energies
Article
Potential of Producing Green Hydrogen in Jordan
Mustafa Jaradat 1 , Omar Alsotary 1 , Adel Juaidi 2 , Aiman Albatayneh 1 , Asem Alzoubi 1
and Shiva Gorjian 3,4, *
Citation: Jaradat, M.; Alsotary, O.;
Juaidi, A.; Albatayneh, A.; Alzoubi,
A.; Gorjian, S. Potential of Producing
Green Hydrogen in Jordan. Energies
2022, 15, 9039. https://doi.org/
10.3390/en15239039
Academic Editor: Muhammad Aziz
Received: 29 October 2022
Accepted: 24 November 2022
Published: 29 November 2022
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Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
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4.0/).
Energies 2022, 15, 9039. https://doi.org/10.3390/en15239039
1 Department of Energy Engineering, German Jordanian University, Amman Madaba Street, P.O. Box 35247,
Amman 11180, Jordan
2 Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering & Information Technology,
An-Najah National University, P.O. Box 7, Nablus 00970, Palestine
3 Biosystems Engineering Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Tarbiat Modares University (TMU),
Tehran P.O. Box 14115-111, Iran
4 Renewable Energy Department, Faculty of Interdisciplinary Science anf Technology, Tarbiat Modares
University (TMU), Tehran P.O. Box 14115-111, Iran
* Correspondence: gorjian@modares.ac.ir
Abstract: Green hydrogen is becoming an increasingly important energy supply source worldwide.
The great potential for the use of hydrogen as a sustainable energy source makes it an attractive
energy carrier. In this paper, we discuss the potential of producing green hydrogen in Jordan. Aqaba,
located in the south of Jordan, was selected to study the potential for producing green hydrogen, due
to its proximity to a water source (i.e., the Red Sea). Two models were created for two electrolyzer
types using MATLAB. The investigated electrolyzers were alkaline water (ALK) and polymeric
electrolyte membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. The first model was used to compare the required capacity
of the PV solar system using ALK and PEM from 2022 to 2025, depending on the learning curves
for the development of these technologies. In addition, this model was used to predict the total
investment costs for the investigated electrolyzers. Then, a techno-economic model was constructed
to predict the feasibility of using this technology, by comparing the use of a PV system and grid
electricity as sources for the production of hydrogen. The net present value (NPV) and levelized cost
of hydrogen (LCOH) were used as indicators for both models. The environmental effect, according to
the reduction of CO2 emissions, was also taken into account. The annual production of hydrogen was
70.956 million kg. The rate of hydrogen production was 19.3 kg/s and 1783 kg/s for ALK and PEM
electrolyzers, respectively. The LCOH was 4.42 USD/kg and 3.13 USD/kg when applying electricity
from the grid and generated by the PV system, respectively. The payback period to cover the capital
cost of the PV system was 11 years of the project life, with a NPV of USD 441.95 million. Moreover,
CO2 emissions can be reduced by 3042 tons/year by using the PV as a generation source, instead of
fossil fuels to generate electricity. The annual savings, with respect to the reduction of CO2 emissions,
was USD 120,135.
Keywords: green hydrogen; electrolyzer; photovoltaic; techno-economic; renewable energy; ALK;
PEM; LCOH; CO2 emissions
1. Introduction
If international climate protection goals are to be achieved, fossil energy sources will
have to be almost completely replaced by greenhouse gas-neutral energy sources within
the next few decades [1]. In addition to the use of biomass and the direct use of renewable
electricity, green hydrogen will most likely play a central role in the substitution of fossil
energy carriers [2]. As such, green hydrogen is central to achieving the Paris climate
protection goals. In the global efforts to mitigate climate change and the accompanying
advancing fossilization (i.e., the substitution of fossil raw materials), the importance of
hydrogen produced in a greenhouse gas-neutral way is likely to increase in the future.
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Thereby, green hydrogen, i.e., hydrogen produced from renewable electricity utilizing
Thereby, green hydrogen, i.e., hydrogen produced from renewable electricity utilizing
electrolysis, offers the best prerequisites for the timely scaling of production while, at the
electrolysis,
same time,offers the best
minimizing prerequisites
greenhouse for the
gas (GHG) timely scaling
emissions [3]. of production while, at the
same time, minimizing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [3].
Figure 1 shows that the demand for green hydrogen is likely to be subject to dynamic
Figurein1the
growth shows thatdecades.
coming the demand for green scenario,
In a progressive hydrogen theisdemand
likely toforbegreen
subject to dynamic
hydrogen
growth
couldinalmost
the coming
reach thedecades.
volumeIn of amodern
progressive scenario,
hydrogen the demand
consumption as early for
asgreen hydrogen
2030. Even
could
in aalmost reach the
conservative volume
scenario, the of modern
demand forhydrogen consumption
green hydrogen is expectedas to
early as 2030.
exceed Even in
the cur-
rent consumption of fossil-based hydrogen by 2045 at the latest. Green
a conservative scenario, the demand for green hydrogen is expected to exceed the currenthydrogen is be-
coming a relevant
consumption energy carrier
of fossil-based hydrogenin the
byglobal
2045 energy mix, which
at the latest. Greenwill find its way
hydrogen into
is becoming a
many sectors. Furthermore, green hydrogen can substitute for grey hydrogen
relevant energy carrier in the global energy mix, which will find its way into many sectors. in existing
applicationsgreen
Furthermore, [4]. Through
hydrogenincreased sector coupling,
can substitute for greygreen hydrogen
hydrogen can also applications
in existing be increas- [4].
ingly used as a greenhouse gas-neutral energy carrier in the future; for example, in the
Through increased sector coupling, green hydrogen can also be increasingly used as a
mobility sector [5].
greenhouse gas-neutral energy carrier in the future; for example, in the mobility sector [5].

Figure 1. 1.Forecasted
Figure Forecasted development
development ofof global
global green
green hydrogen
hydrogen demand.
demand. Values
Values are basedare based
on an eval- on an
evaluation
uation ofof[6–9].
[6–9].

Hydrogen
Hydrogen is isa aclean,
clean,long-lasting fuelwith
long-lasting fuel withthe
the potential
potential to abe
to be a future
future global
global energy energy
source.
source. It It
may maypotentially
potentially be beused
used toto
replace current
replace fossilfossil
current fuel-based energy infrastructure
fuel-based energy infrastruc-
ture[6]. It is
[6]. It also quitequite
is also evident that further
evident efforts are
that further imperative
efforts to reduce emissions
are imperative to reducelinked
emissions
withwith
linked hydrogen production
hydrogen technologies
production [7]. This [7].
technologies can beThisseen
canas be
a solution
seen astoa the above-to the
solution
mentioned challenges,
above-mentioned such as
challenges, global
such as warming and environmental
global warming degradation.
and environmental It is im-
degradation. It
possible to overestimate the relevance of environmental and economic factors in the de-
is impossible to overestimate the relevance of environmental and economic factors in the
velopment of hydrogen infrastructure [8].
development of hydrogen infrastructure [8].
Every year, roughly 70 million tons of hydrogen are produced across the world
Every [9].
(MTPA) year, roughly 70
Furthermore, millionistons
hydrogen of hydrogen
currently are produced
mostly originated from coal across the world
and petro-
(MTPA) [9]. Furthermore, hydrogen is currently mostly originated
leum gas, and the Energy Information Administration (EIA) has estimated that hydrogen from coal and petroleum
gas,generation
and the Energy uses 7% of all flammable gas [10]. Thus, green hydrogen is expected to playgenera-
Information Administration (EIA) has estimated that hydrogen a
tionmajor
uses role
7% in of the
all future
flammablepowergasmix[10]. Thus,
globally, green
and hydrogen iswill
its infrastructure expected to playthe
start replacing a major
roletypical
in theold future power mixfossil
well-integrated globally, and its infrastructure
fuel infrastructure [9]. will start replacing the typical
old well-integrated fossil fuel infrastructure [9].
Many studies have discussed the use of various renewable energy sources to produce
green hydrogen in several countries [11–15]. A study on the potential of green hydrogen
production in Egypt using hybrid solar and wind sources was given in [11]. This study was
conducted on MATLAB/Simulink, using three scenarios for the economic analysis. They
concluded a high opportunity for the production of green hydrogen, with the payback
period varying from 7 to 13.85 years, and the CO2 emissions reduction over the system’s
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 3 of 21

