CHAITANYA BHARATHI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, HYDERABAD-500075

(Autonomous)
UNIT-V- ENGINEERING MATERIALS AND DRUGS
Subject: CHEMISTRY CODE: 20CYCO1
Section: B.E (ECE3) / E3
Outline the Synthesis and Pharmaceutical applications of (i) Aspirin (ii) Paracetamol. [CO5,
1
BTL-3].
Aspirin: Is an analgesic or painkiller used to achieve analgesia, relief from pain
Synthesis:
The synthesis of aspirin is classified as an esterification reaction. Salicylic acid is treated with acetic
anhydride, an acid derivative, causing a chemical reaction that turns salicylic acid's hydroxyl group into
an ester group (R-OH → R-OCOCH3). This process yields aspirin and acetic acid, which is considered
a byproduct of this reaction. Small amounts of sulfuric acid (and occasionally phosphoric acid) are
almost always used as a catalyst.
O OH O OH

OH O O O CH3
H2SO4
+
O O
Salicylic acid Acetic anhydride Aspirin
Physical properties
Aspirin, an acetyl derivative of salicylic acid, is a white, crystalline, weakly acidic substance, with
a melting point of 136 °C
Pharmaceutical applications Applications:
 Aspirin, also known as acetylsalicylic acid (ASA), is a medication used to treat pain, fever,
or inflammation. Specific inflammatory conditions in which aspirin is used include Kawasaki
disease, pericarditis, and rheumatic fever.
 Aspirin given shortly after a heart attack decreases the risk of death. Aspirin is also used long-
term to help prevent further heart attacks,
 For pain or fever, effects typically begin within 30 minutes.
Disadvantages:
 Aspirin is a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) but also suppresses the normal
functioning of platelets.
(ii) Paracetamol: Antipyretic is medication used to lower body temperature when a
 fever is present
Synthesis:
Paracetamol is made by reacting 4-aminophenol with ethanoic anhydride (more
commonly called acetic anhydride) in the presence 3-4 drops of H2SO4. This reaction
forms an amide bond and ethanoic acid as a byproduct. When the reaction is complete
the paracetamol is then isolated and purified.
O
O O
HO NH2 H2SO4
+ HO NH CH3
O
4-aminophenol Acetic anhydride Paracetemol

Pharmaceutical applications
 Paracetamol, also known as acetaminophen or APAP, is a medicine used to treat pain and fever.
 It is typically used for mild to moderate pain relief. Evidence for its use to relieve fever in children
is mixed.
 It is often sold in combination with other medications, such as in many cold medications.
 In combination with opioid pain medication, paracetamol is also used for severe pain such as cancer
pain and pain after surgery.
Disadvantages:
 Paracetamol is generally safe at recommended doses. Serious skin rashes may rarely occur, and too
high a dose can result in liver failure.

2 Compare Thermoplastic polymers with Thermosetting polymers [CO5, BTL-4].

Thermoplastic resins Thermosetting resins
1 These resins become soft on heating During fabrication process these resins are
and rigid on cooling reversibly moulded. Once they are solidified they
cannot be softened.
2 The heating and cooling do not alter These resins are permanent setting resins.
the chemical nature of these resins
because the changes involved are
purely of physical nature.
3 Thermoplastic resins are formed by Thermoset resins are formed by step
chain polymerization polymerization.
4 They consist of long chain linear They have three dimensional network
 polymers with weak secondary van structures.
dar Waal’s forces of attraction in
between.
5 They are softened on heating readily The bonds retain their strength on heating
because the secondary force of hence do not soften on heating.
attraction between the individual
chains can break easily by heat,
pressure or both.
6 They can be reshaped They cannot be reshaped
7 These plastics can be reclaimed from cannot be reclaimed from waste
waste.
8 Thermoplastic resins are soft, weak Thermoset resins are hard, strong and more
and less brittle brittle.
9 These resins are usually soluble in Due to strong bonds and cross links, they
organic solvents. are insoluble in almost all organic solvents.
10 E.g.: Polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride E.g. Bakelite, Nylon etc.
etc.
3 Explain the preparation, properties and uses of PVC [CO5, BTL-4].
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC):
Poly vinyl chloride is produced by free radical chain polymerization of vinyl chloride in the
presence of benzoyl peroxide or hydrogen peroxide.
Cl Cl
benzoyl peroxide
n H2C CH CH2 CH
vinyl chloride 30 - 80 0C n
polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

