic feet per minute in the heating mode. A dual minimum cubic feet per minute or “flip-flop”
control can be added for increased heating airflow.
B-20
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-10
Single-Duct with Heating Coil Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
Figure B-11 illustrates a fan-powered, variable volume, parallel terminal. In this terminal, a fan
is added to recirculate plenum air for heating only. The heating cycle occurs generally when the
primary air is off or at minimum flow. Heat is picked up as the recirculated air is drawn from the
ceiling space and the fan motor. Additional heat can be provided by a hot water or electric coil
on the terminal. Because the fan handles only the heating airflow (which is usually less than that
for cooling), the fan can be sized smaller than in the series flow terminal. During the cooling
cycle, the fan is off, and cool primary air is supplied from the central system. A backdraft
damper prevents reverse flow through the fan. The flow of the primary air is regulated by
variable air volume controls. This type of terminal is used in exterior zones.
Figure B-11
Fan-Powered, Variable Volume, Parallel Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
Figure B-12 illustrates a fan-powered, constant volume, series terminal. The fan runs
continuously, fed by a mixture of primary and plenum air. The more primary air is forced in, the
less plenum air is drawn in. The result is variable volume from the central system and constant
volume (and sound) to the room. Because the central system needs only to deliver air as far as
the fan, the inlet static pressure can be lower than in the parallel flow terminal. The fan, however,
is sized to handle the total airflow. These terminals are often used in applications where constant
background sound and continuous airflow are desired.
B-21
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-12
Fan-Powered, Constant Volume Series Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
The fan terminal, with its inherent mixing, is well suited to handle the very cold air delivered by
systems designed for air much colder than with conventional 55°F (13°C) supply systems. In
order to use standard diffusers, the primary air must be raised to a conventional supply
temperature before it enters the room. A common solution is to mix the primary air with
recirculated air with a fan-powered terminal. Although the most common application uses a
series flow unit, many applications have been used with parallel units with a constantly running
fan. The low-temperature terminal has a special casing and insulation.
This constant volume terminal uses special design and construction features that provide
unusually quiet operation (see Figure B-13). The primary air section is enclosed in a sound-
attenuating chamber. Instead of the usual primary air butterfly damper, there is a specially
designed damper assembly mounted in the primary air section enclosure. This air valve reduces
noise-producing turbulence. Other quiet performance features are a more rigid casing, special
baffling, and a fan specially selected for low noise levels. Terminals of this type are used in
broadcast studios, libraries, and other applications where a minimum-noise, premium-quality
terminal is required.
Figure B-13
Fan-Powered, Quiet Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
B-22
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-14 illustrates a fan-powered, low-profile terminal. This constant or variable volume
terminal has a vertical dimension of only 10.5 inches (27 cm) for all sizes in order to minimize
the depth of ceiling space required. Often the recirculating fan is laid flat on its side with its shaft
vertical. In localities where building heights are limited, the low-profile terminal saves enough
space to allow extra floors to be included in a high-rise structure. Ceiling space can be as little as
12–14 inches (30.4–35.5 cm) deep. The low-profile terminal is also useful in buildings
constructed with precast concrete channel floors. The terminal can fit into the channel space with
no extra depth required.
Figure B-14
Fan-Powered, Low-Profile Configuration (Courtesy of Titus, Inc.)
B.6 Ductwork
B.6.1 General
Ducts are the means by which air is transported from the fan to the terminal devices. Ducts are
available in numerous configurations but most commonly have rectangular, circular, or oval
cross-sectional configurations, are constructed of single or double walls, and can vary in the
degree of allowable leakage (airtightness). Typical materials used to fabricate ducts are
galvanized, galvaneal, aluminized steel, stainless steel, fiberglass, PVC-coated, brass, copper,
and bronze.
B-23
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
The following duct fittings are most commonly employed in a commercial or industrial
application:
• Crosses – conical, lateral, with or without reducers
• Elbows – stamped, standing seam, or welded gore
• Laterals – with or without reducers
• Offsets
• Reducers – concentric or eccentric
• Saddles – 90° conical saddle, 90° saddle, or 45° saddle
• Takeoffs – 90° shoe takeoff or register box takeoff
• Tees – bull-nose, conical with or without reducers, 90° tee with or without reducer
• Wye branches
Section SA-4500 of ASME AG-1 [15] provides pressure boundary leakage guidance. The
section references a nonmandatory Appendix SA-B, which describes procedures to determine
allowable leakage for ductwork.
The referenced Appendix SA-B provides additional guidance on determining the allowable
leakage for air cleaning, air conditioning, and ventilation systems. This guidance can be used to
determine duct construction, installation, and test requirements. The appendix presents a method
for determining allowable leakage based on health physics requirements (such as the
radioactivity concentration, the maximum permissible concentration, and the iodine protection
factor) and provides typical sample problems. Optional guidance is also provided for
determining alternate leakage criteria based on air cleaning and air cooling system effectiveness
and expected system installation qualities.
For normal plant operating conditions, 10CFR20 [10] sets limits on the airborne radioactive
material concentrations in areas of nuclear facilities in which plant personnel may be present.
These limits are given by 10CFR20, Appendix B, Table 1. Section B-1200 of Appendix SA-B
provides procedures for determining the maximum duct out-leakage based on the maximum
permissible concentration (MPC) as determined by 10CFR20.103, paragraphs a and b. Under
accident conditions, 10CFR100 [12] establishes the limits for airborne radioactive material.
B-24
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Additional leakage criteria may be developed to meet plant-specific ALARA criteria. Additional
criteria may take the form of specifying air cleaning system effectiveness or system quality
parameters. It is recommend that the basis for any additional criteria be documented to allow the
future evaluation of test data. The following examples of criteria, which have been previously
established in industry standards, are identified in Section B 1300 of Appendix SA-B:
• Air cleaning system effectiveness
• Air cooling effectiveness
• System quality
An air cleaning system can be defined schematically in terms of three spaces and two
components. The three spaces may be either exterior or interior and are 1) the contaminated
space, 2) the protected space, and 3) the interspace. The interspace may be contaminated or clean
in relation to the air cleaning system located within the interspace. The two components are the
fan and the air cleaning unit. The three spaces represent the possible locations for different parts
of the air cleaning system. The contaminated and protected spaces also include the points of
system origin and termination, respectively. The interspace refers to all other spaces—
contaminated or clean—where the air cleaning system or its parts may be located.
Section B 1400 of Appendix SA-B defines leakage classes. Leakage Class II indicates that,
because of system configuration and location, a higher leakage rate may be allowable. Leakage
Class I indicates that a more stringent leakage rate is required.
