[: There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational,

Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research. attempts to establish cause- effect

relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with
some key differences.

The Types of Quantitative Research are:

Descriptive Design

Correlational Design

Quasi-Experimental Design

Experimental Design

[2:08 am, 24/12/2020] +92 333 0758659: Descriptive Design

This sort of design describes the present status of a phenomenon, or a variable, and does not require
any hypothesis for initiation: It is developed only after the data is collected. For instance; case-study,
naturalistic observation, surveys, etc.

[2:10 am, 24/12/2020] +92 333 0758659: Correlational Design

This sort of design utilizes statistical analysis in order to determine whether two variables are related or
not e.g., case-control study, observational study.

: Quasi-Experimental Design

This sort of design resembles a true experimental design, and is utilized when a standard research
design is not applicable, however; it is not based upon randomized sample groups.

: Experimental Design

This sort of design determines cause and effect relationships among various variables in such a way that
the independent variable is changed in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable e.g.,
experiment with random assignment.

Research design types by grouping

Yet another classification of research design types can be made based on the way participants are
grouped. In most cases, grouping depends on the research hypothesis and the way participants are
being sampled.
For example, In a typical study based on experimental research design, there’s usually at least one
experimental and one control group. In medical studies, let’s say, one group could be receiving
treatment, while the other would be given no treatment. You get the idea.

Based on participant grouping, we can distinguish among 4 types of research design:

Cohort study

A cohort study is a type of longitudinal research that samples a cohort (a group of people with a shared
characteristic) while doing a cross-section at sp…

The rationale of your research is the reason for conducting the study. The rationale should answer the
need for conducting the said research. It is a very important part of your publication as it justifies the
significance and novelty of the study. That is why it is also referred to as the justification of the study.
Ideally, your research should be structured as observation, rationale, hypothesis, objectives, methods,
results and conclusions.

To write your rationale, you should first write a background on what all research has been done on your
study topic. Follow this with ‘what is missing’ or ‘what are the open questions of the study’. Identify the
gaps in the literature and emphasize why it is important to address those gaps. This will form the
rational…

: There are four main types of Quantitative research: Descriptive, Correlational,

Causal-Comparative/Quasi-Experimental, and Experimental Research. attempts to establish cause- effect
relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with
some key differences.

: Descriptive Design

This sort of design describes the present status of a phenomenon, or a variable, and does not require
any hypothesis for initiation: It is developed only after the data is collected. For instance; case-study,
naturalistic observation, surveys, etc.

Q. 1 Find a research with Descriptive Research Design

Correlational Design

This sort of design utilizes statistical analysis in order to determine whether two variables are related or
not e.g., case-control study, observational study.

Q.2 Give a title and research question using Correlational research design
[10:23 pm, 20/01/2021] +92 333 0758659: Q. 3 What is a case control study?

[10:24 pm, 20/01/2021] +92 333 0758659: Quasi-Experimental Design

This sort of design resembles a true experimental design, and is utilized when a standard research
design is not applicable, however; it is not based upon randomized sample groups.

Q.4 How will you conduct a Quasi Experimental study ? Give example

[: Experimental Design

This sort of design determines cause and effect relationships among various variables in such a way that
the independent variable is changed in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable e.g.,
experiment with random assignment.

Q.5 Give an example of conducting an experimental research design

descriptive research: research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are
used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured.

[10:29 pm, 20/01/2021] +92 333 0758659: Common descriptive research questions will begin with “How
much?”, “How regularly?”, “What percentage?”, “What time?”, “What is?” Primarily, a descriptive
research question will be used to quantify a single variable, but there's nothing stopping you covering
multiple variables within a single question

It means that there can be more than one variable that can be examined in a descriptive study

: Research design is the plan to answer your research questions .

And

Research method is a strategy uest to implement that plan .Research design and method are different
but closely related .

: Case control study

A study that compares two groups of people: those with the disease or condition under study (cases)
and a very similar group of people who do not have the disease or condition (controls).

: Case—-Control

: Sampling

[8:57 am, 27/01/2021] +92 333 0758659: When you conduct research about a group of people, it’s
rarely possible to collect data from every person in that group. Instead, you select a sample. The sample
is the group of individuals who will actually participate in the research.
To draw valid conclusions from your results, you have to carefully decide how you will select a sample
that is representative of the group as a whole. There are two types of sampling methods:

Probability sampling involves random selection, allowing you to make statistical inferences about the
whole group.

Non-probability sampling involves non-random selection based on convenience or other criteria,

allowing you to easily collect initial data.