Vinyl chloride is prepared by treating acetylene with hydrogen chloride at 60-80 0C, and in the
presence of a metal oxide catalyst.
Cl
Metal oxide
HC CH + HCl CH2 CH
0
Acetylene 60 - 80 C
Vinyl chloride

Properties:
1. PVC is a colourles and chemically inert powder.
2. Resistant to acids, alkalis, but soluble in chlorinated solvents such as ethylene chloride.
3. PVC is strong, brittle and resistant to atmospheric conditions like O2, CO2 and moisture.
 4. PVC is not stable to heat and U.V. radiation and undergoes degradation.
Engineering applications:
1. PVC treated with plasticizers is called plasticized PVC and used for electrical insulations.
2. Injection moulding PVC is used to make toys, articles like tool handles, radio and telephone
components, chemical containers and thermal insulating foams used in buildings, cinemas and
aircrafts.
3. Plasticized PVC is obtained by adding plasticizers such as tricresyl phosphate, trioctyl
phosphate is used for making continuous sheets employed for packing rain coats, table cloths
and curtains.
4. The PVC is rigid, highly resistant to chemicals and brittle in nature. The PVC is used for
making safety helmets, refrigerator components, tires, cycle and motor cycle mudguards.

Part-B
Explain the preparation, properties and uses of Bakelite [CO5, BTL-4].
1
lt is prepared by the step polymerization of phenol with formaldehyde in the presence of an acid or
alkali as a catalyst. The polymerization takes place in three stages
I stage: Phenol is made to react with formaldehyde in presence of acid / alkali to produce non-
polymeric mono, di, and tri methylol phenols depending on the phenol formaldehyde ratio (P/F ratio).
II stage: The mono, di, and tri methylol phenols are heated to produce two types of straight chain
resins by condensation of the methylol group with hydrogen atom of benzene ring to form linear
polymer, novolac.
III Stage: During moulding, hexamethylenetetramine [(CH2)6N4] is added. The addition of
hexamethylenetetramine (HMTA) provides formaldehyde, which converts the soluble and fusible
novolac into a hard, infusible and insoluble solid of cross-linked structure of Bakelite.
 OH OH OH OH
CH2OH CH2OH HOH2C CH2OH
H+ or OH-
+ CH2O + +

