LECTURE 6: SPECTRAL

ANALYSIS
DR. TRINH VAN CHIEN
SER/BER for (binary antipodal signal)

costellazione binaria antipodale 1  Eb 

Pb (e) = erfc 
2  N 
1
 0 
0.1
0.01
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
1E-7
BER

1E-8
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11
1E-12
1E-13
1E-14
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Eb/N0 [dB]

2
 BER COMPARISON
Error probability of antipodal signals and orthogonal signals:

1  Eb  1  1 Eb 
Pb (e) |antipodal = erfc  Pb (e) orthogonal = erfc 
2  N   2 N 
 0  2  0 

➢ Antipodal signals give lower error probability

➢ For a given BER, antipodal signals request Eb/N0
lower than orthogonal signals
➢ For given Eb/N0 , the system has lower BER

3
 BER COMPARISON

1  Eb  1  1 Eb 
Pb (e) |antipodal = erfc  = erfc 
2  N  Pb (e) orthogonal
 2 N 
 0  2  0 

1
ortogonale
0.1 antipodale
0.01
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
1E-7
BER

1E-8
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11
1E-12
1E-13
1E-14
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Eb/N0 [dB]

4
 BER COMPARISON
With Eb/N0 =12 dB:
• Antipodal signals give Pb(e) =1e-8
• Orthogonal signals give Pb(e) =5e-5 (Higher error probability → Lower
system performance)

To achieve Pb(e)=1e-6:
• Antipodal signals require: Eb/N0 = 10.6 dB;
• Orthogonal signals require: Eb/N0 =13.6 dB

(Antipodal signals gains 3 dB compared to orthogonal signals. Note that:

Eb/No is related to the received power)

5
 BER COMPARISON
Example: For a communication environment with
GT GR
PR = PT
 4 d 
2

 
  
The system with antipodal signals has Pb(e)=1e-6 ➔ The received
signals are ½ that of orthogonal signals

With the same transmit power, the propagation distance corresponding the
antipodal signals are 2 longer than that of the orthogonal signals

For a given propagation distance, the network can reduce ½ the transmit
power if the network uses antipodal signals instead of orthogonal
signals

6
 BER COMPARISON
For two constellation sets M1 and M2 with
 Eb   E 
Pb (e) |1  erfc  y1  Pb (e) |2  erfc  y2 b 
 N  N0 
 0 


If y1 > y2 , then M1 performs better than M2 (lower BER)

7
 BER COMPARISON
1
ortogonale
0.1 antipodale
0.01
1E-3
1E-4
1E-5
1E-6
1E-7
BER

1E-8
1E-9
1E-10
1E-11
1E-12
1E-13

 Eb  1E-14

  -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

 N 0 2 Eb/N0 [dB]
G = 10 log10 [dB]
 Eb 
 
 0 1
N
G
8
 ASYMPTOTIC PERFORMANCE

➢ As Eb/No → , the variance of noise is extremely small.

➢ Most of the received signal belongs to the correct Voronoi region.
➢ Once errors appears, it falls in the neighbour Voronoi regions with an
overwhelming probability.
➢ The asymptotic performance is approximated as follows

1  d2 
PS (e)  Amin erfc  min 
2  4 N0 
 

d min = min d E ( s1 , s j )
s1 s j  M

Amin = multiplicity=number of signals s j with d E ( s j s1 ) = d min

9
 ASYMPTOTIC PERFORMANCE
BER performance:

1 wmin  d2 
Pb (e)  erfc  min 
2 k  4 N0 
 

Where:

wmin = input multiplicity= 

s j :d E ( s1 , s j ) = d min
d H (v1 , v j )

➔ All these formulations are upper bounds and the approximations for high
SNR values

10
 EXAMPLE

For 4-PSK
01/ 00/s0
s1 a
d min = 2a Amin = 2 wmin = 2
a
11/s2 10/s3
 d2   Eb 
PS (e)  erfc  min
 = erfc  
 4 N0 
   N0 

1  d2  1  Eb 
Pb (e)  erfc  min
 = erfc  
2  
 4 N0  2  N0 

11
 GRAY LABELLING
Asymptotic BER performance

1 wmin  d2 
Pb (e)  erfc  min 
2 k  4 N0 
 
One has Amin  wmin

Amin = multiplicity=number of signals s j with d E ( s j s1 ) = d min

wmin = input multiplicity= 

s j :d E ( s1 , s j ) = d min
d H (v1 , v j )

For the optimality:

Amin = wmin

12
 GRAY LABELLING

For given signal si , its corresponding binary vector vi =e-1( si ).

“adjacent” si ( minimum distance dmin to si) has its binary vector with
Hamming distance 1 compared wih vi ..