B.6.3.1 Materials
For commercial materials, National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Standard 90A [21] is
used as a guide standard by many building code agencies. NFPA Standard 90A [21] invokes
Underwriters Laboratories (UL) Standard 181 [22], which classifies ducts as follows:
• Class 0 – Air ducts and air connectors having surface burning charateristics of zero
• Class 1 – Air ducts and air connectors having a flame-spread index of less than 25 (without
evidence of continued progressive combustion) and a smoke-developed index of less than 50.
B-25
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
For industrial materials, NFPA Standard 91 [23] is widely used for duct systems conveying
particulates and removing flammable vapors (including paint-spraying residue) and corrosive
fumes. Particulate-conveying duct systems are generally classified as follows:
• Class 1 covers nonparticulate applications, including makeup air, general ventilation, and
gaseous emission control
• Class 2 is imposed on moderately abrasive particulate in light concentration, such as that
produced by buffing and polishing
• Class 3 consists of highly abrasive material in low concentration, such as that produced from
abrasive cleaning, dryers and kilns, and boiler breeching
• Class 4 is composed of highly abrasive particulates in high concentration
• Class 5 applies to corrosive applications, such as acid fumes
Galvanized steel, uncoated carbon steel, or aluminum are most frequently used for industrial air
handling. Aluminum ductwork is not used for systems conveying abrasive materials and, when
temperatures exceed 400°F (204°C), galvanized steel is not recommended. Ductwork material
for systems handling corrosive gases, vapors, or mists must be selected carefully.
For commercial design, Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association
(SMACNA) “HVAC Duct Construction Standards – Metal and Flexible” [24] lists construction
requirements for rectangular steel ducts and includes combinations of duct thicknesses,
reinforcement, and maximum distance between reinforcements.
Round ducts are inherently strong and rigid and are generally the most efficient and economical
ducts for air systems. The dominant factor in round duct construction is the ability of the material
to withstand the physical damage caused by installation and negative pressure requirements.
For industrial design, SMACNA “HVAC Duct Construction Standards – Metal and Flexible”
[24] gives information for the selection of material thickness and reinforcement members for
spiral and nonspiral industrial round ducts. SMACNA “Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction
Standards” [25] is available for selecting material thickness and reinforcement members for
industrial ducts. The data contained in this manual give the duct construction for any pressure
class and panel width. Each side of a rectangular duct is considered a panel. Usually, the four
sides of a rectangular duct are built of material with the same thickness. Ducts are sometimes
built with the bottom plate thicker than the other three sides.
The designer often selects a combination of panel thickness, reinforcement, and reinforcement
member spacing to limit the deflection of the duct panel to a design maximum. Any shape of
transverse joint or intermediate reinforcement member that meets the minimum requirement of
both section modulus and the moment of inertia may be selected.
B-26
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
For commercial applications, seams and transverse joints are generally the same as those
permitted for round ducts. Flat oval ducts are typically used for positive pressure applications
unless special designs are used. Hanger designs and installation details for rectangular ducts
generally apply to flat oval ducts.
Fibrous glass ducts are a composite of rigid fiberglass and a factory-applied facing (typically
aluminum or reinforced aluminum), which serves as a finish and vapor barrier. This material is
available in molded round sections or in board form for fabrication into rectangular or polygonal
shapes. Duct systems of round and rectangular fibrous glass are generally limited to 2400 ft/min
(12 m/s) and ±2 inches (±500 Pa) of water. Molded round ducts are available in higher pressure
ratings than are board form ducts.
Flexible ducts typically connect mixing boxes, light troffers, diffusers, and other terminals to the
air distribution system. Because unnecessary length, offsetting, and compression of these ducts
significantly increase airflow resistance, flexible ducts should be kept as short and straight as
possible, fully extended, and supported to minimize sagging.
SMACNA “HVAC Duct Construction Standards – Metal and Flexible” [24] shows details on
field-fabricated plenum and apparatus casings. Sheet metal thicknesses and reinforcement for
plenum and casing pressure outside the range of -3 to +1 inches (-750 to +250 Pa) of water can
be based on SMACNA “Rectangular Industrial Duct Construction Standards” [25].
Metal ducts are frequently lined with acoustically absorbent materials to reduce aerodynamic
noise. Although many materials are acoustically absorbent, duct liners must also be resistant to
erosion and fire and have properties compatible with the ductwork fabrication and erection
processes. For higher velocity ducts, double-wall construction using a perforated metal liner is
frequently specified.
B.6.3.8 Hangers
For commercial applications, SMACNA “HVAC Duct Construction Standards – Metal and
Flexible” [24] describes commercial HVAC system hangers for rectangular, round, and flat oval
ducts. When special analysis is required for larger ducts or loads or for other hanger
configurations, American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) “Manual of Steel Construction”
[26] and AISI “Cold Formed Steel Design Manual” [27] should be used.
B-27
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
For industrial applications, the AISC “Manual of Steel Construction” [26] and the AISC “Cold
Formed Steel Design Manual” [27] give design information for industrial duct hangers and
supports. The SMACNA standards for round and rectangular industrial ducts [24, 25] as well as
manufacturers’ schedules include duct design information for supporting ducts at intervals of up
to 35 feet (8.9 m).
Instrument test ports make it easy and economical to provide openings for pitot tubes and other
test instruments in order to measure static pressures and air velocities. The hole is sealed off with
a heavy screw cap and gasket, as shown in Figure B-15. Unless otherwise specified, a flat gasket
is supplied to prevent air leakage around the base; however, in some cases, the test port can be
configured with a curved base and a special gasket to accommodate a curved duct.
Figure B-15
Instrument Test Port (Courtesy of Ventfabrics, Inc.)
Instrument test ports are typically available in a variety of sizes, with total heights varying to
accommodate different thicknesses of insulation. The most common heights are 1-3/8 inches (3.5
cm), which will accommodate 1 inch (2.5 cm) of duct insulation, and 2-3/8 inches (6 cm), which
will accommodate 2 inches (5 cm) of duct insulation.
B-28
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Airflow measuring stations are permanent devices installed in an appropriate length of duct in
order to measure attributes about the airflow at that given location. Several types of stations are
described in Sections B.8.1 through B.8.5.
Figure B-16 shows a multiport, self-averaging pitot traverse station with an integral air
straightener-equalizer honeycomb cell. Many of these types of stations are capable of
continuously measuring fan discharges or ducted airflow with an accuracy of 2% or better. A
multiport pitot tube traverse station offers its high degree of measuring accuracy by virtue of
precisely located sensors, honeycomb airflow processing, and instantaneous pneumatic
averaging of multiple pressure values. Some airflow measuring stations use a process known as
symmetrical averaging, which requires that all stages in the averaging process occur at a point
where there is a balanced array of sensors present, ensuring that each sensed pressure is given the
same “equal weight” in the averaging process.
Figure B-16
Multiport Air Measuring Station with an Integral Air Straightener (Courtesy of Air
Monitoring Corp.)
