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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 pp. 371–390 371

Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy

Ali Osman Yılmaz

Karadeniz Technical University, Dept. of Mining Eng., 61080 Trabzon, Turkey

ABSTRACT
Coal is one of the largest energy resources of Turkey. Turkey has hard coal
reserve of 1.12 billion tons and lignite reserve of 8.05 billion tons. While it is
the 9th country in the world in terms of lignite reserve, it is the 8th country in terms
of production (Hard coal + lignite) and the 12th country in terms of total coal
consumption. While its hard coal production meets only 13% of its consumption,
it meets its total lignite consumption. 65% of hard coal production and 78% of
lignite production are used for electricity production. Turkey’s Total installed
capacity is 65587 MW by 2003 and 6774 (19%) of this installed capacity is met
by the coal plants. In 2003, the total amount of produced electricity was 140
billion kWh and 19% of this amount was obtained from the coal plants. Turkey
has recently concentrated on natural gas for production of electricity. While the
share of coal in production of electricity reached 50% in 1986, today natural gas
has taken the place of coal. In other words, while Turkey was dependent on
foreign countries for fulfilling 21% of its electricity production in 1986, it has
become dependent on foreign countries for fulfilling 56% of its electricity
production in 2003. Turkey can produce electricity using renewable energy
resources, especially coal.

I. INTRODUCTION
Energy is one of the indispensable factors regarding the assurance of social prosperity
and economic development of a country. The developing countries struggle to obtain
energy sources reliable in the long term to complete their economic development, and
the developed countries struggle to get them to keep their present prosperity levels.
Coal seems to continue its indispensable position among the other energy sources for
many years because of its production in more than 50 countries, because of the least
effect it has from the price fluctuation and its usage lifespan of more than 200 years. The
countries that are aware of it, have investments in mining fields in the countries rich in
coal reserves, and they continue investing considerable amount of Money (Yılmaz,
Uslu, 2006).
On the eve of 21st century, Turkey was unable to meet its energy requirement
with its limited sources as a result of the increasing population and industrialization
and thus the deficit between the energy production and energy consumption
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372 Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy

increased rapidly. Under such conditions, utilizing own resources more effectively
had become more important increasingly day by day. Turkey became more
dependent on imports year to year. It still supplies about 70% of its primary energy
consumption from imported energy sources. This percentage is 56% for electricity
production. It is now vital for Turkey to attach importance to coal and renewable
energy sources, which are the largest domestic energy sources of Turkey, in order
to meet this increasing energy deficit. Especially, it is possible to produce electricity
using the said domestic sources.

II. ENERGY OUTLOOK OF TURKEY

Since Turkey is an energy importing country more than about 70% of the country’s
energy consumption is met by imports, and the share of imports is growing each year
[Demirbaş, 2006]. While the primary energy consumption in 1970 was 18.84 millions
TOE, it reached 78.41 millions TOE with an increase rate of 316% in 2003. While
76.9% of the consumed energy in 1970 was met by the domestic energy sources, this
percentage decreased to 28% in 2004 (Fig. 1) [Yılmaz, Uslu, Savaş, 2005; Yılmaz,
2003; Yılmaz, Uslu, 2006].
Turkey is dependent on foreign countries especially in terms of oil, natural gas and
coal. 92.3% of consumed oil, 97.4% of consumed natural gas and 88.6% of consumed
coal is satisfied by imports in 2003. While the primary energy production growth rate
was 1.60% on average for the term 1970–2004, the consumption growth rate was
4.71%. In other words, Turkey consumes 2.9 times of its production [Yılmaz, 2006;
Yılmaz, Arıoǧlu, 2003].
The installed capacity of Turkey’s electricity production was 36824 MW in 2004.
While 53% of this capacity was supplied by the Thermal plants (hard coal + lignite +
oil + natural gas) the remaining part was supplied by renewable energy resources. Net
electricity production has increased to 145 TWh in 2004 from 8 TWh in 1970. Net
electricity consumption has increased 17 times, reaching 121 TWh from 7 TWh
(Fig. 2). The annual average increase rate was 8.9% for production and 8.7% for
consumption. The distribution of electricity consumption by usage areas was as
follows in 1970: Industry %64,2; Residential %14.5; Commercial %4.8; Government
Office %4.1; Public lighting %2.6 and others %9.8. The consumption rates were
realized as follows in 2004: Industry %49.2; Residential %22.8; Commercial %12.9;
Government Office %3.7; Public lighting %3.7 and others %7.7 (Fig. 2).