CH2OH CH2OH

OH OH OH OH
OH
CH2OH
H+
n
n
Novolac

(CH2)6N4

OH OH OH OH

CH2 CH2 CH2 CH2

OH OH OH OH n

Bakelite
Properties:
1. Bakelite plastic resin is hard, rigid and strong.
2. lt is a scratch resistant and water resistant polymer.
3. Bakelite has got good chemical resistance, resistant to acids, salts and many organic solvents,
but it is attacked by alkalis due to the presence of - OH group
4. lt is a good ion exchanging resin
5. Bakelite is an excellent electrical insulator.
6. lt is a very good adhesive.
7. Bakelite has very good corrosion resistance, resistant to atmospheric conditions like O 2, CO2,
moisture etc.
Engineering applications: Bakelite is used widely.
1. For making electrical insulator parts like switches, switch boards, heater handles etc.
 2. For making moulded articles like telephone parts, cabinets for radio and television.
3. For making tarpaulins, wood laminates and glass laminates.
As an ion exchange resin in water purification by ion exchange method
2 What are carbon nanotubes? How they are classified? Give its applications. [CO5 BTL2]
Carbon nanotubes:
Carbon in the solid phase can exist in different allotropic form like Graphite, Diamond, Fullerenand
Nanotubes.
A single sheet of graphite is called graphene, these graphene sheets rolled up in to the shape of a
cylinder is called Carbon nano tubes (CNTs).
Carbon nano tubes (CNTs) which are hollow fibres. CNTs are large molecules of pure carbon that
are long and thin shaped like tubes about 1-3nm in diameter and hundred to thousands of nano
metres long. They are classified in to two forms of CNTs namely:
1) Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT):
These are different types depending on the matter in which the graphene sheets are
rolled. Single-walled carbon nanotubes having a diameter of 1nm and its density is 0.8g/cm3.
The basic varities being zigzag, armchair, and chiral. Identification of a particular variety based on
the diameter of the tube and analyzing their cross-sectional structure.
2) Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWCNT) :
Multi -walled carbon nanotubes having a diameter of 10nm and its density is 1.8g/cm3. The
forms are more complex here as each SWCNT can have different structures resulting in a variety of
sequential arrangements.
The simplest form being the one in which the concentric layers are identical but of different
diameters. In other varieties, two or more types of concentric SWCNTs remain arranged in a different
orders. These can have either regular layeres or random layeres.

Applications of Carbon nanotubes

1) Due to high electrical conductivity, nanotubes are used in electronic devices such as field
effect transistors.
2) They are used as hydrozen storage system in fuel cell.
3) They are used in solar cells.
4) They are used in conducting polymerscreens.
5) By using nanotubes, it is possible to filter out bacteria and viruses from water.
 6) They are used as a composite for batteries and as field emitters for television monitors.
7) Bullet proof jackets can be made using CNT fibres.
8) CNT is used in concrete increases its tensile strength and halt crack propagation.
9) CNT is used to make waterproof and tear-resistant fabrics.
10) CNT is used to make Stronger and lighter tennis rackets, bicycle parts etc.
3 Explain the sol-gel method for synthesis of nanomaterials and mentions its applications of
nanomaterials. [CO5 BTL3]

Sol-gel process: The sol-gel process, involves the evolution of inorganic networks through the
formation of a colloidal suspension (sol) and gelation of the sol to form a network in a continuous
liquid phase (gel). The precursors (starting material) used in the preparation of the ‘sol’ are usually
alkoxide, inorganic metal salts or metal organic compounds. The starting material is processed to
form a dispersible oxide and forms a sol in contact with water or dilute acid. Removal of the liquid
from the sol yields the gel, and the sol/gel transition controls the particle size and shape. Calcination
of the gel produces the oxide.
The reactions involved in the sol-gelchemistry based on the hydrolysis and condensation of
metal alkoxides M(OR) can be described as follows:
MOR + H2O → MOH + ROH (hydrolysis)
MOH + ROM → M-O-M + ROH(condensation)
Sol-gel method is a very popular method used for the preparation of oxide materials. The sol-gel
process can be characterized by a series of distinct steps.
Sol-gel method is a very popular method used for the preparation of oxide materials. The sol-gel
process can be characterized by a series of distinct steps.
1. Formation of different stable solutions of the alkoxide or solvated metal precursor.
2. Gelation resulting from the formation of an oxide- or alcohol- bridged network (the gel) by a
polycondensation reaction that results in a dramatic increase in the viscosity of the solution.
3. Aging of the gel during which the polycondensation reactions continue until the gel transforms
into a solid mass, accompanied by contraction of the gel network and expulsion of solvent from
gel pores. The aging process of gels can exceed 7 days and is critical to the prevention of cracks
in gels that have been cast.
4. Drying of the gel, when water and other volatile liquids are removed from the gel network.
5. Dehydration, during which surface- bound M-OH groups are removed, there by stabilizing the gel
against rehydration. This is normally achieved by calcining at temperatures up to 800 0C.