lifetime reached 689.4 tons [11]. A study was conducted in Ghana to study the potential
of a hybrid power plant for the generation of electricity and hydrogen in terms of the
production of fertilizer for agricultural activities, farmland irrigation, environmental impact,
and employment potential [12]. The hybrid system is fed by renewable sources, such as
solar PV panels and hydropower. This system also uses a hydrogen storage tank and
battery to feed the demand in the absence of renewable sources. The results indicated a
production of 8816 kg of hydrogen per year. The total GHG equivalents of 383.49 metric
tons of CO2 were calculated to represent the number of emissions that can be avoided if the
optimal system is implemented to satisfy the energy requirements of this system [12]. The
potential production of green hydrogen using PV solar sources in five locations in India was
described in [13]. The total amount of power produced from all five locations combined
was found to be around 25 GWh annually, equivalent to 20,744 metric tons of CO2 that
could be avoided [13]. An assessment of the potential of renewable energy resources in
the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia for electricity and hydrogen production was given in [14].
This study was based on the excess energy from the off-grid system using solar PV, wind,
and batteries to produce green hydrogen. The results indicated an effective configuration
for the hybrid renewable energy system. The optimal hybrid system configuration, which
included 18 kW PV, two wind turbines, and 14 batteries with an LCOE of 0.593 USD/kWh,
totally satisfied the demand for power. An optimized scheme of renewable energy sources
to satisfy the green hydrogen demand of many far-off villages in Iran using solar, wind,
and biogas was presented in [15], the results of which indicated that using these sources is
the most affordable method and can improve the system flexibility.
In 2020, the amount of hydrogen used worldwide was approximately 90 million tons.
The annual demand has increased by 50% in the last twenty years [16]. As shown in the left
pie chart in Figure 2, most of the global hydrogen demand comes from crude oil refining
and the chemical industry. Annually, crude oil refineries consume almost 40 million tons
of hydrogen as feedstock and reactants, or as an energy source. Around 45 million tons
of hydrogen are used every year in the chemical industry, where hydrogen is mainly
deployed to produce ammonia and methanol. While ammonia is a central feedstock to
produce fertilizers, methanol is further processed into a variety of downstream products; for
example, as used as a raw material to produce many types of glue or resins. Hydrogen use
in the production and processing of metals contributes 5% to the global hydrogen demand.
The hydrogen used today is almost exclusively produced from fossil raw materials,
apart from a few exceptional cases. As highlighted in the right pie chart in Figure 2, most
of the globally produced hydrogen originates from natural gas (about 48%). Hydrogen
production from coal amounts to 18%, and 30% of dedicated hydrogen production is from
oil. The remaining 4% is produced using electricity by water electrolysis [17].
To exploit the full potential of green hydrogen production, different renewable energy
resources could be considered. The yield of these energy sources—and, thus, the costs and
land-use efficiencies—depends strongly on the geographical location. Exemplary indicators
could be sunshine hours per year and average wind velocities, as well as the availability
of rivers/dams that can be used for electricity generation. Considering the geographical
spread is therefore essential, as each county has different characteristics regarding the
availability of renewable energies. The focus, in this context, is on technical and economic
feasibility [18].
As a significant portion of the total cost is related to the provision of electricity, the
economic viability of manufacturing hydrogen using power-to-gas is currently largely
location-dependent. Green hydrogen has already been shown to be cost-competitive with
hydrogen supplies from fossil sources in areas where power-to-gas plants have access to
a consistent supply of inexpensive renewable electricity [19]. High investment costs and
low overall efficiency are the key determinants of the cost of converting hydrogen into fuel
cells. Fuel cells have a high capital cost of between 15 and 40 MSEK/MW, depending on
the precise kind of fuel cell and its properties, due to the technology’s relative infancy and
the price of materials used in the catalysts [20].
Energies 15, 9039
2022, 2022,
Energies 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 23 4 of 21

Figure 2.2.Shares
Figure Sharesof
of global hydrogenconsumption
global hydrogen consumption and
and production.
production. Left:Left:
shareshare
of theof the important
most most important
applicationsin
applications inmodern
modern global
global hydrogen
hydrogenconsumption
consumption [6];[6];
right: share
right: of primary
share energyenergy
of primary sourcessources
used
used forformodern
modernglobal
global hydrogen
hydrogen production
production[9].
[9].