III. COAL POTENTIAL OF TURKEY

Turkey has an important potential from the point of view of coal reserves. Apart from
the hard coal and lignite reserves, asphaltite, bituminous shale and peat reserves are
also present in the country (Fig. 3). Turkey’s coal reserves (hard coal+lignite) are 0.8%
of the world reserves (Table 1).
Lignite reserves constitute the large portion of total coal reserves. Lignite deposits
dispersed all over the country (Yılmaz, 2006). Total reserve (proven + possible +
probable) is about 8.05 billion tons (Table 2). Afşin-Elbistan, Muǧla, Soma, Tunçbilek,
Seyitömer, Beypazarı and Sivas basins constitutes the most important known lignite
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77 88
84
80 72 81
68 (Production/consumption) × 100 78 70
75 75
74 74
64 63
70
Page 373

70
60 60
56 57
56 55 56 56 55 64
60 54 54 54 53
52 51
60 59
51 57
48
50
47 47
50 51 53 54 44 45
Production 48 42
47 40
39 38 39
Consumption 42 37
40
39
37 32 33
36 31
34 28
30
32 33 32 32 28
30 30 31
29
27 27 28 28
26 27 26 27 27 26
25 26 25 25 25 26 25 24
24 24 24 20
(Production/consumption) × 100 (%)

20 22 22
20 20
19 18 19 19
17 18 17 17
15 16 16 16 16
15 14

Primary energy production—consumption (Mtoe)

10 10
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1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004

Figure 1. Primary energy production—consumption of Turkey during 1970–2004 and production consumption coverage
(data from, MENR, 2006; SIS, 2003-2004;TEIAS, 2004; TPAO, 2006)
373
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100 160
Others
9.0 7.0 7.7 7.7
9.8
2.6 4.6
90 1.4 3.7
2.6 Public lighting
140
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80
121 120
70 Industry
Page 374

49.2 100
60 98 49.7
62.4
63.8
64.2

50 Net electricity 80
consumption
145
40
119 3.7 60
4.2

30 47 9.5 12.9

Total net electricity consumption (%)

3.1
3.0 40
Govern. office 4.1 5.5
20 5.6
Commercial 4.8
Net electricity generation—consumption (TWh/year)

54
Residential 20 20
10 24.3 22.8
22 19.4
17.2
Net electricity generation

14.5 7
0 8 0
1970 1980 1990 2000 2004

Figure 2. Distribution of electricity production—consumption by usage areas by decades

(data from, SIS, 2003–2004;TEIAS, 2004)
Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy
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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 375

BLACK SEA
Azdavay
Soroy Amasra
ZONGULDAK
ÝSTANBUL Mengen
Orta Dodurga
Bahçecik
Beypazar ý Horasan
Çan Orhaneli Göynük

Burhaniye Koyunaõý l
Seyitömer ANKARA Karlýova
Tunçbilek Sorgun Kangal
Soma

Ý ZMÝ R
KAYSERÝ Hazro
Elbistan
Ilgý n pý rnak Yüksekova
Milas
Tufanbeyli Silopi
Yataõan Beypehir DÝ YARBAKIR
Gölbapý
Uluký pla
Kemer
Lignite
Hard coal
0 100 200 km Asphaltite
MEDITERRANEAN SEA Bituminous shale
Peat

Figure 3. Distribution of Hardcoal, lignite, Asphaltite, Bituminous shale and peat

deposits (data from, MTA, 1997)

Table 1. World Proven Coal Reserves, 2003

Range Coal reserve [million tonne]