You should clearly explain how you selected your sample in the methodology section of your paper or
thesis.

Population vs sample

First, you need to understand the difference between a population and a sample, and identify the target
population of your research.

The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about.

The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from.

The population can be defined in terms of geographical location, age, income, and many other
characteristics.

: 1. The population is the entire group that you want to draw conclusions about. For examples University
students

2. The sample is the specific group of individuals that you will collect data from. For example: Students
of any specific department or year

:: It can be very broad or quite narrow: maybe you want to make inferences about the whole adult
population of your country; maybe your research focuses on customers of a certain company, patients
with a specific health condition, or students in a single school.

It is important to carefully define your target population according to the purpose and practicalities of
your project.
If the population is very large, demographically mixed, and geographically dispersed, it might be difficult
to gain access to a representative sample.

Sampling frame

The sampling frame is the actual list of individuals that the sample will be drawn from. Ideally, it should
include the entire target population (and nobody who is not part of that population).

Sample size

The number of individuals in your sample depends on the size of the population, and on how precisely
you want the results to represent the population as a whole.

You can use a sample size calculator to determine how big your sample should be. In general, the larger
the sample size, the more accurately and confidently you can make inferences about the whole
population.

: You have a complete list of every member of the population.

You can contact or access each member of the population if they are selected.

You have the time and resources to collect data from the necessary sample size.

Descriptive Design

This sort of design describes the present status of a phenomenon, or a variable, and does not require
any hypothesis for initiation: It is developed only after the data is collected. For instance; case-study,
naturalistic observation, surveys, etc.

Q. 1 Find a research with Descriptive Research Design

Correlational Design

This sort of design utilizes statistical analysis in order to determine whether two variables are related or
not e.g., case-control study, observational study.

Q.2 Give a title and research question using Correlational research design

: Q. 3 What is a case control study?

Quasi-Experimental Design

This sort of design resembles a true experimental design, and is utilized when a standard research
design is not applicable, however; it is not based upon randomized sample groups.
Q.4 How will you conduct a Quasi Experimental study ? Give example

[: Experimental Design

This sort of design determines cause and effect relationships among various variables in such a way that
the independent variable is changed in order to observe its effect on the dependent variable e.g.,
experiment with random assignment.

Q.5 Give an example of conducting an experimental research design

descriptive research: research studies that do not test specific relationships between variables; they are
used to describe general or specific behaviors and attributes that are observed and measured.

Common descriptive research questions will begin with “How much?”, “How regularly?”, “What
percentage?”, “What time?”, “What is?” Primarily, a descriptive research question will be used to
quantify a single variable, but there's nothing stopping you covering multiple variables within a single
question

It means that there can be more than one variable that can be examined in a descriptive study

Types of Variables

Predictor variable is the name given to an independent variable used in regression analyses. The
predictor variable provides information on an associated dependent variable regarding a particular
outcome.

: A mediating variable (or mediator) explains the process through which two variables are related, while
a moderating variable (or moderator) affects the strength and direction of that relationship.

The outcome variable is also called the response or dependent variable, and the risk factors and
confounders are called the predictors, or explanatory or independent variables. In regression analysis,
the dependent variable is denoted "Y" and the independent variables are denoted by "X".

: 1. Descriptive research design: In a descriptive design, a researcher is solely interested in describing the
situation or case under their research study. It is a theory-based design method which is created by
gathering, analyzing, and presenting collected data. This allows a researcher to provide insights into the
why and how of research. Descriptive design helps others better understand the need for the research.
If the problem statement is not clear, you can conduct exploratory research.

2. Experimental research design: Experimental research design establishes a relationship between the
cause and effect of a situation. It is a causal design where one observes the impact caused by the
independent variable on the dependent variable. For example, one monitors the influence of an
independent variable such as a price on a dependent variable such as customer satisfaction or brand
loyalty. It is a highly practical research design method as it contributes to solving a problem at hand. The
independent variables are manipulated to monitor the change it has on the dependent variable. It is
often used in social sciences to observe human behavior by analyzing two groups. Researchers can have
participants change their actions and study how the people around them react to gain a better
understanding of social psychology.

3. Correlational research design: Correlational research is a non-experimental research design

technique that helps researchers establish a relationship between two closely connected variables. This
type of research requires two different groups. There is no assumption while evaluating a relationship
between two different variables, and statistical analysis techniques calculate the relationship between
them.