The hydrogenroughly
Additionally, used today 40%isofalmost exclusively
the energy usedproduced
to convert from fossil raw
hydrogen materials,
into electricity is
converted into low-grade heat at a temperature of about 65 C. As a result, it 2,
apart from a few exceptional cases. As highlighted in the right pie
◦ chart in Figure is most
frequently
of the globally produced hydrogen originates from natural gas (about 48%). Hydrogen
challenging for power-to-power systems to achieve financial success. This is made better
production from coal amounts to 18%, and 30% of dedicated hydrogen production is from
by the system’s high Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE) and often short operating hours,
oil. The remaining 4% is produced using electricity by water electrolysis [17].
while LCOE of 4000–6000 SEK/MWh (1 SEK = 0.0911 USD) [21].
To exploit the full potential of green hydrogen production, different renewable en-
ergyInresources
the power-to-power scenario,The
could be considered. it isyield
believed thatenergy
of these electrolyzer-generated
sources—and, thus, energy
the will
take the place of intermittent power generation. This presumption
costs and land-use efficiencies—depends strongly on the geographical location. Exem- is predicated on the fact
that theindicators
plary fuel cell’scould
goal beis to produce
sunshine electricity
hours per yearduring upregulating
and average hours when
wind velocities, as welldoingas so
is the
most advantageous.
availability This implies
of rivers/dams that canthat it will
be used forturn on when
electricity the system
generation. is experiencing
Considering the
either a power spread
geographical shortage or a peakessential,
is therefore in demand, which
as each is also
county haswhen the characteristics
different peak-power plants re- are
operating—with an estimated
garding the availability emissions
of renewable ratioThe
energies. of 400 kg in
focus, CO 2 /MWh,
this context,these
is onpower
technical stations
andthe
have economic
highest feasibility [18].
CO2 emissions in the Swedish electricity system [22].
As a are
There significant
extensiveportion of the studies
literature total coston is the
related to the provision
potential of electricity,
of green hydrogen. Eachthe study
haseconomic
criteria viability
to predict of manufacturing
the potential ofhydrogen
producing using power-to-gas
hydrogen. is currently
Firstly, largely lo-should
green hydrogen
cation-dependent.
have a renewable energy Green hydrogen
source, whichhas already
depends beenon shown to be cost-competitive
the location and the potential with of the
hydrogen supplies from fossil sources in areas where power-to-gas plants have access to
source in the selected region, and from spatial aspects—the land area for the renewable
a consistent supply of inexpensive renewable electricity [19]. High investment costs and
source. In addition, the presence of a water source nearest to the location will reduce the
low overall efficiency are the key determinants of the cost of converting hydrogen into
transportation costs for the water to the plant that affect the capital cost of investment.
fuel cells. Fuel cells have a high capital cost of between 15 and 40 MSEK/MW, depending
on There is extensive
the precise kind of fuelliterature
cell andon its green hydrogen
properties, due toproduction.
the technology’s Table 1 summarizes
relative infancy the
general information of the investigated
and the price of materials used in the catalysts [20]. literature.
InAdditionally,
the investigated roughly literature
40% of thestudies,
energy regarding green hydrogen
used to convert hydrogeninto production,
electricity theis elec-
trolyzers were not considered in the investigations. In this study,
converted into low-grade heat at a temperature of about 65 °C. As a result, it is frequently the learning curve for
two types of electrolyzers
challenging for power-to-power was adapted
systemsto todetect
achieve the capacity
financial of solar
success. ThisPVispanels to produce
made better
specific
by the amounts
system’s high of hydrogen.
Levelized Cost Ahshan [23] studied
of Energy (LCOE) and the often
potential
short of green hydrogen
operating hours, in
sixwhile LCOE in
locations of Oman
4000–6000 basedSEK/MWh
on PV (1 asSEK = 0.0911
a source forUSD)
green [21].
production. The optimization
criteriaIndepend
the power-to-power
on the potential scenario, it is believed
of solar radiation that
in electrolyzer-generated
these locations that reflect energythe willLCOH
fortake
each thelocation.
place of Jarosch
intermittent
et al.power generation.
[24] provided This presumption
an extensive analysisisofpredicated
hydrogenon the
production
fact that the fuel cell’s goal is to produce electricity during upregulating
in a decentralized energy system as well as possible operation modes in five locations in hours when doing
so is most advantageous. This implies that it will turn on when the system is experiencing
Germany depending on PV, wind, and biomass sources. The developed model is applied
either a power shortage or a peak in demand, which is also when the peak-power plants
to detect the share of hydrogen production in many sectors in Germany and provide the
are operating—with an estimated emissions ratio of 400 kg CO2/MWh, these power sta-
forecasting share for using this source in 2050. Matute et al. [25] created a model to calcu-
tions have the highest CO2 emissions in the Swedish electricity system [22].
late the optimal hourly dispatch of the electrolysis system and the energy imported and
exported to the national grid in one location in Spain using GAMS as a Simulink tool. The
LCOH from this plant was around five EUR/kg.
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 5 of 21

Table 1. Summary of some investigated factors in the literature.

Renewable PV Area Solar Irradiance Electrolysis Number

Author (Year) Simulink Tool
Energy Source Required Involved in Model Investigated of Locations
Ahshan, 2021 [23] PV No Yes - No 6
PV, wind,
Jarosch et al., 2022 [24] No No - No 5
biomass
Matute et al., 2022 [25] PV No Yes GAMS No 1
Nasser et al., 2022 [11] PV, wind No No MATLAB No 2
Agyekum et al., 2022 [12] PV, hydro No No HOMER No 5

2. Hydrogen Production in Jordan

In this case study, we aimed to investigate Jordan’s potential, in terms of green hydro-
gen production. Our approach to this study was as follows:
First, the components of the suitable supply chain were identified, based on the
regional conditions in Jordan. This initially involved identifying a suitable location for
setting up a hydrogen production plant, as well as potentially available renewable energy
resources. Second, we identified the processing steps, designed the model, and developed
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 23
the MATLAB code for calculating the designed model outputs.

2.1. Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Jordan

2.1. Availability of Renewable Energy Resources in Jordan
Jordan has seen a huge increase in progress toward producing green energy, due to an
Jordan has
increasing seen aon
reliance huge increase in
renewable progress
energy toward over
resources producing green
the last energy,
decade. due to green
Producing
an increasing reliance on renewable energy resources over the last decade. Producing
energy helps the environment by reducing CO emissions due to energy production. A
green energy helps the environment by reducing CO2 2emissions due to energy production.
preliminary assessment of renewable energy resources was estimated, which can be used
A preliminary assessment of renewable energy resources was estimated, which can be
for green
used hydrogen
for green hydrogenproduction in Jordan.
production A mean
in Jordan. A meanwind
wind power
powerdensity
densityfor
forthe
the10%
10% windiest
area of 439 W/m 2 is shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, with a specific photovoltaic (PV)
windiest area of 439 W/m2 is shown in Figure 3. Furthermore, with a specific photovoltaic
power
(PV) output
power of of
output 5.45.4
kWh/kWp
kWh/kWp perperday,
day,Jordan
Jordan has
has a high
a high potential
potential for solar
for solar energy, as
energy,
well as wind energy [9,11]. Therefore, both renewable energy sources were
as well as wind energy [9,11]. Therefore, both renewable energy sources were considered considered in
the site identification for green hydrogen production in
in the site identification for green hydrogen production in Jordan. Jordan.

Figure
Figure3.3.The
Theproposed selected
proposed sitesite
selected for installing the hydrogen
for installing powerpower
the hydrogen plant [26],
plantthe redthe
[26], arrow
red arrow signs
signs to Aqaba (the selected site).
to Aqaba (the selected site).
Figure 4 clearly shows that the potential for the use of solar energy is very high
throughout the whole country. Jordan has a rich environment of renewable energies, i.e.,
wind and solar, which indicates its high potential for producing green hydrogen.
In 2019, the total amount of energy generated from renewable sources was approxi-
mately 3000 GWh per year, and the share of renewable electricity in total power genera-
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 6 of 21

Figure 4 clearly shows that the potential for the use of solar energy is very high
throughout the whole country. Jordan has a rich environment of renewable energies,
i.e., wind and solar, which indicates its high potential for producing green hydrogen.
In 2019, the total amount of energy generated from renewable sources was approxi-
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3000 GWh per year, and the share of renewable electricity in total power generation
mately
was around 15% [27]. Therefore, Jordan has great potential for producing green hydrogen
by relying on renewable energy resources.

(a)

(b)
Figure 4. PV 4.
Figure power potential
PV power (a) [28] and
potential (a)wind
[28] speed probability
and wind speed(b) [29] in Jordan.
probability (b) [29] in Jordan.