as a total Hard coal Lignite Total [1/4] [2/4] [3/4]
reserve Countries [1] [2] [3] × 100 × 100 × 100
1 USA 115,891 134,103 249,994 22.3 28.6 25.3
2 Rus. Federation 49,088 107,922 157,010 9.5 23.0 15.9
3 China 62,200 52,300 114,500 12.0 11.2 11.6
4 India 82,396 2,000 84,396 15.9 0.4 8.5
5 Australia 42,550 39,540 82,090 8.2 8.4 8.3
6 Germany 23,000 43,000 66,000 4.4 9.2 6.7
7 S. Africa 49,520 – 49,520 9.5 0.0 5.0
8 Ukraine 16,274 17,879 34,153 3.1 3.8 3.5
9 Kazakhstan 31,000 3,000 34,000 6.0 0.6 3.4
10 Other Europe 1,584 20,761 22,345 0.3 4.4 2.3
11 Poland 20,300 1,860 22,160 3.9 0.4 2.2
12 Brazil – 11,929 11,929 0.0 2.5 1.2
13 Turkey 535 6,973 7,508 0.1 1.5 0.8
TOTAL WORLD [4] 519,319 468,953 988,272 100.0 100.0 100.0
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy June 2004, http://www.bp.com/ statisticalreview2004

reserves (Balat, 2004). Turkey’s lignite reserves: TKI; 2492 million tons (30.9%),
EUAS; 3381 million tons (41.9%), Private sector; 2184 million tons (27.1%). Turkey
has a share of 1.5% of total world lignite reserves. In other words, Turkey ranks 9th in
the world in lignite reserves (Yılmaz, 2006). The regional distribution of lignite reserve
is: Eastern Anatolia 43%, Aegean 24%, Central Anatolia 16%, Marmara 10%,
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Table 2. Distribution of coal reserves of Turkey (data from TK, 2003; TTK, 2004, MTA, 1997)

Ready [1] Proven [2] Probable [3] Possible [4] TOTAL [5] [1/5].100 [2/5].100 [3/5].100 [4/5].100
Coal field ×1000 ton (%)
Hard coal 15,418 535,438 424,955 368,447 1,344,258 1.15 39.83 31.61 27.41
Lignite 27,210 6,973,129 723,113 335,157 8,058,609 0.34 86.53 8.97 4.16
Asphaltite 44,922 28,844 7,579 81,645 – 55.02 35.32 9.28
Bituminous 554,660 558,037 1,122,697 2,235,394 – 24.81 24.96 50.22
shale
Peat – 105,000 – 105,000 100.00
Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy
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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 377

Table 3. Some properties of lignite of Turkey

Lower calorific
Moisture (%) Ash (%) Sulphur (%) value (Kcal/kg)
Regions n m n k n s n AID
The Marmara 22 29.61 23 26.10 20 2.30 23 2542
Black Sea 18 24.15 17 28.33 12 3.39 19 2831
Central Anatolia 25 30.00 25 24.66 17 2.94 25 2544
Southeast Anatolia 2 49.86 2 20.67 2 1.31 2 1218
Aegean 39 23.57 39 28.82 27 2.68 41 2700
East Anatolia 20 20.92 19 8.99 11 1.78 18 2933
Mediterranean 5 25.09 5 22.74 4 4.07 4 3336
Total 130 26.07 130 27.43 93 2.70 132 2718
n = Number of data, m, k, s, AID, Mean technological properties of coal mentioned above.

2000–3000
24%

3000–4000
5%
1000–2000
66% >4000
2%
<1000
3%

Figure 4. Distribution of Turkey’s lignite reserves according to calorific value

(data from, Hepbaslı, 2004)

Mediterranean 4%, and Black Sea 3%. Calorific values and some properties of these
lignite reserves are given in Table 3. As can be seen in Table 3 the lignite deposits are
generally low in calorific values. 66% of the total reserves have calorific values of
1000–2000 Kcal/kg. Only 2% of lignite reserves have a calorific value over 4000
Kcal/kg (Fig. 4). Lignite having low calorific value is used in thermal power plants
(Hepbaslı, 2004). Other properties are Moisture, ash and sulphur content. These
properties vary 20.92%-49.86, 8.99%-28.33, 1.31-4.09% respectively. Rhe number of
data is also illustrated in the Table 3 (Yılmaz, Uslu, Savaş 2005, Balat Ayar, 2004.
In Turkey, hard coal ranks 2nd in reserves after lignite. Although hard coal reserves
are only in Zonguldak, situated in the Northwest of the country, small-scale formations
have been met in Hazro (Diyarbakır) and Kemer (Antalya) (Fig. 3). Zonguldak and
Western Black Sea Region, was nationalized in 1937 and because of its high calorific
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378 Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy

Table 4. Some properties of hard coal of Turkey (Arıoǧlu, 1996)