Figure B-17 shows an airflow traverse station that uses one or more traverse probes (factory
mounted in a rigid welded galvanized casing) to sense and average separate total and static
pressure traverses of an airstream. Multiple sets of total and static pressure sensing points,
positioned along the length of each probe, traverse the airstream in single lines across the duct
B-29
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
and average the sensed pressures in separate internal manifolds. Factory-installed static and total
pressure signal tubing connects the individual probes, terminating at the galvanized casing for
field connection. These types of air measuring stations are suited for installations in ductwork,
fan inlets, and other configurations operating at temperatures ranging from -20ºF to 400ºF (-29ºC
to 204ºC).
Figure B-17
Traverse Probe Air Measuring Station (Courtesy of Air Monitoring Corp.)
B-30
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-18
Pitot Traverse Station (Courtesy of Air Monitoring Corp.)
One or more mass flow measuring devices (for example, a hot wire sensor) measure the
instantaneous average mass velocity. Figure B-19 provides typical illustrations of one of these
devices.
Figure B-19
Multipoint Insertion Mass Flow Element (Courtesy of Kurz Instruments, Inc.)
B-31
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
In some models, each sensor uses a unique sensor circuit that eliminates output changes caused
by temperature variations. The circuit also allows the sensor cable to be shortened or lengthened
without affecting the calibration. This is especially useful for sensors having remote sensor
electronics.
The measurement of fluid (water) flow is necessary to permit the intelligent, safe, and efficient
operation of equipment used in nuclear power facilities. This includes measurement of air, gas,
water, and steam flows. An orifice plate is commonly used for these measurements because it
provides a measurable pressure drop based on a given flow and velocity. An orifice plate can be
considered a type of flow meter that typically exhibits the characteristics shown in Table B-2.
Table B-2
Orifice Plate Characteristics
Characteristic Value
Pressure loss High (typically >5 psi [34.5 kPa] for water applications)
An orifice provides flow metering in the following manner. As a compressible fluid passes
through a nozzle, a drop in pressure and a simultaneous increase in velocity result. By assuming
the type of flow (for example, adiabatic), it is possible to calculate, from the properties of the
fluid, the required area for the cross-section of the nozzle so that the flowing fluid may just fill
the provided space. This calculation indicates that for all compressible fluids, the nozzle form
must first be converging—but eventually, if the pressure drops sufficiently, the nozzle form must
become diverging to accommodate the increased volume caused by the expansion. The smallest
cross-section of the nozzle is called the throat, and the pressure at the throat is the critical flow
pressure.
B.9 Humidifiers
Humidifiers should be installed where the air can absorb the vapor. The temperature of the air
being humidified must exceed the dew point of the space being humidified. When fresh or mixed
air is humidified, the air may need to be preheated to allow absorption to take place.
B-32
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Steam heat exchangers are commonly used in heated pan humidifiers, with steam pressures
ranging from 5 to 15 psig (34.5 to 103.4 kPa). Hot water heat exchangers are also used in pan
humidifiers, generally at a water temperature higher than 240°F (116°C).
All pan humidifiers should have water regulation and some form of drain or flush system. When
raw water is used, periodic cleaning is required to remove the buildup of minerals. Care should
be taken to ensure that all water is drained off when the system is not in use to avoid the
possibility of bacterial growth in the stagnant water.
B-33
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Rigid media humidifiers use a porous core. Water is circulated over the media while air is blown
through the openings. These humidifiers are adiabatic, cooling the air as it is humidified. Rigid
media cores are often used for the dual purposes of winter humidification and summer cooling.
They depend on the airflow for evaporation, and the rate of evaporation varies with air
temperature, humidity, and velocity.
Wetted media humidifiers have inherent filtration and scrubbing properties as a result of the
water-washing effect in the filter-like channels. Because only pure water is evaporated,
contaminants collected from the air and water must be flushed from the system. A continuous
bleed or regular pan flushing is recommended to minimize the accumulation of contaminants in
the pan and on the media.
B.10 Dehumidifiers
Dehumidification systems are typically employed where control of humidity and moisture is
critical. Technologically advanced dehumidification coils can extract maximum amounts of
moisture under difficult conditions. With the addition of a remote condenser, some
dehumidification systems can provide cool, dry air to the conditioned space. An automatic
changeover thermostat allows the system to maintain the desired room temperature in both
summer and winter.
An optional water-heating coil may be added to a dehumidifier to provide hot water for industrial
processes. Some computer-designed dehumidification systems take moisture-laden air from the
conditioned space and pass it over the deep row dehumidification coil. The temperature of this
air is lowered to its dew point temperature, and water is condensed from the air. This air is
immediately passed through a re-heat coil, raising the temperature equal to a combination of
sensible and latent heat from the refrigeration cycle. The air leaving the dehumidifier is 10 to 15
degrees warmer than the air entering. This warmer air adds room heating and is beneficial during
cold months.
B-34
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Centrifugal or kinetic pumps are typically used to provide fluid flow to HVAC systems for
heating or cooling. Typically, centrifugal pumps are classified by one of two casing
configurations: volute or diffuser. A volute is a spiral-like form; as the liquid is discharged from
the impeller into the volute casing, 1) the volute areas increase at a rate proportional to the
discharge of liquid from the impeller and 2) a constant velocity exists around the periphery of the
impeller. This velocity is then diffused in the casing nozzle.
The other common casing classification is diffuser construction. A diffuser is actually a series of
vanes surrounding the impeller that accept the discharge of liquid from the impeller. The vanes
efficiently reduce the velocity in order to increase pump head and, in the case of a multistage
pump, direct this lower velocity fluid into vaned return channels that guide the liquid to the inlet
or eye of the next stage impeller. In the case of single-stage pumps, the discharge from the
diffuser is collected in a surrounding casing, which guides the liquid out of the pump through the
discharge nozzle.
The single-stage centrifugal pump is often installed in HVAC systems. A design feature of
single-stage pumps is the configuration of the inlet of the impeller. The two major types of
suction configurations are single-suction and double-suction. A single-suction configuration is
often employed with a radially split casing to achieve higher design pressures and temperatures.
The disadvantage of the single-suction configuration is that it typically requires higher net
positive suction head (NPSH) than a double-suction configuration. In a double-suction pump, the
flow comes from a single source and splits—doubling the inlet area. The doubling of the inlet
area subsequently lowers the inlet velocity and thus the NPSH required.
Figures B-20 and B-21 illustrate the differences between the single-suction and double-suction
horizontal pumps.