2.2. Site Selection

The largest solar power plant in Jordan is the Baynouna Solar Project, whic
of the largest solar projects in the Middle East. The energy produced can displa
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 7 of 21

2.2. Site Selection

The largest solar power plant in Jordan is the Baynouna Solar Project, which is one of
the largest solar projects in the Middle East. The energy produced can displace more than
360,000 tons of CO2 per year and its electricity production is equivalent to 3% of the annual
energy consumption of Jordan. It has a capacity of 200 MWac/248 MWdc and is located
30 km east of the capital, Amman [30]. However, it is not the ideal site to install the green
hydrogen power plant, due to its distance from a water source.
The largest wind farm in Jordan is Tafila Wind Farm, with a capacity of 117 MW. It
is located in the south of Tafila and consists of 38 wind turbines. It would be ideal to
install the hydrogen electrolyzer close to the Tafila wind farm; however, it is also far from a
water source. An ideal site for the power plant would be closer to the Red Sea than other
renewable energy projects, due to the huge need for water for the process. The proposed
location at which to install the electrolyzer, which is adjacent to the Red Sea, is shown in
Figure 3 In addition to the availability of water, the southern part of Jordan has a higher
solar energy potential, as depicted in Figure 4.
Jordan—similar to many countries in the world—is going through an energy transition
that will transform many of the current systems. Therefore, it is important for energy
companies to closely follow the development of various energy markets. A large part
of the debate/research regarding hydrogen revolved around demand-related questions
about suitable applications, markets, and sectors. However, so far, not many studies have
analyzed the bottleneck of possible expansion paths for electrolysis. The hope lies in
the widespread rollout of hydrogen technology. To do this, huge electrolysis plants with
outputs in the gigawatt range would have to be realized in the next few years. Only that
can break the vicious circle of insecurity. However, such initiatives are not yet in sight.
In this study, the learning curve for two types of electrolyzers was adapted to detect the
capacity of solar PV panels to produce specific amounts of hydrogen.

3. Methodology
For this study, a model was created using MATLAB code to simulate the production
process. Each input and output in the model were assigned a float variable symbol (letter)
for carrying the required values. Then, a set of equations were developed using these
variables, following the model structure. In addition, a techno-economic analysis was
performed, in order to predict the feasibility of using a PV solar system with capital
investment based on the NPV along the life-cycle and the time needed to reach the break-
even point. These economic indicators indicate the feasibility and potential of using this
technology in Jordan. In addition, CO2 emission reduction while using green and renewable
energy sources was assessed.

3.1. Model Description

Green hydrogen production using solar energy as a renewable source in Jordan was
used as the decision variable for this study via two types of electrolyzers: alkaline (ALK) and
proton exchange membrane (PEM). The model was used to compare the annual production
of hydrogen with a fixed amount of solar power output, and to forecast production during
the development of these technologies. On the other hand, based on the learning curve
for these technologies, this model was used to detect the capacity of solar PV panels to
produce specific amounts of hydrogen.

3.1.1. Solar PV System Model

This part of the model was used to predict the amount of solar radiation on a fixed tilt
angle. For this, we needed to specify the independent variables that change due to the time
of day, site location, and the number of days from the first of January (Julian Date, N), in
order to assess the power generation from the PV panel required to feed the electrolyzer
and compressor. The independent variables in this model were as follows:
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 8 of 21

• Latitude of the site (Aqaba, 29.5476◦ ), symbol: L;

• Julian date, symbol: N;
• Hour angle (h);
• Tilt angle (β = 10◦ );
• PV efficiency (20%).
The subsequent set of mathematical equations [31] was used to predict the amount of
solar radiation on a fixed tilt angle:
 
360
Declination angle (δ) = 23.45 sin (284 + N) , (1)
365
  
360(N)
Irradiance on normal surface (Gn) = 1367 1 + 0.033cos , (2)
365
sin(L − β) sin(δ) + cos(L − β) cos(δ) cos(h)
Geometric Factor = , (3)
sin(L) sin(δ) + cos(L) cos(δ) cos(h)
Irradiance on tilt surface ( Gtilt ) = Gn × Rb . (4)

3.1.2. Electrolyzer System Model

There are three main types of electrolysis: alkaline water electrolysis (ALK), polymer
electrolyte membrane electrolysis (PEM), and solid oxide electrolysis (SOEL) [32]. Regard-
less of the process, the principle of water electrolysis is identical. We compared the behavior
of ALK and PEM on the decision variables. The development models of these technologies
during the study period are detailed in Table 2.

Table 2. ALK and PEM development models from 2017 to 2025 [33].

Mathematical Model Mathematical Model

Technology ALK PEM
for ALK for PEM
Unit 2017 2025 2017 2025
kWh of
Efficiency electricity/kg of 51 49 58 52 555.25 − 0.25 × year 1570.75 − 0.75 × year
H2 production
Total
Eur/kW 750 480 1200 700 68,823.75 − 33.75 × year 127,262.5 − 62.5 × year
System Cost
Typical
Bar Atmospheric 15 30 60 −3528.75 + 1.75 × year −7533.75 + 3.75 × year
Output Pressure
System Life Time Years 20 20 20 20

The electrolyzers depend on the amount of salt water fed from the Red Sea and the
electricity generated from the PV system that delivers the power to the two electrodes that
separate the salt-water components to produce hydrogen. The independent variables in
this model are:
• The amount of H2 needed from the demand mode;
• The molar mass of hydrogen (1.008 × 10−3 kg/mole);
• Higher heating value (HHV), 285.8 kJ/mole;
• Lower heating value (LHV), 141.5 kJ/mole [34];
• The electrolyzer efficiency models for the two electrolyzer types (Table 2).
The decision variable in this model is the power consumption of the two electrolyzer
types. The power consumption during this process is calculated as:

ALK power consumption (kW) = (number of moles) (HHV) (555.25 − 0.25 (year)) (5)

PEM power consumption (kW) = (number of moles) (HHV) (1570.75 − 0.75 (year)) (6)
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 9 of 21

3.1.3. Compression System

A compression system is used to increase the hydrogen pressure, enabling storage at
high pressure in the storage tank. The level of pressure is used as an independent variable
in our model. The inlet pressure to the compressor depends on the electrolyzer technology
used and the learning curve equations listed in Table 2. The independent variables in this
model are:
• The inlet pressure to the electrolyzer (Table 2);
• Maximum pressure needed to feed the demand (fixed at 200 bar);
• γ (the specific heat ratio of hydrogen) = 1.4;
• Ideal gas constant (R) = 4.1243 kJ/kg × K;
• T: temperature of inlet water = 300 K;
• Isentropic efficiency of the compressor = 70%.
In the model, the power consumption through the compressor is calculated as given
in Equations (7) and (8) [35]. The results from these equations are considered independent
variables for the power generation required from the PV system.
h i γ
Pout γ−1
(mass flow rate)(H2 )(T) P(ALK)
−1
W compressor (ALK)(kW) = , (7)
η
h i γ
Pout γ−1
(mass flow rate)(H2 )(T) P(PEM)
−1
compressor (PEM)(kW) = . (8)
η

3.1.4. Models Output and Constraints

The potential for producing a fixed amount of green hydrogen depends on the power
production from the PV system, which varies with the time of year. The capacity of the
PV system should thus vary, according to the time of year. In a real case, it is impossible
to change this capacity. Thus, this model can be used to predict the needed area for PV
during the development and improvement of the performance of the electrolyzer, in order
to provide a more efficient technology during the period until 2025. This model applies to
forecasting the yearly production of hydrogen based on a fixed capacity of the PV system.