6. Densification and decomposition of the gels at high temperatures (T>800 0C). The pores ofthe
gel network are collapsed, and remaining organic species are volatilized. The typical steps that are
involved in sol-gel processing are shown in the schematic diagram above.
Applications of nanomaterials:
Nanomaterials having wide range of applications in the field of electronics, fuel cells, batteries,
agriculture, food industry, and medicines, etc. It is evident that nanomaterials split their conventional
counterparts because of their superior chemical, physical, and mechanical properties.
1) As materials: Nano tubes of MoS2 and WS2 are used as solid lubricants and NbSe2
becomes super conductor at low temperature.
2) Carbon nano tubes (CNT) are use full in lithium batteries, fluorescent displays, incomputers.
3) As sensors: Nanomaterials can be used as sensors for gases such as NO2 and NH3.
4) In Chemistry: Nano particles are used as catalysts in chemical industry due to the high
surface area, nano-catalysts tend to have exceptional surface activity.
5) In Medicine: Nano materials find applications in the field of medicine such as disease
diagnosis, drug delivery and molecular imaging, Longer-Lasting Medical Implants
6) Nanocoatings: Surface coating with nanometre thickness of nanomaterial can be used to
improve properties like wear and scratch-resistant, hydrophobic properties.
7) Sunscreens and Cosmetics: (i) Nanosized titanium dioxide and zinc oxide are currently
used in some sunscreens, as they absorb and reflect ultraviolet (UV) rays.
(ii) Nanosized iron oxide is present in some lipsticks as a pigment.
8) Water purification: It is also used in the water purification method.
 9) Communication technology: In Communication technology, nano wires of about 20 times
thinner and longer than conventional wires are used.
10) Super computer: the potential applications of nano particles is in the design of new
Super computer.
4 Discuss the fabrication of integrated circuit. [CO5, BTL-5].
Lithography: Lithography (or patterning) refers to the series of steps that establish the
shapes, dimensions, and location of the various components of the integrated
circuit (IC). The current progress in IC design, with the decreased dimensions
(miniaturization) of the chip and increased density of transistors, is possible
only if smaller areas on the wafer surface can be patterned. This is primarily
the function of lithography.
Process:
The process begins by coating a substrate with a light-sensitive organic material. A patterned
mask is then applied to the surface to block light, so that only unmasked regions of the material will be
exposed to light. A solvent, called a developer, is then applied to the surface. In the case of a positive
photoresist, the photo-sensitive material is degraded by light and the developer will dissolve away the
regions that were exposed to light, leaving
behind a coating where the mask was
placed. In the case of a negative
photoresist, the photosensitive material is
strengthened (either polymerized or cross-
linked) by light, and the developer will
dissolve away only the regions that were
not exposed to light, leaving behind a
coating in areas where the mask was not
placed.
Optical Lithography:
The vast majority of lithographic
equipment for IC fabrication is optical
equipment using ultraviolet light (λ  0.2
 μm to 0.4 μm) or deep ultraviolet light. There are basically two optical exposure methods: shadow
printing and projection printing.
Photolithography, also called optical lithography or UV lithography, is a process used
in microfabrication to pattern parts on a thin film or the bulk of a substrate (also called a wafer). It uses
light to transfer a geometric pattern from a photomask (also called an optical mask) to
a photosensitive (that is, light-sensitive) chemical photoresist on the substrate. A series of chemical
treatments then either etches the exposure pattern into the material or enables deposition of a new
material in the desired pattern upon the material underneath the photoresist. In complex integrated
circuits, a CMOS wafer may go through the photolithographic cycle as many as 50 times.
5 What are conducting polymers? How they are classified? Give its applications. [CO5, BTL-3].
An organic polymer with highly delocalized π-electron system, having electrical conductance on par
with metallic conductor is called a conducting polymer.
For example, polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyaniline.