A correlation coefficient determines the correlation between two variables, whose value ranges
between -1 and +1. If the correlation coefficient is towards +1, it indicates a positive relationship
between the variables and -1 means a negative relationship between the two variables.

: Types of Research Questions

There are three basic types of questions that research projects can address:

Descriptive. When a study is designed primarily to describe what is going on or what exists. Post
traumatic growth in Breast cancer survivors that seek only to describe the phenomenon of post
traumatic growth which is primarily descriptive in nature. For instance, if we want to know what percent
of the survivors would report post traumatic growth.

we are simply interested in describing something.

Relational.

When a study is designed to look at the relationships between two or more variables. For example,Post
traumatic growth and Quality of life in kidney disease patients that compares what proportion of males
and females report post traumatic growt…

[0:39 am, 18/03/2021] +92 333 0758659: It will be a class quiz of 5 marks , and 5 marks written
assignment of the same to be submitted to Ms iqra with references and diagrams to explain predictor,
mediator, moderator and outcome variables.
.

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as
language.

Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives
meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is defined as non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs or audio recordings.
This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews, and analyzed using
grounded theory or thematic analysis.

[1:16 am, 24/03/2021] +92 333 0758659: Methods (used to obtain qualitative data)

There are different types of qualitative research methods including ;

1. diary accounts,

2. in-depth interviews,

3. documents,

4. focus groups,

5. case study

6. ethnography.

The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understandings of how people perceive their social
realities, and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

[1:18 am, 24/03/2021] +92 333 0758659: Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the
data, such as

1. content analysis,

2. grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967),

3. thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)

4. discourse analysis.

: For example: ethnography. Content analysis, discourse analysis

What is IPA?

: What is Thematic Analysis?

: What is content analysis

: Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to
understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem
or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing
numerical data for statistical analysis.

[6:29 am, 25/03/2021] +92 333 0758659: Qualitative research question examples:

1. How does social media shape body image in teenagers?

2. How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in Pakistan?

3. What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?

4. How is anxiety experienced around the world?

5. How can teachers use effective teaching styles to improve learning outcomes?

[6:31 am, 25/03/2021] +92 333 0758659: Qualitative research approaches

Grounded theory

Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories inductively.

Ethnography
Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures.

Action research

Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change.

Phenomenological research

Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived

experiences.

Narrative research

Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of
their experiences.

Inclusion criteria are characteristics that the prospective subjects must have if they are to be included in
the study. Exclusion criteria are those characteristics that disqualify prospective subjects from inclusion
in the study. ... Social science research generally does not have defined exclusion criteria.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria set the boundaries for the systematic review. They are determined after
setting the research question usually before the search is conducted, however scoping searches may
need to be undertaken to determine appropriate criteria. Many different factors can be used as
inclusion or exclusion criteria. Information about the inclusion and exclusion criteria is usually recorded
as a paragraph or table within the methods section of the systematic review. It may also be necessary
to give the definitions, and source of the definition, used for particular concepts in the research question
(e.g. adolescence, depression).

In statistics, a Type I error means rejecting the null hypothesis when it's actually true, while a Type II
error means failing to reject the null hypothesis when it's actually false

Sample estimation

Types of Variables

Covariates

Mediators

Moderators

Predictors

Operational definitions

When to use research questions or hypothesis?

Types of research questions in different research designs

Match research questions and hypothesis with research design

Type 1 & Type 11 error

Operational definitions

Inclusion exclusion criteria

G Power

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to
understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem
or generate new ideas for research.

Qualitative research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves collecting and analyzing
numerical data for statistical analysis

Qualitative research question examples:

1. How does social media shape body image in teenagers?

2. How do children and adults interpret healthy eating in Pakistan?

3. What factors influence employee retention in a large organization?

4. How is anxiety experienced around the world?

5. How can teachers use effective teaching styles to improve learning outcomes?

Qualitative research approaches

Grounded theory

Researchers collect rich data on a topic of interest and develop theories inductively.

Ethnography

Researchers immerse themselves in groups or organizations to understand their cultures.

Action research

Researchers and participants collaboratively link theory to practice to drive social change.

Phenomenological research

Researchers investigate a phenomenon or event by describing and interpreting participants’ lived

experiences.

Narrative research

Researchers examine how stories are told to understand how participants perceive and make sense of
their experiences.

Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is the process of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting non-numerical data, such as
language.

Qualitative research can be used to understand how an individual subjectively perceives and gives
meaning to their social reality.