3.2. Model Code Using MATLAB

To be able to analyze the model and carry out calculations to obtain output values,
two programming codes were created using MATLAB for these models. The inputs and
outputs for each model were given the variable symbol to carry the required values, and a
set of equations were written down using these variables, following the model’s structure.
These models were constructed for ALK and PEM electrolyzer types. The MATLAB code is
given in Appendix A.
The area of the PV system is the best variable to represent the PV system capacity.
The developed code was used to predict the required area for the PV system during
the improvement and development of electrolyzer technologies in the considered period.
In addition, the model was used to predict the total investment cost, with respect to
both electrolyzers.

3.3. Techno-Economical Study

Techno-economic modeling also introduces some simplifications that could have
certain effects on the results. These were used due to a lack of appropriate data, or
to simplify the process. Examples of such simplifications are component efficiencies,
which were modeled as constant even though load-dependent performance is common.
However, the model was developed to obtain an understanding of how hydrogen-based
systems perform in different scenarios, and not to deliver exact results, and thus was
considered appropriate.
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 10 of 21

The approach followed in this study was to identify a financially designed model
to calculate the economic feasibility of installing a hydrogen power plant in the south of
Jordan, comparing the use of primary sources. One of the main challenges in Jordan is water
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 23
availability, which plays an important role in green hydrogen production. Furthermore,
green hydrogen production relies on electrolysis operations, as mentioned in detail in the
previous technical models. Moreover, the water used in the electrolysis process must be a
goodThe economic
conductor [36].study
Saltywas carried
water out with athe
is considered intent
great to compare
conductor and scenarios for operat-
suits the electrolysis
ing a hydrogen
process production
for green hydrogenpower plant based
production on various
very well [37]. Thus,primary
water sources
can be(i.e.,
usedgrid elec-
directly
tricity,
from heavy
the fuel,for
Red Sea diesel,
greenand renewable
hydrogen energy sources). The decision variables for this
production.
comparison were the
The economic NPV
study wasand the out
carried break-even
with the point
intent for these scenarios
to compare scenariostoforproduce 10
operating
akg/sec
hydrogen production
of hydrogen for power plant
20 years as abased on various
life-cycle, and the primary sources
effective (i.e.,rate
interest grid(i)
electricity,
was 8%
heavy
[38]. fuel, diesel, and renewable energy sources). The decision variables for this com-
parison were the NPV and the break-even point for these scenarios to produce 10 kg/s of
(1 + 𝑖) − 1
𝑁. 𝑃. 𝑉 =and
hydrogen for 20 years as a life-cycle, 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡
the effective interest rate. (i) was 8% [38]. (9)
𝑖(𝑖 + 1)
" #
(1 + i ) N − 1
N.P.V = Annual cost . (9)
3.3.1. Non-Renewable Energy Sources for Hydrogen + 1) N
i (i Production
In Jordan, many non-renewable energy sources are used to feed electric power plants,
3.3.1.
such as Non-Renewable Energy
natural gas, diesel, Sources
and heavyfor Hydrogen
fuel oil. In theProduction
first scenario, grid electricity was
used to feed the hydrogen power plant, and the powerused
In Jordan, many non-renewable energy sources are to feed electric
consumption of thepower plants,
electrolyzer
such
and theas natural gas, diesel,
compressor wereand heavy fuel
evaluated in oil.
theInmodel.
the firstThen,
scenario,
the grid electricity
annual was used
operation cost
to feed the hydrogen
(USD/year) power plant,
for this alternative and
was the power
calculated byconsumption of the electrolyzer
applying Equation (10), basedandon the
compressor wereinevaluated
electricity tariff in the
Jordan (0.21 model. Then,
USD/kWh) [39]: the annual operation cost (USD/year) for
this alternative was calculated by applying Equation (10), based on the electricity tariff in
Annual OperatingJordan
Cost (USD) = 365(Daily[39]:
(0.21 USD/kWh) hydrogen production)(Daily Electricity needed)(Tariff) (10)

Annual Operating 3.3.2. USD) = 365Energy

Cost (Renewable (DailySource
hydrogen productionProduction
for Hydrogen )(Daily Electricity needed)(Tariff) (10)

3.3.2.Figure 5 shows
Renewable the general
Energy process
Source for of green
Hydrogen hydrogen production. In this study, a
Production
solar PV system is considered to provide energy to the electrolyzer, and seawater is
Figure 5 shows the general process of green hydrogen production. In this study,
pumped directly from the Red Sea to the electrolyzer. Afterward, hydrogen is moved to
a solar PV system is considered to provide energy to the electrolyzer, and seawater is
the compression chamber where it is compressed for storage, then directly moved to stor-
pumped directly from the Red Sea to the electrolyzer. Afterward, hydrogen is moved to the
age tanks. These
compression storage
chamber tanksitwill
where be transported
is compressed to the point-of-use
for storage, formoved
then directly the end
toapplica-
storage
tion.
tanks. These storage tanks will be transported to the point-of-use for the end application.

Figure 5. Overview of the general process of green hydrogen production.

Figure 5. Overview of the general process of green hydrogen production.
Regarding the market information on photovoltaics in Jordan [40], the initial price per
Regarding
installing 1 kWhthe
for market information
PV in Jordan is 705.23onUSD/kWh,
photovoltaics
withinnoJordan [40],cost
operating the assumed
initial price
for
per installing
this 1 kWh
system. The forcost
initial PV of
in this
Jordan is 705.23
system was USD/kWh, with the
evaluated using no operating cost equation:
mathematical assumed
for this system. The initial cost of this system was evaluated using the mathematical equa-
tion: Installation Capital Cost (USD) = 705.23 (PV Capacity(kWh)). (11)
Installation Capital Cost(USD) = 705.23 PV Capacity(kWh) . (11)
The PV capacity was evaluated according to a previous technical model, based on
the required rate of green hydrogen production.
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 11 of 21

The PV capacity was evaluated according to a previous technical model, based on the
required rate of green hydrogen production.

3.3.3. Water Consumption Cost

As the proposed location of the site is very close to the Red Sea, the cost of seawater
is expected to be very low. The price of water was roughly estimated, including the
delivery cost of pumping the water from the Red Sea to the plant. The estimated price was
0.027 USD/kg of seawater:

Annual Seawater Cost (USD) = 365 (Daily Water Consumption (kg)) (cos t). (12)

3.3.4. Revenue
Calculating the revenue depends on the end application of green hydrogen. In this
paper, we assumed that the total generated amount would be sold to the market as green
hydrogen, which is in high demand at present. The green hydrogen average selling price
globally is equal to 6 USD/kg [40]:

Annual Revenue (USD) = 365 (Daily H2 Productionin kg)(selling price). (13)

LCOH was calculated from the sum of the annual fixed costs of the investment and the
annual operating costs consisting of the electricity and water costs divided by the annual
hydrogen production. The operating cost and the production amount were assumed
constant over the study period.