➔ By this way, the asymptotic BER can be minimized

13
 EXAMPLE

011
001
111

101 000
010
100
110

14
Signal Spectrum

15
 PROPERTIES OF SIGNAL
SPECTRUM

We want to study signal properties of s(t) in the frequency

domain by considering power spectral density Gs(f), then
define a suitable bandwidth (frequency band that contains
almost information of Gs(f))

16
 ANTIPODAL SIGNAL
Consider the signal space:

M = {s1 (t ) = + APT (t ) , s2 (t ) = − APT (t ) }

It is 1D signal space(d=1) with the basis:

 1 
B = b1 (t ) = PT (t ) 
 T 

Hence, the signals in M can be represented as:

M = {s1 = (+ ) , s2 = (− )} =A T

17
 ANTIPODAL SIGNAL

We consider the transmitted signal:

In the first interval [0,T[, the system sends the signal

s1 (t ) = + b1 (t ) or s2 (t ) = − b1 (t )

In the (n+1)-th interval [nT,(n+1)T[, the system sends the signal

s1 (t − nT ) = + b1 (t − nT ) or s2 (t − nT ) = − b1 (t − nT )

18
 ANTIPODAL SIGNAL
The transmitted signals can be formulated as follows

+
s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n =0

a[n] {+ , − } p(t ) = b1 (t )

19
 ANTIPODAL SIGNAL
For all the 1D signal space:

M = {s1 = (1 ) , s2 = ( 2 ) ,..., sm = ( m ) }  R

with the basis vector: b1 (t )

The transmitted signal:

+
s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n =0

a[n]  {1 ,...,  i ,...,  m } p(t ) = b1 (t )

20
 ANTIPODAL SIGNAL

a[n] has the stationary property of random variables, all symbols are
independent with the probability:

1
P ( a[n] =  i ) =
m

1 m
Mean a =   i
m i =1

Variance 1 m
 =  ( i −  a )
2 2
a
m i =1

21
 WAVEFORM
We now compute the spectral density function for the signal in the form
+
s(t ) =  a[n]p(t − nT )
n =−
s(t) is a random process, the spectral density function is computed as
+
Gs ( f ) = 
−
Rs ( ) e− j 2 f  d
This value provides the information of the power distribution in the frequency
domain: +
P( s) = Rs (0) =  G ( f ) df
−
s

22
 THEORY OF SPECTRAL DENSITY
+
Consider a random process s(t ) =  a[n] p(t − nT )
n =−
Where
➢ a[n] is a stationary sequence of random variables with
Ma(i)=E[a[n]a[n+i]]
➢ p(t) is real signal with its Fourier transform version P(f)

Spectral density function: | P( f ) |2

Gs ( f ) = Sa ( f )
T

Where S a ( f ) =  M a (i )e − j 2 fiT
i

23
 PROOF (FOR REFERENCE)

+
Gs ( f ) = 
−
Rs ( )e− j 2 f  d

For a random process, one can compute

T
1
Rs ( ) =  M SS (t +  , t ) dt
T0

24
 PROOF (FOR REFERENCE)

 + +

M SS (t +  , t ) = E[ S (t +  ) S (t )] = E   a[m]p(t +  − mT )  a[n] p(t − nT )  =
 m=− n =− 
+ +
=   E  a[m]a[n] p(t +  − mT ) p(t − nT ) =
m =− n =−
+ +
=  M
m =− n =−
a (m − n) p(t +  − mT ) p(t − nT ) =

For i=(m-n) [ m = n+i ]

+ +
M SS (t +  , t ) =  M
i =− n =−
a (i) p(t +  − nT − iT ) p(t − nT )

25
 PROOF (FOR REFERENCE)

+ +
M SS (t +  , t ) =  M
i =− n =−
a (i) p(t +  − nT − iT ) p(t − nT )

1  + +

T T
1
Rs ( ) =  M SS (t +  , t ) dt =     M a (i ) p (t +  − nT − iT ) p (t − nT )  dt =
T0 T 0 i =− n =− 

1 + + T
=  M a (i) 
T i =− n =−
  p(t +  − nT − iT ) p(t − nT ) dt =
0
For t’=(t-nT)
− ( n −1)T
1 + +
=  M a (i) 
T i =− n =−
  p(t '+  − iT ) p(t ') dt '
− nT
+
1 +
Rs ( ) =  M a (i)   p(t '+  − iT ) p(t ') dt '
T i =− −
26
 PROOF (FOR REFERENCE)