B-35
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure B-20
Single-Stage Horizontal Pump (Single-Suction)
Figure B-21
Single-Stage Horizontal Pump (Double-Suction)
B-36
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
C
TYPICAL HVAC TAB DOCUMENTATION
As noted in Section 1, the documentation used to record HVAC system parameters is often
customized by each plant. In some cases, the documentation is a hard-copy form that the
engineer/technician uses to manually record data. In other cases, the data entry may be
performed electronically. In most cases, these forms are then used as input for performing
calculations, either using the equations noted in Appendix D or using computer programs (that is,
a spreadsheet or commercially available software).
Some documentation is designed to allow for data entry and calculation. In these cases, the form
records the data measured and is structured to allow the engineer/technician to perform the
necessary calculations on the same document.
The examples and methods of documenting/calculating HVAC system parameters are provided
for illustrative purposes only. Documentation requirements and calculation procedures vary from
plant to plant, and the information provided in this report should not be used in lieu of plant-
specific procedures.
Figures C-1 through C-4 illustrate means by which HVAC TAB information may be
documented. The forms are examples provided for illustrative purposes only.
C-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Fan Data
MOTOR: Nameplate As Found Measured As Left Measured Initial/Date
Data (Avg.) Data (Avg.)
Full Load Current, amps
Full Load Voltage, volts
Speed, rpm
MISCELLANEOUS:
Locked Rotor Current, amps Horsepower
Model No. Serial No.
Service Factor Power Factor
Frame Efficiency
Drive sheave size, in. Dia. Fan to Motor Shaft Centerline
Manufacturer
Motor Frame Adjustment
FAN:
Rotation From Outlet Belt Size
Belt Tension No. of Belt
Drive Sheave size, in. Dia.
Description Design As Found As Left Initial/Date
Measured Data Measured Data
Inlet Total Press., in. H2O,
Discharge Total Press., in. H2O
Fan Total Press., in. H2O
Measured Flow, cfm
Inlet Air Temperature
Air Flow (Fan Curves)
MOTOR MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION
Description As Found Measured Data As Left Measured Data
Full Load Current, amps A B C Avg. A B C Avg.
Figure C-1
Fan Data
C-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure C-2
Round Duct Traverse Data Sheet
C-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure C-3
Rectangular Duct Traverse Data Sheet
C-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
System:
Location: Operating Mode:
Grille/Register Outlet Design As Found As Left
Date Room Area Served ID # Size AK VEL CFM VEL CFM VEL CFM Initial
Figure C-4
Grille/Register Data Sheet
C-5
12732851
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
D
EQUATIONS AND CALCULATIONS
Note: In some cases, dimensional constants have been added to ensure proper units. Because this
is not always the case, a dimensional analysis is highly recommended.
P1V1 P2V2
= Eq. D-2
T1 T2
where:
Continuity equation
m& = ρ ⋅ A ⋅ V Eq. D-3
where:
D-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Q = AV Eq. D-4
where:
Air Water
Kinematic viscosity
µ
ν =
ρ
Eq. D-5
where:
Reynolds number
VDh
Re = Eq. D-6
720 ⋅ν
D-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
4⋅ A
Dh = for noncircular pipes Eq. D-8
P
where:
Re = Reynolds number
Bernoulli’s equation
2 2
p1 V p V
+ 1 + z1 = 2 + 2 + z 2 + H loss Eq. D-9
ρ ⋅ g 2g ρ ⋅ g 2g
where:
V= velocity (ft/s)
z = elevation (ft)
D-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Total pressure
Pt = P v + P s Eq. D-10
where:
where:
Humidity ratio
pw
Ω = 0.62198 Eq. D-13
p − pw
where:
D-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Darcy-Weisbach equation
L v
2
hl = f Eq. D-14
D 2 g
where:
g = 32.2
f
Fanning friction factor:
4
64
For fully developed laminar flow: f =
Re
where:
Re = Reynolds number
0.221
f = 0.0032 + 0.237
105< Re < 3 ⋅ 106 Eq. D-16
Re
D-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
1 2ε 18.7
= 1.74 − 2 log + Eq. D-18
D Re f
f
where:
Churchill’s friction factor correlation (valid for the entire range of laminar, critical, and turbulent
flows):
1
8 12 3 12
f = 8 + (A + B ) 2
−
Eq. D-19
Re
where:
16
7 0.9 k
A = − 2.457 ln +
Re 3.7 D
16
37530
B=
Re
Hazen-Williams equation
1.852 1.167
v 1
hl = 3.022 ⋅ L Eq. D-20
C D
where:
C = roughness factor {140 for new steel pipe, 130 for new cast iron pipe, and 110 for
riveted pipe}
D-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
V 2
hl = K Eq. D-21
2g
L
K = f Eq. D-22
D
where:
f = friction factor
L
D = equivalent length in pipe diameters
The value of resistance coefficients K is based on the velocity in the small pipe. To obtain the K
values in terms of the larger pipe, divide the equations by β4,
where:
β = d1/d2
d1 = diameter of the small pipe (in.)
d2 = diameter of the large pipe (in.)
D-7
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
θ
K = 0.5 sin (1-β2) for 45°< θ ≤ 180° Eq. D-27
2
The value of resistance coefficients K is based on the velocity in the small pipe. To obtain the K
values in terms of the larger pipe, divide the equations by β4,
where:
β = d1/d2
where:
Cv = flow coefficient
K = resistance coefficient
2(144) g∆p
Q& = (60 ⋅ 7.48052)YC d A1 Eq. D-29
ρg / g c
C
Cd =
1− β 4
Eq. D-30
D-8
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
Cd = discharge coefficient
C = flow coefficient
β = d1/d2
where:
D-9
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Note: In these equations, standard air is defined as dry air (0% RH) at 59°F and 14.696 psia.
Flow-through orifice
Airflow for a sharp-edged orifice with pipe taps located 1 inch on either side of the orifice (for
duct diameters 2–14 inches):
h
Q& = 6 ⋅ K ⋅ d o
2
Eq. D-32
ρ
where:
K = coefficient of airflow
where:
D-10
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
V = velocity (ft/s)
2
g = acceleration due to gravity (32.2 ft/s )
where:
where:
CF = correction factor
D-11
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
where:
A = area in (ft 2)
Calculating actual (local or true) velocity when flows are taken with a heated wire
anemometer
29.92 T
Vactual = Vmeasured Eq. D-40
Pb 530
where:
D-12
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
Air changes per hour and cubic feet per minute from air changes per hour
&)
(60 Q
ACH = Eq. D-42
Room Volume
where:
D-13
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
= Ps2-Pt1
where:
ρ = density (lbm/ft3 )
where:
where:
Ps = static pressure (in. w.g.)