Sulphur (Max) Lower calorific

Regions Type of coal Ash (%) (%) value (Kcal/kg)
Kozlu High volatile-bituminous coal, 9–13 0.8 6300–6950
(Coking coal)
Karadon High volatile-bituminous coal, 10–14 0.8 6200–6950
(Coking coal)
Armutçuk High volatile-bituminous coal,
(Coking coal) 11–17 0.9 6800–7050
Amasra High volatile-bituminous coal,
(Steam coal) 12–16 1.5 5820–6050

value, it was used in homes for heating for many years (Table 4). Zonguldak hard coal
basin is divided into 5-production district. These are, Armutçuk, Kozlu, Üzülmez,
Karadon and Amasra. Total hard coal reserve is about 1.3 billion tons (Table 2).
Karadon has highest reserve among others. Amasra, Üzülmez, Kozlu and Armutçuk
follow the Karadon, respectively (Yılmaz, 2003; Yılmaz, Arıoǧlu, 2003). Some
properties of hard coals of the various districts are illustrated in Table 3. 20 million
tons of the hard coal reserves are present in the small deposits in Diyarbakır and
Antalya (Hepbaslı, 2004). Turkey has a share of 0.1% of world hard coal reserves.
Most of the bituminous shale deposits are located in the western region of the
country. Beypazarı, Seyitömer, Hadıldaǧ and Himmetoǧlu deposits are the most
important ones among bituminous shale deposits (MTA, 1997) (Fig. 3). Total reserve
(proven + possible + probable) is 1.64 billion tons. Ash contents of bituminous shales
are high (66–89%), while calorific values of them are low (600–1500) Kcal/kg. Some
portion of reserves (Seyitömer and Himmetoǧlu) is suitable for open pit mining.
Underground mining is necessary in other deposits due to their depths (MTA, 1997).
There is no commercial bituminous shale production and consumption in Turkey.
Asphaltite deposits of Turkey are located in Şırnak and Silopi areas in Southwest
Anatolia region (Fig. 3). The ash content of asphaltites range between 33% and 52%
while their calorific values range between 3100 Kcal/kg and 5500 Kcal/kg. 82 million
tons of asphaltite is present in both areas (MTA, 1997).
Peat deposits in Turkey are located in Kayseri and Yüksekova (Hakkari) (Fig. 3).
The total proven reserves of both areas is about 190 million tons. Their calorific values
are between 1450–3000 Kcal/kg (MTA, 1997).

IV. COAL PRODUCTION-CONSUMPTION

The hard coal, lignite and asphaltite production of Turkey is illustrated in Fig. 5. The
hard coal production reaches to 1800s. Production had increased steadily until 1974
and reached to 5 million tons on saleable basis. This production level could not be
maintained during the following term and had decreased constantly year-by-year and
decreased to 1.9 million tons in 2004. This production level was unable to cover
consumption level and could only cover 10% of total consumption in 2004, which
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70 6
65.2 65.0
Lignite
60.9
60 59.6
5.0 57.4 5
4.8
4.6 4.6 4.6 4.6 Hard coal 53.9
4.6
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52.8
4.4 51.5 51.7
50 4.3
48.8 48.4
4.1 4.0
4.0 45.7 46.2 4
44.4 43.7
42.3 42.9 43.2
3.6 3.6 3.6
3.5 3.5 3.5
40 3.3
35.9 35.3 3.0
2.8 2.8
3
2.7 2.8 2.8
30 2.4 2.5 2.5
2.4
2.2 2.3
26.1
2.2
2.1
2.0 1.9 2
21.0
20 17.8
16.5
15.1 14.5
13.1 Asphaltite
12.2

Lignite production (million ton/year)

11.1 1
0.86
10 8.4 9.2 0.75 0.72
7.3 7.8 0.61 0.63 0.62
5.8 6.2 0.56 0.56 0.52
0.39 0.46 0.44 0.43 0.42
0.29 0.30 0.28 0.34
0.23
Hard coal-asphaltite production (million ton/year)

0.17 0.20 0.21

0.14 0.09 0.07
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006

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0 0

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004

Figure 5. Development of coal production in Turkey during 1970–2004 (data from, MENR, 2006)
379
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380 Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy

were 19 million tons (Fig. 6). The consumption level had been 5 million tons until
the beginning of 1980 and the production level of those times was able to meet
almost the entire consumption (Fig. 6). While about 65% of the produced hard coal is
used for electricity production in recent years, the remaining coal is consumed in iron
and steel industry, cement industry, household fuel and other industrial areas.