+
1 +
Rs ( ) =  M a (i)   p(t '+  − iT ) p(t ') dt '
T i =− −

+ +
 1 + +
 − j 2 f 
Gs ( f ) =  R ( )e
s
− j 2 f 
d =    M a (i)   p(t '+  − iT ) p(t ') dt ' e d =
− −  T i =− − 
+ +
1 +
=  M a (i)    p(t '+  − iT ) p(t ')e− j 2 f   dt ' d =
T i =− − −

t " = t '+  − iT  = t "− t '+ iT

e− j 2 f  = e− j 2 ft " e j 2 ft ' e − j 2 fiT

+ +
1 +
Gs ( f ) =  M a (i)    p(t ") p(t ')e − j 2 ft " e j 2 ft ' e − j 2 fiT  dt ' dt " =
T i =− − −
27
 PROOF (FOR REFERENCE)

+ +
1 +
Gs ( f ) =  M a (i)    p(t ") p(t ')e − j 2 ft " e j 2 ft ' e − j 2 fiT  dt ' dt " =
T i =− − −

+ +
1 +
=  M a (i)e− j 2 fiT  p(t ") e− j 2 ft "dt "  p(t ') e j 2 ft ' dt ' =
T i =− − −

1
= S a ( f ) P ( f ) P *( f )
T

2
P( f )
Gv ( f ) = Sa ( f )
T

28
 STATISTICALLY INDEPENDENT
SYMBOLS WITH ZERO MEAN

Fundamental case study

Let us suppose the sequence a[n] is characterized by:

➢ Statistically independent symbols

➢ Zero mean: μa = 0

THIS CORRESPONDS TO A ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSTELLATION WITH

CENTRE OF MASS IN THE ORIGIN

29
 STATISTICALLY INDEPENDENT
SYMBOLS WITH ZERO MEAN

We have

for i  0 M a (i ) = E (a[n + 1]a[n]) = E (a[n + 1]) E (a[n]) = 0

for i = 0 ( )
M a (i ) = E a[n]2 =  a2

30
 STATISTICALLY INDEPENDENT
SYMBOLS WITH ZERO MEAN

For:
S a ( f ) =  M a (i )e − j 2 fiT =  a2
i
2
P( f )
Spectral density: Gs ( f ) = Sa ( f )
T
2
P( f )
Another expression (for simplicity):
Gs ( f ) =  2
a
T

For an antipodal signal with centre-of-mass in the origin, the |P(f)|2

31
 EXAMPLE
Assume that:

M = {s1 (t ) = + APT (t ) , s2 (t ) = − APT (t ) }

It is 1D signal space (d=1) with the basis

 1 
B = b1 (t ) = PT (t ) 
 T 

The signals are expressed as follows

M = {s1 = (+ ) , s2 = (− )} =A T

32
 EXAMPLE
+
The transmitted waveform: s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n =0

with a[n] {+ , − } p(t ) = b1 (t )

For the sequence a[n], one obtains

Mean a = 0.5 (− +  ) = 0

Variance  a2 = 0.5 ( 2 +  2 ) =  2 = A2T

33
 EXAMPLE

Sequence a[n] includes independent random variables with zero mean

The spectral density function is

2
P( f )
Gs ( f ) =  2
a
T

34
 EXAMPLE

We have: 1
p(t ) = b1 (t ) = PT (t )
T

Let us introduce: sinc(x):

sin( x)
sinc( x) =
( x)

The Fourier transform of s(t) is:

sin( fT ) − j f 
P( f ) = T sinc( fT )e− j f  = T e
( fT )

35
 EXAMPLE

PSD of this signal space:

2
 sin( fT ) 
Gs ( f ) = A2T  
 ( fT ) 

GG
s (v(f)
f)

fT
36
 CONCLUSION

➢ Signal spectrum at the baseband( “centred around the origin = DC”)

➢ Spectrum is 0 as the frequency is a multiplication of 1/T

➢ The “main lobe” occupies 2/T, from –1/T to +1/T
➢ The other lobes occupy 1/T and magnitude is reduced over time

37
 CONSTELLATION 1
The signal space is matched well with a “low-pass response”

ssT((tt)) r (t )
H( f )

The received signal (with no interference) has the spectral density function:

Gr ( f ) = H ( f ) Gs ( f )
2

Since Gs(f) spans the entire frequency axis, only H(f)=1 can keep the
signal in its form

38
 CONSTELLATION

ssT((tt)) r (t )
H( f )
Gr ( f ) = H ( f ) Gs ( f )
2

If H(f)  1, received signal is different from transmitted signal. However, if

the signal bandwidth is sufficiently large, distortion is not quite significant
(received signal is not quite different from transmitted signal.)

To reduce distortion→ Baseband channel should have a high “cut-off”

frequency.