Qualitative data is defined as non-numerical data, such as text, video, photographs or audio recordings.
This type of data can be collected using diary accounts or in-depth interviews, and analyzed using
grounded theory or thematic analysis.

: Methods (used to obtain qualitative data)

There are different types of qualitative research methods including ;

1. diary accounts,

2. in-depth interviews,

3. documents,

4. focus groups,

5. case study

6. ethnography.
The results of qualitative methods provide a deep understandings of how people perceive their social
realities, and in consequence, how they act within the social world.

Qualitative Data Analysis

Qualitative research is endlessly creative and interpretive.

Qualitative interpretations are constructed, and various techniques can be used to make sense of the
data, such as

1. content analysis,

2. grounded theory (Glaser & Strauss, 1967),

3. thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006)

4. discourse analysis.

The outcome variable is also called the response or dependent variable, and the risk factors and
confounders are called the predictors, or explanatory or independent variables. In regression analysis,
the dependent variable is denoted "Y" and the independent variables are denoted by "X".

Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA) is an increasingly popular approach to qualitative inquiry

and essentially an attempt to understand how participants experience and make meaning of their world.
Although not to be confused with the now ubiquitous style of beer with the same initials (India Pale Ale),
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis is similarly accused of being too frequently and imperfectly
brewed (Hefferon and Gil-Rodriguez 2011).

Grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data. The theory is “grounded” in actual data,
which means the analysis and development of theories happens after you have collected the data. It was
introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.21-Sep-2016

To start the grounded theory process, you should:

Identify the area of interest.

Avoid preconceived theories and focus on the data only.

Use theoretical sensitivity— an awareness of subtle messages and meanings in data.

Research stops when you have reached theoretical saturation: the point where you have sampled and
analyzed your data until you have exhausted all theories and uncovered all data.
Grounded theory commonly uses the following data collection methods:

Interviewing participants with open-ended questions.

Participant Observation (fieldwork) and/or focus groups.

Study of Artifacts and Texts

The general theory can be broken down into two parts: methods and products.

[9:33 pm, 14/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: Methods

Grounded theory provides qualitative researchers with guidelines for collecting and analyzing data.
Although there are “probably as many versions of grounded theory as there were grounded theorists”
(Dey, 1999), all of the versions have the following aspects in common (Charmaz, 2006):

Coding (labeling and categorizing) from collected data instead of relying on theories not grounded in
data.

Social processes are discovered in the data.

Abstract categories are constructed inductively.

Categories are refined using theoretical sampling.

The gap between coding and writing is bridged with analytical memos.

Categories are integrated into a theoretical framework.

In order to say that your research is based in grounded theory you must follow the explicit, se…

[9:44 pm, 14/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: https://youtu.be/d5geMLe5tbM

[9:46 pm, 14/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: https://youtu.be/fVJ8f4AMdm4

[9:47 pm, 14/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: Thematic analysis is a method of analyzing qualitative data. It
is usually applied to a set of texts, such as interview transcripts. The researcher closely examines the
data to identify common themes – topics, ideas and patterns of meaning that come up repeatedly.

There are various approaches to conducting thematic analysis, but the most common form follows a six-
step process:
Familiarization

Coding

Generating themes

Reviewing themes

Defining and naming themes

Writing up

This process was originally developed for psychology research by Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke.
However, thematic analysis is a flexible method that can be adapted to many different kinds of research.

[9:50 pm, 14/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: When to use thematic analysis

Thematic analysis is a good approach to research where you’re trying to find out something about
people’s views, opinions, knowledge, experiences or values from a set of qualitative data – for example,
interview transcripts, social media profiles, or survey responses.

Some types of research questions you might use thematic analysis to answer:

How do patients perceive doctors in a hospital setting?

What are young women’s experiences on dating sites?

What are non-experts’ ideas and opinions about climate change?

How is gender constructed in high school history teaching

[0:02 am, 15/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: In qualitative research, coding is “how you define what the
data you are analysing are about” (Gibbs, 2007). Coding is a process of identifying a passage in the text
or other data items (photograph, image), searching and identifying concepts
[0:03 am, 15/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: Themes' are features of participants' accounts characterising
particular perceptions and/or experiences that the researcher sees as relevant to the research question.
'Coding' is the process of identifying themes in accounts and attaching labels (codes) to index them

[4:41 am, 16/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: Sample item:

The gap between coding and writing is bridged with analytical memos

T/ F

[4:42 am, 16/04/2021] +92 333 0758659: Analytic memos provide an avenue for the researcher to
record his or her thoughts during the research process and to code the memos as additional data for the
study.