Or
A polymer which can conduct the electricity are called conducting polymer.
For example, polyacetylene, polypyrrole, polyaniline.
Classification of conducting polymers:
 Conducting polymers

Intrinsic Conducting Polymers Extrinsic Conducting Polymers

The conjugated double present in the Externally added ingadients to the
polymer structure is responsible for the polymer are responsible for the
conduction of electricity conduction of electricity

Intrinsic polymers Doped conducting polymers

with conjugation Conduction is due to the +ve or -ve
Conductance is due to the charge created on polymer back bone
presence of pi-electrons in the using oxidizing or reducing reagents.
back-bone of the polymer chain i.e., doping agents
Ex. Polyacetylene Ex. Emeraldine salt

n
Polyaniline (Emeraldine base) n-Doped
p-Doped
N N N N
n

Conductivity element Blended conducting

filled polymer polymer
Polymer holds a conducting element Ex. Blending the
Ex. Carbon black filled polymer conducting and
non-conducting polymers
Ex. 40% polypyrrole

Intrinsic conducting Polymers:

These polymers are characterized by intensive conjugation of double bonds in their structure i.e. the
backbone of the polymer.
Again, intrinsic conducting polymers are two types as given below.
1) Conducting polymers having conjugation: Such polymers having conjugated double bonds
in the backbone possess their conductivity due to л electrons. In л bonding the overlapping
of the orbitals is lateral over the entire backbone resulting in the formation of valence bands
 and conducting bands which were separated by a significant Fermi energy gap. The
electrical conductivity takes place in an electric field, conjugated ∏ electrons of the polymer
get excited and get the sufficient energy to jump the gap and reach into conduction band.

above polymers possess conductivities around 10-10 Scm-1 which is sufficient for their use in
any engineering applications.
1) Doped conducting polymers: The conducting polymers having л electrons in their backbone can
easily be oxidized or reduced because they possess low ionization potential and high electron
affinities. Hence, their conductance can be increased by introducing a positive charge or negative
charge on polymer backbone by oxidation or reduction. This process is called doping. Doping is
again two types.
1. Creating a positive charge on polymer backbone called p-doping
2. Creating a negative charge on the polymer backbone called n-doping.
P-Doping: When the polymer is treated with a lewis acid, its oxidation takes place and positive
charge are created onthe polymer backbone. Commonly used ‘p’ dopants are I2, Br2, FeCl3, AsF3, etc.

n-Doping: When the polymer is treated with a lewis base, reduction takes place and negative charge is
created on the polymer backbone. Commonly used ‘n’ dopants are Li, Na, Naphthylamine, etc.

Extrinsically Conducting polymers:

The conductivity of these polymers is due to the presence of externally added ingredients in them.
Again, the extrinsically conducting polymers are two types.

1)Conducting element filled polymers: The polymer acting as a binder to hold the conducting element
such as carbon black, metallic fibres, metallic oxides etc. Minimum concentration of conducting filler
is added so that the polymer starts conducting. This minimum concentration of conductive filler is
called percolation threshold. At this concentration of filler, a conducting path is formed in polymeric
material. The most preferred filler is the special conducting grade C black has very high surface area,
more porosity and more of filamentous properties.

Blended conducting polymers: The conventional polymer is blended with a conducting polymer to
improve physical, chemical, electrical and mechanical properties along with the processing properties.
Examples: 4O% of polypyrrole in a conventional polymer gives higher impact strength. These
blended polymers are used in electromagnetic shielding.
Applications of conducting polymers:
1. The conducting polymers are used in rechargeable batteries.
2. Conducting polymers are also used for making analytical sensors for pH, O2, NO2, SO2, NH3
and glucose.
3. The conducting polymers are used for making ion exchangers.
4. The conducting polymers are used for making microchips.
5. The conducting polymers are used in solar cells.
6. The conducting polymers are used in telecommunication system.
7. The conducting polymers are used in organic light emitting diodes (OLED’s).
8. The conducting polymers are used for illumination sources.
9. The conducting polymers are used making electronic displays and optical fibres.
10. They are used for electron beam lithography.
11. The conducting polymers are used in photovoltaic devices.
12. The conducting polymers are used in Automobile industry.