Annual fixed cos t (USD) + Annual operating cos t(USD)

LCOH = (14)
Annual Hydrogen Production (kg)

For the second scenario, when the electricity is supplied from the PV, the annual fixed
cost is due to the PV system with zero operating costs for the electricity.

3.4. CO2 Emissions Reduction

The emissions factor is required for the calculation of the total CO2 emissions reduc-
tion. Available statistical energy data from the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources
(MEMR) were considered in this study. Using energy production from different sources,
including renewable energy (as shown in Table 3), the electricity emissions factor (EEF)
was calculated [41].

Table 3. CO2 Factor from the annual report of the Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources [39].

Source GWh CO2 Factor (kg of CO2 /kWh) Emissions (Tons)

Natural Gas 9211 0.4 3,684,400
Diesel 6644 0.6 4,650,800
Heavy Fuel Oil 2974 0.7 1,784,400
Renewable 184 0 0
Total 19,013 10,119,600

The average electricity emissions factor (EEF) in the equation is based on the total
emissions per total electricity generated annually [42]:
 
kg Total Emissions(kg)
EEF = . (15)
kWh Total Electricity (kWh)

Then, the annual CO2 emissions (from each source) are calculated as:

AnnualCO2 Emissions (kg of CO2 ) = (Annual consumption (kWh)) (CO2 Factor). (16)
nergies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 2

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 23

Energies 2022, 15, 9039 12 of 21
4. Results and Discussion
4.1.4.PV Solarand
Results System Capacity
Discussion
From
4.1.4. theand
Results
PV Solar MATLAB code, we predicted the area of the PV system as the decision var
Discussion
System Capacity
iable4.1.
for PV Solar
this System
model, inCapacity
order to generate 1000 mole/sec of hydrogen. Figures 6 and 7 show
From the MATLAB code, we predicted the area of the PV system as the decision var-
theiable
resultsFrom the
after MATLAB
running code,
the code wefor
predicted
four the area
years of the
(from PV system asofthe decision
for this model, in order to generate 1000 mole/sec ofthe beginning
hydrogen. Figures2022
6 andto7 show
the end o
2025) variable
for for
both this model,
electrolyzer in order to generate
technologies. 1000
The mole/s
capacityof hydrogen.
required Figures
for 6
these and 7 show
technologies
thethe
results after
results running
after runningthe thecode
codeforforfour
fouryears
years(from
(from the
the beginning
beginning of of 2022
2022 totothe end of de
theend
cayed
2025) due
of 2025)
to
for bothdevelopments
electrolyzer
for both
enhancing
technologies.
electrolyzer technologies.
theThe
The performance
capacity and for
required
capacity
increasing
requiredfor these the efficiency o
thesetechnologies
technologies de-
these
cayedtechnologies.
due due
decayed The ALKenhancing
to developments
to developments electrolyzer
enhancing system
thethe consumed
performance
performance and 16.381 MW
andincreasing
increasing the in 2022,ofwhic
efficiency
the efficiency
these
reduced technologies.
to 14.218
of these The
MW inThe
technologies. ALK
2025. electrolyzer
ALKFor system
the othersystem
electrolyzer consumed
electrolyzer
consumed 16.381
type, PEM
16.381 MW in
MWconsumed 2022,
in 2022, whichwhich MW
15.505
in reduced andtoto
reduced
2022 14.218
14.218MW
reduced MWto in
in2025. For
For the
2025.MW
14.002 in other
the other electrolyzertype,
2025.electrolyzer type,PEM
PEM consumed
consumed 15.505
15.505 MW MW
in in 2022
2022 andreduced
and reducedtoto14.002
14.002 MW
MW in 2025.
2025.

Figure 6. Forecasting the PV area required to produce 1 kg/s of hydrogen using an ALK electrolyzer
Figure 6. Forecasting the PV area required to produce 1 kg/s of hydrogen using an ALK electrolyzer
Figure 6. Forecasting
during 2022–2025. the PV area required to produce 1 kg/s of hydrogen using an ALK electrolyze
during 2022–2025.
during 2022–2025.

Figure 7. 7.
Figure Forecasting
Forecastingthe
thePV
PVarea
area required toproduce
required to produce1 1kg/s
kg/sofofhydrogen
hydrogen using
using a PEM
a PEM electrolyzer
electrolyzer
during 2022–2025.
during 2022–2025.

Figure 7. Forecasting the PV area required to produce 1 kg/s of hydrogen using a PEM electrolyze
during 2022–2025.
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 23

Energies 2022, 15, 9039 13 of 21

4.1.1. PV Solar Capacity Using ALK
Figure 6 shows the required area for PV solar systems from 2022 to 2025 under ALK.
The4.1.1.
fluctuation of the system
PV Solar Capacity capacity over these years was due to the solar radiation
Using ALK
available at the
Figure selected
6 shows thesite in Aqaba.
required area for PV solar systems from 2022 to 2025 under ALK.
The fluctuation of the system capacity over these years was due to the solar radiation
4.1.2. PV Solar
available Capacity
at the selected Using PEM
site in Aqaba.
PEM technology has higher efficiency than ALK, which means that a lower PV ca-
4.1.2. PV Solar Capacity Using PEM
pacity is required to generate hydrogen at the same rate. Figure 7 shows the required PV
PEM technology has higher efficiency than ALK, which means that a lower PV capacity
area using the PEM electrolyzer.
is required to generate hydrogen at the same rate. Figure 7 shows the required PV area
using the PEM electrolyzer.
4.1.3. PV Solar Capacity for ALK Versus PEM Technologies
4.1.3.
ThePV Solar
rate Capacity
of decay in for
theALK Versuscapacity
PV solar PEM Technologies
varied between the two technologies. The
required The ratefor
area of the
decay in the
ALK PV solar capacity
electrolyzer decayed varied between
at a very high the twocompared
rate, technologies.
withThe
that of
PEM. This behavior plays a role in affecting the capital cost of investment. Figure 8ofshows
required area for the ALK electrolyzer decayed at a very high rate, compared with that
thePEM. This behavior
difference in the plays a role in affecting
degradation the capital
rate for the costarea
required of investment. Figuretechnologies.
between these 8 shows
the difference in the degradation rate for the required area between these technologies. The
The fluctuation rates of these two curves can be seen at the same frequency, due to the use
fluctuation rates of these two curves can be seen at the same frequency, due to the use of
of the sameselected
the same selectedsite.
site.

Figure 8. PV
Figure area
8. PV arearequired
requiredto
to produce
produce 11kg/s
kg/sof
ofhydrogen
hydrogen during
during 2022–2025,
2022–2025, ALKALK versus
versus PEM.PEM.

4.2. Hydrogen Production Rate

4.2. Hydrogen Production Rate
In the second model, the rate of hydrogen production was taken as the decision
In the second
variable. This ratemodel,
varies the
withrate
the of hydrogen
time production
of year, based was taken
on the available as the decision
irradiance on the var-
iable. This
tilted rate varies
surfaces. with
Figures the10time
9 and show ofthe
year, basedhydrogen
potential on the available irradiance
generation on the
rates for the two tilted
surfaces. Figures 9 and 10 show
types of electrolyzers in 2025. the potential hydrogen generation rates for the two types
of electrolyzers in 2025.
4.2.1. Hydrogen Production Rate Using ALK
The rate of production fluctuated. The pattern over the year had the same amplitude
and wide range, due to the assumption of no clouds or any environmental factor affecting
the incident radiation. Figure 9 shows the production rate behavior during 2025 when
using an ALK electrolyzer. As can be seen from the figure, the maximum production rate
of 19.325 kg/s was achieved at N = 261.
x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 23
Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 2
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 14 of 21

Figure 9. Hydrogen production rate applying ALK during 2025.