HARD COAL PRODUCTION BASED ON SALEABLE .

Asphaltite production in Turkey is carried out by Turkish Coal Enterprise (TKI ). It is
observed that the asphaltite production of Turkey varies largely by years. While the
production level was 40,000 tons in 1970, this rate reached to 860,000 tons, the
maximum level, in 1982. Production has occasionally decreased to 10,000 tons/year in
the recent years and increased again in 2003 and 2004 (Fig. 5). Although asphaltite is
produced by open pit mining, underground mining will be inevitable in the future, due
to decrease of reserves that are suitable for open pit mining. Almost the entire
asphaltite production is consumed as household fuel.
The lignite production of Turkey was 5.8 million tons in 1970. The production level
began increasing rapidly after the oil crisis in 1973. Production reached 14.5 million
tons in 1980 and 48.8 million tons in 1990. The increase rate was maintained
increasingly until the beginning of 2000 and reached 65.2 million tons, which was the
maximum production level, in 1999 (Fig. 5). And this rate has decreased continuously
after 2000 with the prevalence of natural gas use in electricity production and decreased
to 43.7 million tons in 2004. Turkey was the 7th largest lignite producer in 1995 and
had become the 8th largest lignite producer in 2003 with some decrease in production
(Fig. 7). The largest lignite producer in the world is Germany (20.5%), followed by
Russia (9%) and USA (8.4%) and Greece (7.8%).
The overall lignite consumption can be met by the domestic production.
Approximately 80% of the produced lignite is consumed in electricity production and
the remaining part is consumed in industry and as household fuel.

V. COAL AND ENERGY

Turkey has two main energy resources with large capacities. These are coal and
renewable energy resources. Both energy resources constitute 90% of the primary
energy production. The total primary energy production was 23.9 Mtoe in 1983 and 10.9
Mtoe (37.8%) of this rate was met by coal. The share of the renewable energy resources
was 51%. The total primary energy production increased 1.15 times and reached 23.9
Mtoe in 2003 and the share of coal also increased 8% and reached 45.7% (Fig. 8).
On the other hand, the primary energy consumption in Turkey increased 2.25 times
from 37.1 Mtoe to 83.8 Mtoe in 1983. While Turkey supplied 50% of its primary
energy consumption from two main energy resources with the largest potentials in
1983, this rate decreased to 27% in 2003 (Fig. 9). While the share of coal in energy
production was 21%, this rate decreased to 15% in 2003. In regression of the
production consumption coverage, substitution of coal with natural gas, about 100% of
which is imported, took an important role. In other words, Turkey has become a country,
which imports 70% of its energy resources, during this term.
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19 19

(Production/consumption) × 100 (%) 18

18
100 100 100 100 99
97 97
16
16
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93 91
87 88 Hard coal consumption
83 14
80 79 13
78
13

11
12
66 11
64 11

60 58 10
54 9 9
9 9
48 8 8
8 8
45
7 43
7
40 7
6
6 34 35 6
5 31 32 33
5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5 5 5 5 5 5 26
22 22 4
20 20
16 18
15

(Production/consumption) × 100 (%)

12 12 10 2
Hard coal consumption (million ton/year)

0 0
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006

1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004

Figure 6. Production—consumption coverage of hard coal

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382 Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy

Production
2.09% 13 13 2.15%
Production
Range Countries [milion ton/year] Range Countries [milion ton/year]
1 Germany 192,717
2.51% 12 12 2.91%
1 Germany 179,049
2 Russia 83,300 3.12% 11 11 3.11% 2 Russia 78,394
3 USA 78,455 3 USA 73,100
4 China 63,645 4.54% 10 10 3.74% 4 Greece 68,285
5 Poland 63,534 5 China 67,583
6 Greece 57,650 4.60% 9 9 4.60% 6 Australia 64,587
7 Turkey 52,747 7 Poland 60,875
8 Australia 50,742 5.76% 8 8 5.30% 8 Turkey 46,159
9 Yugosla 40,532 9 Yugoslavia 40,085
10 Romania 39,965 5.99% 7 7 6.99% 10 Romania 32,633
11 Bulgaria 27,443 11 Bulgaria 27,137
12 India 22,135 6.55% 6 6 7.41% 12 India 25,317
13 Thailand 18,417 13 Thailand 18,779
Other 88,899 7.22% 5 5 7.76% Other 89,469
World 880,181 World 871,452
7.23% 4 4 7.84%
1995 2003
8.91% 3 3 8.39%