D-14
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
SEF = fan-system-effect pressure loss, in. w.g. (Pa)
Co = fan-system-effect loss coefficient, dimensionless
ρ = density (lbm/ft )
3
Vo = inlet velocity based on area at the inlet collar, or outlet velocity based on the outlet
area (ft/min)
Vo = inlet or outlet velocity based on the area calculated from the fan diameter (ft/min)
where:
where:
D-15
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
where:
where:
D-16
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Fan Law No. 3: Power varies with the cube of the fan speed (for motors of 10 horsepower and
larger)
3 3 3
BHP2 N 2 Q& 2 Pd 2
= = =
BHP1 N1 Q&1 Pd1
Eq. D-57
Fan Law No. 3: Amperage varies as the cube of the air volume (for motors of 10 horsepower
and larger)
3 3 3
I 2 N 2 Q& 2 Pd 2
= = =
I1 N1 Q&1 Pd1
Eq. D-58
Fan Law No. 3: Brake horsepower varies as the square root of the static pressures cubed
3
P
2
BHP2
= s2 Eq. D-59
Ps
BHP1 1
where:
D-17
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Air volume remains constant with changes in air density. A fan is a constant volume machine
and will handle the same airflow, regardless of air density. It must be remembered, however, that
many instruments are calibrated for standard air density (70°F at 29.92 in Hg) and any change in
air density will require a correction factor for the instrument.
where:
ρ1 = original density (lbm/ft )
3
where:
i = nth reading
Q& ⋅ H ⋅ γ
BHP = Eq. D-63
3960 ⋅ η p
2
∆P2 Q& 2
= Eq. D-64
∆P1 Q&1
D-18
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
H = head (ft)
Cavitation Index
2( p o − p v )
σ= Eq. D-65
ρ ⋅ Vo
2
where:
pv = vapor pressure
Pump NPSH
(P + Pa − Pv )(2.31) V2
NPSHA = + ± S − B − L +
2 g
Eq. D-66
SG
where:
D-19
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
S = static height of liquid above (+) or below (-) grade (varies per pump type) (ft)
where:
η = motor efficiency
PF = power factor
D-20
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Calculating brake horsepower using no-load amps (for motors of 10 horsepower and
larger)
HPn (RLA − 0.5 ⋅ NLA)
BHP = Eq. D-69
(FLA c − 0.5 ⋅ NLA)
where:
Vn = nameplate volts
D-21
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
where:
PF = power factor
W = power (watts)
V = voltage (volts)
A = amperage (amps)
where:
where:
D-22
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Ns = 120 ⋅ f/p
where:
% = percent of slip
f = frequency (Hz)
where:
W = power (kW)
where:
D-23
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Strouhal number
5f ⋅D
N Strouhal = Eq. D-78
V
where:
V = velocity (ft/s)
Drive equation
Nm ⋅ Dm = Nf ⋅ Df Eq. D-79
where:
where:
D-24
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Belt length
π (D - d) 2
L = 2⋅C + ⋅ (D + d) + Eq. D-81
2 4C
where:
π = 3.14
where:
D-25
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Rectangular duct
A = ab/144 Eq. D-87
where:
Round duct
A = π R /144
2
Eq. D-88
where:
2
A = area of the duct (ft )
π = 3.14
R = radius (in.)
Segment of a circle
A = π R2N/360 Eq. D-89
where:
A = area (ft 2)
D-26
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Triangle
A = bh/2 Eq. D-90
where:
A = area (ft 2)
Circular equivalent for a rectangular duct for equal friction and capacity
ab 0.625
De = 1.30 Eq. D-92
(a + b) 0.25
where:
Circular equivalent for a flat oval duct for equal friction and capacity
A 0.625
De = 1.55 0.25 Eq. D-93
P
where:
area A = (πb2/4) + b (a – b)
perimeter P = πb + 2 (a – b)
a = major dimension of flat oval duct (in.)
b = major dimension of flat oval duct (in.)
D-27
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
References
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (ASHRAE),
ASHRAE Handbook – Fundamentals. 1997.
E. A. Avallone and T. Baumeister III, Marks’ Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers.
McGraw Hill. 1997.
Crane Co., Technical Paper No. 410. “Flow of Fluids through Valves, Fittings, and Pipe,” 1985.
F. C. McQuiston and J. D. Parker, Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc. 1994.
Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors’ National Association, Inc. (SMACNA), HVAC
Systems – Testing, Adjusting and Balancing. 1986.
D-28
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
E
ANALYTICAL METHODS
E.1 Introduction
In situ TAB of nuclear HVAC systems can be difficult and expensive for several reasons,
including required system operability (safety and licensing concerns), interference/distraction to
normal plant operation, and radiological exposure. For these reasons, the nuclear HVAC
engineer may consider alternative analytical methods as a “first cut” approach in accomplishing
a full system balance. Preliminary analytical analyses will help in determining initial positions
and sizes for various flow balancing components (such as dampers, restrictors, orifice plates, and
valves) and the effect that identified system changes will have on overall airflow quantities and
distribution. This type of approach will also help to reduce the amount of time required for
temporary field construction and measurement activities along with system inoperability during
the TAB process.
This appendix addresses several analytical methods that may be used as tools in troubleshooting
and determining system modification effects and “best guess” positions of components (such as
dampers and valves) as an efficient initial method in the nuclear HVAC TAB process.
Historically, the design of duct distribution systems has followed several basic methods,
including the equal friction method and the static regain method. The equal friction method
determines duct size based on the assumption of a constant pressure loss per unit length of the
system. The static regain method is based on the objective of sizing each branch-to-main-duct
section to obtain a constant static driving pressure for the supply of air to the corresponding
branch outlets. More recently, additional methods of duct distribution optimization (for example,
the T method) have been developed and are more focused on initial system costs and the present
worth of energy.
E-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Analytical Methods
To understand the dynamics of the HVAC system being analyzed, the engineer should first
develop a system one-line or nodal diagram that represents the ductwork and associated
components to the degree of detail required. The diagram should be set up by duct/fitting
sections and sufficiently detailed in order to evaluate the conditions at branches, major
equipment (including fan system effects), and balancing locations (such as fans, dampers, and
flow measurement locations).
After the system diagram is developed, any available test and balance information that exists for
the current as-built system configuration may be used to assist the engineer in a baseline
evaluation of the major plenum and branch flows. Hand calculations may then be performed to
verify expected pressure and airflow measurement values based on observed conditions or
changes.
System effects based on fan placement in relation to system ductwork size, transitions, and
fittings should also be evaluated to determine the possible magnitude of the resultant pressure
losses. Analytical methods supported by computer analyses may also be applied and are further
described in Sections E.2.2 through E.2.2.2. If significant disparity exists between analytical
calculations and existing test data, the identified locations in question should be further tested.
Using this initial analytical approach should save significant time and the associated expense
after a full system test and balance effort. This effort will also help to enhance the engineer’s
knowledge of the operation and dynamics of the subject HVAC system.