Figure 9. Hydrogen
Figure 9. Hydrogenproduction rateapplying
production rate applying ALK
ALK during
during 2025.2025.

Figure 10. Hydrogen production rate applying PEM throughout 2025.

Figure 10. Hydrogen production rate applying PEM throughout 2025.
Figure 10. Hydrogen production rate applying PEM throughout 2025.
4.2.1. Hydrogen Production Rate Using ALK
4.2.1. Hydrogen Production Rate Using ALK
The rate of production fluctuated. The pattern over the year had the same amplitude
and wide range, due The rateassumption
to the of production fluctuated.
of no clouds orThe
anypattern over the factor
environmental year had the same amplitud
affecting
and wideFigure
the incident radiation. range, 9due to thethe
shows assumption
productionof rate
no clouds or any
behavior environmental
during 2025 whenfactor affectin
using an ALK electrolyzer. As can be seen from the figure, the maximum productionduring
the incident radiation. Figure 9 shows the production rate behavior rate 2025 when
 Energies 15,x9039
2022,15,
Energies 2022, FOR PEER REVIEW 16 of 23 15 of 21

4.2.2. Hydrogen
4.2.2. Production
Hydrogen Rate Using
Production PEM PEM
Rate Using
TheThe
raterate
of production usingusing
of production the PEMtheelectrolyzer had a much
PEM electrolyzer hadhigher
a muchrate than ALK.
higher rate than ALK.
TheThe
results indicated the maximum rate to be 1783 kg/sec on the same day
results indicated the maximum rate to be 1783 kg/s on the same day as that foras
ALKthat for ALK
(N(N
= 261). Figure
= 261). 10 shows
Figure the production
10 shows rate of
the production hydrogen
rate using using
of hydrogen a PEMaelectrolyzer in
PEM electrolyzer in the
theyear
year2025.
2025.

4.2.3. ALK
4.2.3. Versus
ALK PEMPEM
Versus Hydrogen Production
Hydrogen Rate Rate
Production
The production rate of hydrogen when applying the ALK electrolyzer was between
The production rate of hydrogen when applying the ALK electrolyzer was between
15 to 20 kg/s when using a fixed capacity of solar PV, while the range of the hydrogen
15 to 20 kg/s when using a fixed capacity of solar PV, while the range of the hydrogen
production rate using PEM was 10 times higher. Figure 11 shows the rate of hydrogen
production
production rate2025
during usingandPEM wasgap
the huge 10 times higher. Figure
in the hydrogen 11 shows
production the
rate for rate
both of hydrogen
elec-
trolyzers. The results shown in Figure 11 were applied in the techno-economic study to both elec-
production during 2025 and the huge gap in the hydrogen production rate for
trolyzers.
determine the The results
feasibility shown
and in Figure
the payback 11 were
period, applied
as shown in the12techno-economic
in Figures and 13. study to
determine the feasibility and the payback period, as shown in Figures 12 and 13.

Energies 2022, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 23

Figure
Figure 11. ALK
11. ALK versus
versus PEM PEM production
production rate1000
rate using using
m 1000
2 m2 capacity
capacity of of solar PV.
solar PV.

Figure12.
Figure Cashflow
12.Cash flowfor
forthe
thesecond
secondscenario
scenariowhen
whenusing
usingaaPV
PVsystem
systemasasan
anelectricity
electricitysource.
source.
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 16 of 21

Figure 12. Cash flow for the second scenario when using a PV system as an electricity source.

Figure 13. Payback period, net present value, and CO

CO22 emissions saving.

4.3.
4.3. Techno-Economical
Techno-Economical Model
Model Results
Results
The economical result was based on the rate of hydrogen production in the ALK elec-
The economical result was based on the rate of hydrogen production in the ALK elec-
trolyzer being 10 kg/s for 5.4 h per day throughout the year, thus producing 194,400 kg/day.
trolyzer being 10 kg/s for 5.4 h per day throughout the year, thus producing 194,400
For the given initial conditions and the MATLAB code sequence, the rated power that must
kg/day. For the given initial conditions and the MATLAB code sequence, the rated power
be delivered to the electrolyzer is 2.858 MW. In the first alternative, this power is extracted
that must be delivered to the electrolyzer is 2.858 MW. In the first alternative, this power
from the grid at a tariff of 0.21 USD/kWh. The annual energy cost is USD 195.90 million,
is extracted from the grid at a tariff of 0.21 USD/kWh. The annual energy cost is USD
and the annual production for hydrogen is 70.956 × 106 kg. The LCOH6in the first alterna-
195.90 million, and the annual production for hydrogen is 70.956 × 10 kg. The LCOH in
tive, using electricity from the grid, is 4.42 USD/kg of hydrogen. In the second scenario,
the first alternative, using electricity from the grid, is 4.42 USD/Kg of hydrogen. In the
green hydrogen was produced based on the electricity generated from PV. The required
second scenario, green hydrogen was produced based on the electricity generated from
capacity for the PV to generate the same rate of hydrogen was 14.29 MW, in order to gener-
PV. The required capacity for the PV to generate the same rate of hydrogen was 14.29
ate 2.858 MW at an efficiency of 20% for the whole PV system. The LCOH was reduced
MW, in order to generate 2.858 MW at an efficiency of 20% for the whole PV system. The
to 3.13 USD/kg by applying electricity generated from the PV system. In addition, the
LCOH was point
break-even reduced to 3.13
under the USD/Kg by applying
second scenario, electricity
i.e., to cover thegenerated from
capital cost of the
the PV
PV system.
system,
In addition, the break-even point under the second scenario, i.e., to cover the
was 11 years of the project life. The NPV under the second scenario was USD 441.95 million, capital cost
of the PV system, was 11 years of the project life. The NPV under the second scenario
representing the feasibility and potential of this project. Figures 12 and 13 depict the cash was
USD and
flow 441.95
themillion, representing
break-even the feasibility
point obtained and potential of
in the techno-economic this respectively.
study, project. Figures 12
and 13The advantages of hydrogen fuel cells as one of the best renewabletechno-economic
depict the cash flow and the break-even point obtained in the energy sources
study,
are respectively.
clear, but there are still a number of challenges to be overcome in order to realize
the potential. On the positive side, hydrogen fuel cells could offer a fully renewable and
clean energy source for the future, providing an efficient energy source with very little
environmental impact. Achieving this will require further technological advances to reduce
the associated costs of extraction, storage, and transport, as well as further investment in
infrastructure. Hydrogen could become the best solution for our future energy needs, but
this requires political will and investment.
In this study, the potential of hydrogen production in Jordan has been investigated by
evolving a mathematical model that simulates the optimal performance. In the economic
feasibility study, the operating hours for green hydrogen production are constant during
the whole year at 5.4 h/day. In addition, the production rate of the hydrogen was at
a steady state during the operating hours. In the forecasting model, the cost of the PV
system was constant during the years of study, and the efficiency of the PV system was
assumed constant at 20% during the years of operation. The feasibility study did not
include the maintenance costs. For future work, there will be a need to follow the hydrogen
market closely and identify business partners for the selling and distribution of hydrogen
in Jordan and neighboring countries. Furthermore, there will be a need to investigate
other technologies for hydrogen production and re-electrification than the components
used in this study. To achieve this, there will be a need to scale up decarbonized hydrogen
production and fuel cell manufacturing, and develop the required regulatory framework to
clearly define commercial deployment models. Further technological advances to lower
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 17 of 21

the associated costs of extraction, storage, and transportation are envisaged, along with
further investments in the infrastructure to support it.