9.46% 2 2 9.00%

21.90% 1 1 20.55%

175,000 150,000 125,000 100,000 75,000 50,000 25,000 25,000 50,000 75,000 100,000 125,000 150,000 175,000

Lignite production, (million ton/year)-1995 Lignite production, (million ton/year)-2003

Figure 7. Distribution of total lignite production in the world by countries during

1995–2003, (data from, BP, 2003)

The first of the areas where coal can be used most intensively is electricity
production. Electricity production is the most appropriate area where coal can
substitute other energy resources (oil, natural gas). Especially since the quality of
lignite coal produced in Turkey is low, this increased the use rate of lignite in
electricity production. A regression analysis between the lignite coal production per
capita and electricity production per capita is given in Fig. 10. When this figure is
examined, it is observed that there is a high relation between the coal production and
electricity consumption per capita (r = 0.949). In other words, lignite production is
largely used in electricity production. The decrease in electricity production based on
lignite after 2000s is observed in the regression as a deviation (Fig. 10).
In Figure 11, distribution of electricity production by resources is given in a
historical order. As seen in the Figure, coal (especially hard coal) has a share of 90%
in electricity production in 1940. The rate of electricity production using renewable
energy resources has begun increasing in time and the share of coal (lignite + hard
coal) decreased to 33% at the beginning of 1970s and the share of renewable energy
resources increased to 35% from 3%. By the middle of 1960s, use of oil in electricity
production increased, since it is a cheaper than other resources, and this was quickly
renounced after the oil crisis in 1973. After the crisis, Turkey gave importance on
lignite, one of its own energy resources, and the share of coal in electricity production
began increasing and reached 50%. After 2000s, use of natural gas began prevailing in
electricity production as in all other areas and its share in electricity production reached
45% in a very short time. The total electricity production was 140 billions kWh/year
in 2003 and its distribution by resources was as follows: coal (hard coal %2 + lignite %17)
Hydraulic %25, Oil %7, Natural gas %45, other %4 (Fig. 11).
Turkey has 13 operating thermal plants used for electricity production based on coal
(Table 5). The total installed capacity of these plants is 8143 MW and their annual total
coal consumption is about 81 million tons. If it is considered that the coal consumption
in 2003 was 46 million tons, the use rate of thermal plant capacity is about 40–50%.
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(Coal + Renewable) in total production
OTHER
90 89 90 90 89 90 89
88 87 87 87 87 88 88 87
85 86 86
84 84
81 82
80
Page 383

70 37.2 38.0
44.7 42.5 44.2 41.0 40.6 39.9 40.8
37.0 41.6
41.7
49.8 51.5 33.9 39.2 40.6 42.0 42.6

51.0
36.9
60 RENEWABLE
50

40

Total production (%)

30
50.2 51.2
45.5 45.7 44.7 46.7 47.7 44.6 45.1 46.1 46.3 47.7 47.4
43.8 44.4 44.0 43.8
45.7

20 40.1 38.6

37.8
10 COAL
ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006

0
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Figure 8. Distribution of primary energy production by energy resources

(data from, MENR, 2006; SIS, 2003–2004;TEIAS, 2004)
383
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12:07 pm

100
90 OTHER: Imported sources:
Page 384

Petroleum
80 Natural gas
70 Coal

60
(Coal + Renewable) in total consumption
50 50 51 51 50 48 49
43
40 41 41 40 40 39
28.3 25.7 24.1 37 38 37 37
24.6

28.6
28.5 18.8 34 33 34
17.8 17.3 17.2 20.2 30
30 RENEWABLE 17.3 19.3 19.3 18.4 18.5 27

Total consumption (%)

17.1 15.9 15.6
13.1
20
11.9

COAL (indigenous)
22.5 25.5 25.8 23.6 24.7 22.9 23.3 22.5
10 20.1 19.8 20.3 18.8 20.1 18.7 18.2 18.4

21.0
17.0 17.5 17.2
15.3

0
1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003

Figure 9. Coverage rate of primary energy consumption with domestic energy resources (coal + renewable)
(data from, MENR, 2006; SIS, 2003–2004; TEIAS, 2004)
Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy
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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 385