39
 CONSTELLATION

ssT((tt)) r (t )
H( f )
Gr ( f ) = H ( f ) Gs ( f )
2

For a channel with the frequency impulse response H(f)

We must design transmitted signals such that Gs(f) has its frequency
around that of H(f) ➔ “good” .

By this methodology, the received signal is approximate the transmitted

signal

40
 CONSTELLATION
Let us consider

M = {s1 (t ) = + APT (t ) cos(2 f 0t ) , s2 (t ) = − APT (t ) cos(2 f 0t ) }

It is a one-dimensional constellation (d=1) , with basis

 2 
B = b1 (t ) = PT (t ) cos ( 2 f 0t ) 
 T 

The constellation corresponds to this vector set

T
M = {s1 = (+ ) , s2 = (− )} =A
2
41
 CONSTELLATION 2
+
The transmitted signal is given by s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n =0

with a[n] {+ , − } p(t ) = b1 (t )

Where the sequence a[n] has

mean a = 0.5 (− +  ) = 0

variance  a2 = 0.5 ( 2 +  2 ) =  2 = A2
T
2
42
 CONSTELLATION 2

The power spectral density is given by

2
P( f )
Gs ( f ) =  a2
T

2
Where p(t ) = b1 (t ) = PT (t ) cos ( 2 f 0t )
T

 sin( fT ) − j f    1 
has Fourier transform P( f ) =  2T e    (  ( f − f  ) +  ( f + f ) )
  =
 ( fT )  2 

T  sin( ( f − f 0 )T )   sin( ( f + f 0 )T )   − j f 
=   +    e
2  ( ( f − f 0 )T )   ( ( f + f 0 )T )  

43
 CONSTELLATION 2

It follows
 
T sin( ( f − f 0 )T ) 
2
 sin( ( f + f 0 )T ) 

2

P ( f ) =   +   
2

2  ( ( f − f 0 )T )   ( ( f + f 0 )T )  
 

The power spectral density is


1 2  sin( ( f − f 0 )T )   sin( ( f + f 0 )T )  
2 2

Gs ( f ) = A T   +   
4 
 ( ( f − f 0 )T )   ( ( f + f 0 )T )  
 

44
 CONSTELLATION 2

1 2  sin( ( f − f 0 )T )   sin( ( f + f 0 )T )  
2 2

Gs ( f ) = A T   +  
4  ( ( f − f 0 )T )   ( ( f + f 0 )T )  
 

Gs ( f )

Gv(f) Gv(f)

− f0 f0

1 2 1 1
T T T T
45
 CONSTELLATION 2

➢ It is a bandpass (IF) spectrum (centered around a non-zero

frequency f0)

➢ The spectrum is equal to zero for frequencies multiple of 1/T

➢ The main lobe has width 2/T around f0
➢ All the other lobes have width 1/T and decreasing amplitude

46
 LINEAR MODULATION
In general, given s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n

2
P( f )
with spectrum Gs ( f ) =  a2
T

If we consider s '(t ) =  an p '(t − nT )

n

with p '(t ) = p (t ) cos(2 f 0t )

1
Its spectrum is Gs ' ( f ) = [Gs ( f − f 0 ) + Gs ( f + f 0 )]
4

47
 CONSTELLATION 3
Let us consider
 sin ( t / T ) sin ( t / T ) 
M =  s1 (t ) = + A , s2 (t ) = − A 
 (  t / T ) (  t / T ) 

It is a one-dimensional constellation (d=1) , with basis

 1 sin ( t / T ) 
B = b1 (t ) = 
 T (  t / T ) 

The constellation corresponds to this vector set

M = {s1 = (+ ) , s2 = (− )} =A T

48
 CONSTELLATION 3
+
The transmitted signal is given by s (t ) =  a[n]p (t − nT )
n =0

with a[n] {+ , − } p(t ) = b1 (t )

Where the sequence a[n] has

mean a = 0.5 (− +  ) = 0

variance  a2 = 0.5 ( 2 +  2 ) =  2 = A2T

49
 CONSTELLATION 3

The power spectral density is given by

2
P( f )
Gs ( f ) =  a2
T

1 sin ( t / T )
p(t ) =
Where T ( t / T )

has Fourier transform P ( f ) = T rect 1 ( f )

T

50
 CONSTELLATION 3

p(t): is an ideal low pass filter with Fourier transform

constant between -1/(2T) and +1/(2T).

1 sin ( t / T ) rect L ( x)
p(t ) =
T ( t / T )

P ( f ) = T rect 1 ( f )
T
x
P ( f ) = T rect 1 ( f )
2
L L
−
T 2 2

51
 CONSTELLATION 3

The power spectral density is Gs ( f ) = A2Trect 1 ( f )

T

Gv ( f )

1 1
−
2T 2T

1/ T

It is a baseband spectrum

52