Regardless of the design method chosen, using a hand calculation approach in solving for
pressure loss in each section of a distribution system can become laborious because of the
iterative nature of the solution process. A variety of companies, including the major HVAC
equipment vendors (for example, Carrier and Trane), offer generic computer design software for
initial design and sizing of HVAC distribution systems. These programs are primarily structured
to permit the HVAC design engineer to input a proposed system configuration while allowing
the user to size the ductwork plenums and branch distribution.
Most nuclear HVAC engineers, however, are not required to design completely new ventilation
systems based on the pre-existing facilities and systems they support. Therefore, analysis is more
focused on operation and flow evaluation/balancing of existing HVAC systems. Methods for
calculating airflow and associated pressure loss of these systems are suitable for computer
programs that can provide iterative analysis capability and data tracking. Several of these
methods and programs are discussed in Sections E.2.2.1 and E.2.2.2.
E-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Analytical Methods
HVAC engineers have taken advantage of generic software (for example, Microsoft, Lotus and
Corel) to formulate simple to complex spreadsheet programs that will calculate and update the
flow and pressure in a defined duct network system. The calculation algorithms are programmed
into the spreadsheet, allowing the program to calculate current airflow and pressure values for
each duct section on an iterative, cascading basis. This type of programming method, however, is
somewhat limited in its rigor of analysis, based on the complexity of the assumed convergence
criteria and the inflexibility of defining dynamic system variables (including fan performance,
system effects, and damper and component variable position).
Some of these thermal-hydraulic software-modeling programs, available for use by the HVAC
nuclear engineer in a generic format (for example, PROTO-HVACTM), meet nuclear-grade quality
assurance program requirements. There are many advantages to using these types of analysis
programs for more accurately determining key operating and balancing conditions. Depending
on the complexity of the modeling input developed and the software used, the following output
capabilities can be provided:
• Calculation of steady pressures, temperatures, and airflows throughout complex HVAC duct
distribution systems
• Change in alignment of flow paths or selection of predefined specific system operating
modes
• Selection of fan operating status and fan performance curves (that is, design, actual,
degraded, or new)
• Evaluation of system effects based on the subject HVAC system configuration
• Determination of balancing/volume damper throttle position (manually or automatically) as a
function of flow or pressure set point
• Specification of leak tightness of dampers or components as a function of pressure conditions
• Various component pressure losses as a function of a fixed or variable flow parameter
• Duct friction factor adjustment
• Specification of local airflow conditions (for example, temperature, pressure, elevations, and
psychrometric conditions)
• Flags to alert the user of abnormal conditions (for example, reverse flow, excessive leakage,
less than minimum specified flow, and fan runout)
• Flexibility in output report information and formatting
E-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Analytical Methods
A significant reduction in the time required to final balance the subject HVAC system is one of
the benefits of developing a detailed computer simulation model. In addition, once this model is
developed and benchmarked, it can be used to support JCOs or proposed system modifications in
lieu of in situ testing.
Analytical methods for assisting the engineer in the TAB of the water/liquid side of the HVAC
system are similar to those discussed in Section E.2 for the air/gas side. Because of the larger
tolerance in analytical inaccuracy of these hydraulic systems, liquid systems are by nature
normally less difficult to analyze. In most nuclear plants, HVAC system engineers do not have
direct responsibility for the liquid side of their subject systems. For that reason, this guideline
does not further describe specific analysis methods used to evaluate the complexity of these
supporting systems (which include service water, emergency service water, chilled water, and
closed cooling water).
The major component that provides the thermal interface between the air/gas and liquid side of
the HVAC system is the fan or duct coil. Many devices are used in the various HVAC plant
systems, including containment fan coil units (CFCUs), room unit coolers, in-duct DX coils, in-
duct chilled water and service water coils, in-duct steam and hot water heating coils, and preheat
glycol coils. Many of these heat exchange devices must be balanced periodically on both the
air/gas and water/liquid sides to satisfy licensing basis performance requirements (that is, those
found in USNRC Generic Letter 89-13 [28]).
Numerous analytical methods, including hand calculations, generic software spreadsheets, and
computer modeling software, are used in conjunction with in situ testing to verify thermal
performance. In addition, various A/Es and engineering analysis organizations have developed
specific heat exchanger, fan coil, service water and chilled water, and refrigerant chiller
computer modeling programs to analyze these systems and components. Some of these thermal-
hydraulic software-modeling programs, available for use by the nuclear engineer or technician in
a generic format (for example, PROTO-HX TM and PROTO-FLOTM), meet nuclear-grade quality
assurance program requirements.
E-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
F
ALTERNATE FLOW MEASUREMENT USING TRACER
GAS
Sulfur hexafluoride has been used as a tracer gas to test control room envelope in-leakage and to
measure the airflow rate in ducting. ASTM E 2029-99 [29] is used as a standard for this method.
Using the standard alone is insufficient without the experience and technique of trained
individuals.
Not all duct configurations are capable of delivering an accurate pitot tube traverse. Systems in
which turbulence and twisted configurations detract from good pitot tube results tend to be suited
for the tracer gas technique. Applications range from the unit vent on a PWR to turbine building
exhaust in a BWR. Figure F-1 illustrates a typical schematic for using tracer gas testing methods.
Figure F-1
Typical Schematic for Using Tracer Gas Testing Methods
Tracer gas is injected at a known concentration at a known flow rate. After being fully mixed, it
is sampled to measure the change in concentration that is commensurate with the flow rate in the
system. Regardless of the application, the injection gas and mass flow meter should be calibrated
for the expected flow rate application.
F-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
• Injection manifold
• Sample pump
• Sample manifold
• Sample analyzer
Typical applications include not only airflow measurement in a ducting system but also damper
leakage or fan flow rate measurement. The fan flow rate may be ducted or may be an application
where the un-ducted fan exhausts into a room with a single exhaust point. In any case,
re-entrainment of exhausted tracer gas should be accounted for. This application is shown in
Figure F-2.
Figure F-2
Tracer Gases Exhausted into a Room with a Single Exhaust Point
F-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
G
DEFINING ACFM AND SCFM WHEN PERFORMING
TAB ACTIVITIES
When referring to airflow in HVAC systems, the convention is cubic feet per minute (CFM) or
3
ft /min. However, when considering the change in air density for varying conditions of
temperature, pressure, and RH (moisture content), the term CFM becomes unclear. More
appropriate units are actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM) and standard cubic feet per minute
(SCFM) when performing specific airflow measurements and associated calculations for HVAC
systems.
ACFM is defined as the flow rate measured under stated operating conditions corrected for local
effects (for example, true air density). ACFM is the actual operating volumetric flow rate
condition for a specific HVAC system at the specific location of observation. SCFM is the actual
flow rate converted back to standard reference conditions. This conversion can be attained
analytically by using the relationship presented in the ideal gas law (described further in this
appendix). The only time that ACFM and SCFM have the same value is at the established
standard reference conditions.