2200
Row no Year Row no Year 2004 Not incluted
1 1970 19 1988
35
2
3
1971
1972
20
21
1989
1990 2003 in regression
2000 4 1973 22 1991 34
5
6
1974
1975
23
24
1992
1993
2002
7 1976 25 1994 33 31
Gross electricity consumption per capita (kWh/person)

8 1977 26 1995 32
9 1978 27 1996
1800 10 1979 28 1997 30
11 1980 29 1998 29
12 1981 30 1999
13 1982 31 2000
14 1983 31 2001 28
15 1984 33 2002
1600 16 1985 34 2003
17 1986 35 2004
18 1987 27

1400 26

25
y = 2.081 × 0.949 24
1200
n = 35, r = 0.9493 23

22
1000 21
20
19
18
800 17
16
15
13 14
600 12
1011 9
8
7
400 6
45
3
2
1

200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Lignite production per capita (ton/person)

Figure 10. Relation between lignite production per capita and electricity consumption
per capita (data from, MENR, 2006; SIS, 2003–2004;TEIAS, 2004)

VI. COAL AND ENVIRONMENT

Turkey has made much progress over the last two decades in setting up infrastructure
for addressing its environmental problems an Environment Law was enacted in 1983
and the Ministry of Environment was created in 1991. There are also nongovernmental
environmental organizations that have emerged. Turkey is a party to many international
environmental agreements, including Air Pollution, Antarctic Treaty, Biodiversity,
Desertification, Hazardous Wastes, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Wetlands,
and Ship Pollution. Turkey has signed but not yet ratified the Arctic-Environmental
Protocol and the Environmental Modification treaty. Additionally, Turkey has neither
signed nor ratified the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(Balat, 2006).
The advantage of coal utilization as energy source in Turkey is its being the most
widespread energy resource in Turkey and existence in almost all regions of the country
(Ersoy and Anaç, 2002). However, coal utilization causes air pollution due to gases such
 24-6-1
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386
100% 5% 2% 2%

4%
Other
6% 93 93 93 92 92 Crude oil
91 92 92 91
10% 91 91 91 18% Natural
90% 89 90 90 89 90 90 91 89 89
89
12:07 pm

3%88 88 88 88 88
87 87 87 87 87 87 gas
86 86 87 87 86 86
84 6%
6% 81 82 81 82 30%
(Renewable + coal) 82
80% 79 78 Total 79 79 78
78 77 7%
76 75 76 75
75 75 74 74 75

45%
73 73 74
73 73
71
70% 69 70
68 69
Page 386

21 % 65
63 64
61 62
60% 60
57
55 54 Renewable 40% 55
54 54

50% 49 50 50
49
7%

47 47
45 35% 44 44
Coal
40% 40 39
80% 38 Total 36 36
35 36
34
33
25%

32 33 32 33 32 33 32 32
31 31
30% 61% 30 30 30
29 29
26 26 26 26 26 25 26
Hard coal 24 24 24 24
17%
20% 34% 19
Lignite
17%

10%
16%

1% 2%
0%

1940
1942
1944
1946
1948
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002

Figure 11. Electricity Production of Turkey By Source During 1940–2002

(data from, TEIAS, 2004; SIS, 2004; Arιoǧlu, Yılmaz, 2002)
Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy
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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 387

Table 5. Current coal fired power station in Turkey

(data from Anaç, 2003; MENR, 2006)

Coal consumption capacity Installed capacity

Coal fired power plants [×1000 ton/year] [MW]
Muǧla-Yataǧan 5350 630
Muǧla-Milas-Sekköy 3750 420
Muǧla-Hüsamlar-Kemerköy 5000 630
Çanakkale-Çan 1800 320
Kütahya-Seyitömer 7100 600
Kütahya-Tunçbilek 2450 429
Manisa-Soma 8000 1034
Bursa-Orhaneli 1500 210
Afşin-Elbistan-A 18000 1360
Afşin-Elbistan-B 19000 1440
Sivas-Kangal 5400 450
Ankara-Çayιrhan 4300 620
Zonguldak-Çatalaǧzι (Hard coal) 1700 300
TOPLAM 81650 8143

as carbondioxide (CO2), sulphurdioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) released to

atmosphere during burning. Coal produces more CO2, primary greenhouse gas, than
other energy sources. Coal was the first largest source of CO2 emissions, accounting for
40.6% (86.7 Mt) of Turkey’s total in 1998, followed by oil at 36.9% (78.7 Mt) and
natural gas at 21.1% (44.9 Mt) (MENR, 2005). Although air pollution is becoming a
great environmental concern (Kaygusuz, 2002), from the geenhouse gas emissions point
of view, Turkey is not that critical, CO2 emissions per capita are 2.9 tons/capita in
Turkey, which is much less than those of the world and OECD averages, i.e. 3.87
tons/capita and 11 tons/capita, respectively (OECD/IEA, 2003). CO2 emissions in different
countries is illustrated in Fig. 12. NO2 emissions are much lower in Turkey than in the
European Community countries, i.e., less than one-third of these countries’ average
(Kaygusuz, 2002).
The Turkish goverment and municipalities have taken several measures to reduce
pollution from energy sources. In order to meet European Union (EU) environ-
mental standars, Turkey is requiring flue gas desulfurization (FGD) units on all
newly commissioned coal power plants and is retrofitting FGD onto older units
(Hepbasli, 2004).

VII. CONCLUSION
Coal will continue being an important resource in energy production with its long use
life of more than 200 years. In 2003, the share of coal in primary energy production in
the world was realized as 24% and its share in electricity production was realized as
40%. It is envisaged that the share of coal in energy production will be 38% in 2030 in
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12:07 pm

24
21.96
22
19.68
20
17.49
18
Page 388

16 OECD WORLD
13.93 11.08 (t CO2/Capita) 3.99 (t CO2/Capita)
14
11.57
12 10.64 10.43 10.35
9.41 9.21 9.1
10 8.57
7.84 7.8 7.68 7.68
8 6.94
6.33 5.98 5.96 5.96 5.64
6
4.35

CO2 emission (t CO2/capita)

4 2.89
1.71
2 0.99
2.87

UK
Italy

USA
India

Israel
Brazil

Spain
China

Japan

Russia
Turkey

Poland
France

Finland
Greece
Norway

Canada
Belgium
Sweden
Bulgaria
Portugal
Romania

Denmark
Germany
Switzerland

South Africa

Luxembourg
Figure 12. CO2 emissions in different countries (Yılmaz, Uslu, 2006)
Coal Potential of Turkey: Coal and Energy
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ENERGY EXPLORATION & EXPLOITATION · Volume 24 · Number 6 · 2006 389

the future projections. In other words, coal will maintain its position of being the energy
fuel of future for many years.
Coal is one of the largest energy resources of Turkey. It is not possible to conclude
that Turkey benefits from coal sufficiently. The total lignite reserve is 8.05 billion
tons and hard coal reserve is 1.2 billion tons. Turkey is the 9th country in terms of
largeness of its lignite reserves, holding 1.5% of the total lignite reserves in the world,
and the 8th country in terms of lignite production and 12th country in terms of total coal
consumption with consumption of 64 million tons (1.3% of the total coal consumption
in the world).
Turkey consumes about 80% of its lignite production and about 65% of its hard coal
production for production of electricity. Increasing difficulties met in hard coal
production caused that the production rate decreased continuously and the production
consumption coverage regressed to 10%. On the other hand, the share of hard coal in
electricity production, which was about 80%, decreased to 1.9% and Turkey was
obliged to meet its hard coal needs by importing hard coal.
A decrease is observed in production of lignite in Turkey in recent years. While
production had increased constantly until 2000, it decreased down to 45 million tons
in the following term. Leaning towards natural gas in production of electricity after
2000s influenced lignite production negatively and the use rate of lignite in electricity
production decreased 17% from 45%. Especially the recent increases in prices of oil
and natural gas and the difficulties occurred in supply increased the attempts in Turkey
for leaning back to its own resources.
The installed capacity of the thermal plants in Turkey, which are still operated
through the use of coal, is 8143 MW. This capacity increases to 17798 MW with the
commissioning of additional fields. This installed capacity means safe electricity
production of 100 billion kWh. In other words, Turkey will be able to meet 70% of its
electricity production, which is currently 150 billions kWh/year. Turkey should emphasize
on its own resources in this regard and the coal usage rate should be increased
especially in electricity production.

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