One of the most commonly used standard reference conditions is dry air (0% RH) at a pressure
of 14.7 psia and temperature of 70ºF, as documented by ASHRAE in ANSI/ASHRAE 111-1988
[30]. The Nuclear HVAC Utility Group (NHUG) also endorses these standard reference
conditions.
As illustrated in Figure G-1, as the temperature of a fixed mass of dry air increases, the volume it
occupies also increases. The curve in Figure G-1 is based on the mass of dry air that would
occupy 100 cubic feet of volume at standard conditions. The figure shows that if airflow were
measured at the temperature extreme of 10ºF, an 11% difference would be realized between this
ACFM value and the standard condition at 70ºF. This also reflects a total volumetric difference
of 18%, which the same air mass would occupy over the temperature range (10–110ºF) indicated
G-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
in Figure G-1. Based on this effect, a significant under-prediction of airflow at low temperatures
or over-prediction at higher temperatures could occur if measurements are not corrected back to
standard conditions. In addition, for many calculations requiring the rigor and accuracy
warranted in the operation of nuclear power plants, this level of change would not be acceptable
if left uncorrected.
Figure G-1
Change in Air Volume as a Function of Temperature
Applying the ideal gas law relationship for variations in absolute pressure at a constant
temperature for dry air provides for the associated change in volume. For most HVAC systems,
this change is not very significant, based on the small changes in differential operating pressure
(0–15 in. w.g.) realized through the system (supply-to-return ducting). However, these
changes—in conjunction with local atmospheric pressure conditions during the time of
measurement—could be more significant and should be evaluated.
The curve in Figure G-2 is based on the mass of dry air that would occupy 100 cubic feet of
volume at standard conditions of 14.696 psia. Figure G-2 reflects the change in volume that
would be realized from conditions associated with a change in absolute (total) pressure between
11.75 psia and 15.25 psia. This range of conditions could be realized, based on various
combinations of weather (high or low barometric pressure), altitude (for example, Denver,
Colorado vs. Miami, Florida), and system operating pressure variations applicable to the specific
TAB performed.
G-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Figure G-2
Change in Air Volume as a Function of the Change in Absolute Pressure for a Constant
Mass
The difference as a result of moisture between ACFM and SCFM becomes more significant as
the air becomes more saturated. The behavior of the dry air and water vapor mixture is based on
the principle defined by Dalton’s law of partial pressures, as shown in Equation G-1.
(Pa + Pw)V = (na + nw)RT Eq. G-1
where:
G-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
Each constituent (water vapor and air) exerts part of the total pressure of the gas mixture and
shares a proportional part of the total volume. For dry air, the partial pressure ( Pw) and the
number of moles (nw) of water vapor are equal to zero; therefore, the air mass occupies the entire
volume. As the dry air begins to combine with and retain water vapor, the value of nw (number of
moles) increases. In addition, the value of Pw is based on the temperature of the mixture. It can
be seen by Equation G-1 that as moisture percentage increases, a larger volume of air and its
equivalent mass are displaced by the water vapor.
Figure G-3 illustrates the effect that moisture content has on the change in air volume for the
temperature range above and below standard conditions. The curve for dry air (shown in Figure
G-1) is compared to the curve for saturated air (having a moisture content of 100% RH). Figure
G-3 shows that at low temperatures, the volumetric differences are not significant because the
partial pressure value of the water vapor (Pa) is small. However, as temperature increases, the
partial pressure value of the water vapor becomes significant, occupying a greater amount of the
total mixture’s volume and displacing that portion of dry air mass associated with the original
volume.
Figure G-3
Change in Air Volume as a Function of Temperature for Various Percentages of Moisture
Content
G-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
As described in Section G.3, local effects of temperature, pressure, and moisture content can
significantly affect air density (the amount of air mass for a given volume) and the resultant
HVAC system’s airflow measured by the TAB engineer/technician. Equation G-2 provides a
means to calculate the local air density (ρ) based on the defined variables of temperature,
pressure, and RH (for wet and dry bulb temperatures):
P + PS − 0 . 378 ⋅
B 13 .6 ( 0.296 −3
⋅ TWB ) P T − TWB
− 0 . 159 −1 ⋅ TWB + 0 .41 − PB + S ⋅ DB
2
13 .6 2700
ρ = 70 . 73 ⋅
{53 .35 ⋅ ( T DB + 459 .69 ) }
Eq. G-2
where:
Airflow values measured by the TAB engineer/technician depending on the measurement device,
may be corrected for density effects (based on air velocity) by using Equation G-3.
0.075
ACFM = ⋅ MCFM
ρ
Eq. G-3
where:
G-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
ACFM can be converted to standard reference conditions of SCFM by using Equation G-4:
PS
PB +
13.6 529.69
SCFM = ⋅ ⋅ ACFM
29.921 TDB + 459.69
Eq. G-4
where:
G-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
H
LISTING OF KEY POINTS
The following list provides the location of “Key Point” information in this report.
3.1.1.2 3-4 The HVAC system may operate without an alarm; however, improperly
maintained system balancing may increase energy costs of operation.
Lack of attention to the system balancing can be indicated by
insufficient cooling and/or heating in the building or by problems with
areas that require positive or negative pressure.
3.1.2.2 3-5 System lineup should be recorded when acquiring air balance data on
systems or subsystems that can be affected by other ventilation
systems.
3.1.7 3-12 Development of a detailed troubleshooting plan can save money and
time by reducing repetitive efforts and providing a structured approach
to determining the problem.
6.1 6-1 Lesson learned: When setting up a fan, the operating class limits for
that fan must not be exceeded. Operating a fan outside its associated
limits may lead to catastrophic failure.
6.7 6-4 Lesson learned: The technicians likely did not understand the
limitations of their instrumentation. When moving a fluid-based
instrument from one environment to another, ample time should be
allotted for the liquid to come to equilibrium, or frequent checks should
be made to ensure that the base point has not changed.
6.8 6-5 Lesson learned: Postulate system effects prior to proceeding with what
appears to be a minor design modification
H-1
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
6.12 6-8 Lesson learned: The most important part of the TAB work occurs prior
to the start of the work: understanding how the system works and
performing the walkdown.
E.1 E-1 Because of required system operability (safety and licensing
concerns), interference/distraction to normal plant operation, and
radiological exposure, the nuclear HVAC engineer may consider
alternative analytical methods as a “first cut” approach in
accomplishing a full system balance.
H-2
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
3.1.7 3-13 Prior to making any physical adjustments to the system, a detailed
troubleshooting plan should be developed, taking into consideration all
of the data collected thus far in the evaluation.
3.1.9.2 3-16 The most common causes of HVAC system performance problems
include the following:
H-3
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
3.2.2 3-19 Prior to starting each system’s TAB work, a walkdown of the system
shall be made to determine testability. A general walkdown of major
system components, such as fans and filter housings, should be
performed to ensure that maintenance activities are not underway or
needed.
3.4.2 3-26 Prior to starting the water balancing work, a walkdown of the system is
recommended.
4.1.1.1 4-1 Manometer tubes should be chemically clean to be accurate and filled
with the correct fluid.
Mercury is not an acceptable fluid for HVAC TAB work because of its
potential hazardous effects on personnel and on plant equipment.
4.1.1.2 4-2 When air pressures are extremely low, a micromanometer (hook
gauge) or some other more sensitive instrument should be used to
ensure accuracy.
4.1.1.3 4-3 The technical manual for the electronic manometer should be
referenced to determine if it provides results in ACFM, SCFM, or both.
If the temperature sensor is not used, the instrument reading on at
least one electronic manometer should be adjusted by calculation to
either actual or standard conditions (ACFM or SCFM).
4.1.1.6 4-9 In the case of coils or filters, an uneven airflow is frequently found
because of entrance or exit conditions and/or stratification.
H-4
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
4.1.6.8 4-23 Flow measuring elements should be installed far enough from elbows,
valves, and other sources of flow disturbances.
5.1.1 5-2 Results using the equal area method should be closely evaluated if
they are near minimum acceptance values.
6.2 6-1 Lesson learned: The manufacturer’s data for nominal pressure drop
may be higher than the actual pressure drop and may result in airflow
that is greater than design.
6.3 6-2 Lesson learned: Duct access doors should have a positive closing
mechanism that is not subject to opening as a result of vibration and
system starts and stops.
6.4 6-2 Lesson learned: Periodic monitoring of building pressures can identify
equipment problems prior to failure and avoid potentially detrimental
system effects.
6.5 6-2 Lesson learned: Slipping belts are not always audible, and a
strobotach should be used to verify fan speed when fan flows are in
question.
6.6 6-3 Lesson learned: Pitot tubes should be closely inspected prior to each
use. During subsequent checks of pitot tubes, one was discovered
with an internal crack in the impact velocity sensing line. A simple way
to check the impact pressure line is to connect the pitot tube to a
pressure measuring device and pressurize the impact line, block the
sensing port, and observe the pressure measuring device for any
pressure decay.
6.6 6-3 Lesson learned: Inclined manometers with integral shut-off valves
should be checked for leaks in these valves. These valves contain two
O-rings and may close off tightly but leak when opened for use. In
addition, these valves should never be opened more than three-
fourths of a turn: opening them more than this can result in the failure
of the sealing O-ring to make contact with the sealing surface in the
valve body.
6.6 6-4 Lesson learned: The tubing used to connect the pitot tube to the
pressure measuring device should be verified to ensure that it is in
good condition and free of any leaks. The tightness of the impact line
can be verified by pressurizing it and blocking the impact port on the
pitot tube. However, the static sensing line cannot be tested in this
manner. A visual inspection is the best method of verifying the
connecting tubing.
6.9 6-6 Lesson learned: Flow measurement in a duct at a location with flow
disturbances can be significantly different (in this case over 10%
greater) than at a location of long straight duct.
H-5
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
6.11 6-7 Lesson learned: All possible system operating conditions need to be
fully considered during the design and functional test phases.
B.7 B-28 Instrument test ports attached with rivets and sealed with gaskets may
not be suitable for nuclear plant applications requiring zero-leakage.
H-6
12732851
EPRI Licensed Material
3.1.1.1 3-3 Key to addressing any issue is understanding that the plant-specific
design/licensing bases need to be maintained throughout the
troubleshooting, TAB, and corrective action processes.
3.1.2.1 3-4 The HVAC engineer should understand how the problem could apply to
other systems/HVAC components of similar design and applications.
3.1.7.2 3-14 Personnel should be familiar with the design of the subject HVAC system
and the operation of the test equipment.
4.1.3 4-14 Care should be taken when using any rotating measuring instrument in
order to avoid personal injury caused by inadvertent contact with the
rotating equipment.
4.1.5 4-20 Care should be used when working around energized electrical
equipment.
H-7
12732851
12732851
12732851
Target: SINGLE USER LICENSE AGREEMENT
THIS IS A LEGALLY BINDING AGREEMENT BETWEEN YOU AND THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTI-
Nuclear Power TUTE, INC. (EPRI). PLEASE READ IT CAREFULLY BEFORE REMOVING THE WRAPPING MATERIAL.
BY OPENING THIS SEALED PACKAGE YOU ARE AGREEING TO THE TERMS OF THIS AGREEMENT. IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO
A L
LICE
4.TERM AND TERMINATION Please read the License Agreement
the company provides a wide range of innovative on the back cover before removing
R I
This license and this agreement are effective until terminated.You may terminate them at any time by destroying this package. EPRI has
M AT E the Wrapping Material.
products and services to more than 1000 energy- the right to terminate the license and this agreement immediately if you fail to comply with any term or condition of this agreement.
Upon any termination you may destroy this package, but all obligations of nondisclosure will remain in effect.
Technical Report
related organizations in 40 countries. EPRI’s
5. DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
multidisciplinary team of scientists and engineers
NEITHER EPRI,ANY MEMBER OF EPRI,ANY COSPONSOR, NOR ANY PERSON OR ORGANIZATION ACTING ON BEHALF
draws on a worldwide network of technical and OF ANY OF THEM:
business expertise to help solve today’s toughest (A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I) WITH RESPECT TO THE USE
OF ANY INFORMATION,APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE, INCLUDING
energy and environmental problems.
MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR Plant
EPRI. Electrify the World INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY’S INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS
PACKAGE IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER’S CIRCUMSTANCE; OR Maintenance
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER (INCLUDING ANY CONSE-
QUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH Support Equipment
DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR SELECTION OR USE OF THIS PACKAGE OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS,
METHOD, PROCESS OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS PACKAGE.
Reduced
6. EXPORT
Cost Reliability
The laws and regulations of the United States restrict the export and re-export of any portion of this package, and you agree not to
export or re-export this package or any related technical data in any form without the appropriate United States and foreign gov-
ernment approvals.
7. CHOICE OF LAW
This agreement will be governed by the laws of the State of California as applied to transactions taking place entirely in California
between California residents.
8. INTEGRATION
You have read and understand this agreement, and acknowledge that it is the final, complete and exclusive agreement between you
and EPRI concerning its subject matter, superseding any prior related understanding or agreement. No waiver, variation or different
terms of this agreement will be enforceable against EPRI unless EPRI gives its prior written consent, signed by an officer of EPRI.
1003092
EPRI • 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303 • USA N
SED
A L
LICE
M AT E
12732851