4.4. CO2 Emissions Reduction

A decisive factor in a future energy supply with less CO2 is electricity. This is especially
true for the production of green hydrogen as an energy and material carrier in all sectors
of energy demand. In this paper, the EEF was set to 0.54 kg of CO2 /kWh, based on
statistical data from the Jordanian Ministry of Energy and Mineral Resources. In the first
scenario (electricity from the grid), 2.858 MW was required as the generation source for
the electrolyzer. In the second scenario (electricity generated from the PV system), the
CO2 emission reduction was equal to 3080 tons. Thus, the annual savings according to the
reduction of CO2 emissions, with an assumption of 39 USD/ton of CO2 , was USD 120,135.

5. Conclusions
With hydrogen as an energy store, supply bottlenecks can be avoided in the case
of strongly fluctuating regenerative power generation from the wind and sun. Jordan
has seen a huge increase in the progress toward producing green energy; it has relied on
renewable energy resources in the last decade. The potential of producing green hydrogen
in Aqaba, Jordan, is discussed in this paper. An economic feasibility study was carried
out regarding the production of green hydrogen, taking the environmental effects of CO2
emission reductions into account (i.e., the upstream emissions due to the provision of
electricity were considered). The potential was modeled for two types of electrolyzers (ALK
and PEM), accompanied by a comparison between the two types when sourcing electricity
from fossil fuels and PV. NPV and LCOH were used as indicators describing the feasibility
of both electrolyzer models. The annual production of hydrogen was 70,956,000 kg. The
rates of hydrogen production were 19.3 kg/s and 1783 kg/s for ALK and PEM electrolyzers,
respectively. The LCOH was 4.42 USD/kg and 3.13 USD/kg when applying electricity
from the grid and generated from the PV system, respectively. The payback period to cover
the capital cost of the PV system was 11 years of the project life, with an NPV of USD
441.95 million. Moreover, CO2 emissions were reduced by 3042 tons/year when using PV
as a generation source, instead of grid electricity generated using fossil fuels. The annual
savings due to the reduction of CO2 emissions, with an assumption of 39 USD/ton of
CO2 , was USD 120,135. In this paper, the potential for hydrogen production in Jordan
was investigated by MATLAB modeling, where models were built based on two types
of electrolyzers, applying certain learning curve models and simplification assumptions.
Hence, the results indicating the feasible potential of green hydrogen production should
be noted as indicators, recommending further investigations for validation of the results
obtained in this study. One factor of uncertainty in this study is the development of the
hydrogen market in Jordan; a sufficient demand for hydrogen is a critical issue. Today, the
demand cannot be enough to justify a large investment similar to the one proposed in this
study. However, the demand for green hydrogen will grow fast in the coming years. This
trend should be followed closely, and if possible, consumers of hydrogen in Jordan and
neighboring countries should be identified.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, M.J. and A.A.(Asem Alzoubi); methodology, M.J.; soft-
ware, M.J. and O.A.; validation, A.A.(Aiman Albatayneh), O.A. and A.J.; formal analysis, S.G.;
investigation, S.G. and A.J.; resources, M.J. and A.A.(Aiman Albatayneh); data curation, M.J. and
O.A.; writing—original draft preparation, M.J. and A.A.(Asem Alzoubi); writing—review and editing,
M.J., O.A. and A.J.; visualization, M.J. and A.J.; supervision, S.G. and M.J. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: Not applicable.
Acknowledgments: The authors acknowledge German Jordanian University, An-Najah National
University, and the Tarbiat Modares University for facilitating this research.
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 18 of 21

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abbreviations
L latitude
N Julian date
H hour angle
β tilt angle
δ declination angle
Gn irradiance on normal surface
Rb geometric factor
Gtilt irradiance on tilted surface
ALK alkaline electrolyzer
PEM proton exchange membrane
SOEL solid oxide electrolysis
HHV higher heating value
LHV lower heating value
γ specific heat ratio
R ideal gas constant
T temperature
η efficiency
PV photovoltaic panels
NPV net present value
I interest rate
EEF electricity emissions factor

Appendix A
The MATLAB Code:
1. % Molar mass of h2 (User Input in Line 21)
2. %Solar Irradiance
3. %Latitude (Fixed value)
4. L= 29.5476;
5. %Tilt Angle
6. S = 10;
7. % (Number of days from 01.01)
8. N = [0:0.25:360];
9. % Declination Angle
10. dec = 23.45 × sind(360/365 × (284 + N));
11. % Hour angle
12. h = [−180:0.25:180];
13. % Irradiance on normal surface
14. Gn = 1367 × (1+0.033 × cos (360 × N/365));
15. % Geometric factor
16. Rb = (sind(L − S) × sind(dec) + cosd(L − S) × cosd(dec).× cosd(h))./(sind(L) ×
sind(dec) + cosd(L) × cosd(dec). × cosd(h))
17. % Irradiance on a tilted surface
18. Gtilt = Gn. × Rb
19. M.M = 1.008 × 10−3
20. %Moles of hydrogen needed
21. mole = 1000
22. % Maximum pressure needed to feed the demand (This value depends on the required
pressure in the storage tank)
23. P = 200
24. year = [2020:10/1440:2030]
25. % Higher heating value of hydrogen (Fixed amount)
26. HHV = 285.8
Energies 2022, 15, 9039 19 of 21

27. %The pressure before the compressor

28. PALK = −3528.75 + 1.75 × year
29. PPEM = −7533.75 + 3.75 × year
30. % Specific heat ratio of hydrogen (Fixed value)
31. A = 1.4
32. % Ideal gas constant (Fixed value) kJ/kg × K
33. R = 8.314
34. % Temperature of hydrogen (Fixed value) k
35. Temp = 298
36. % Isentropic efficiency of the compressor (Fixed value)
37. Ceff = 0.7
38. % The power consumption into ALK compressor:
39. Wcompressor_ALK = (mole × R × Temp × ((PALK/P).−3.5 )−1)/Ceff
40. Wcompressor_PEM = (mole × R × Temp × ((PPEM/P).−3.5 )−1)/Ceff
41. % ALK Electrolyzer:
42. % Electrolyzer power consumption (kW)
43. W_Electrolyzer = mole × M.M × HHV
44. % ALK Initial Cost
45. ALK_Initial_Cost = (68823.75 − 33.75 × year) × W_Electrolyzer
46. %ALK power consumption from the PV
47. ALK_power_consumption = mole × HHV × (555.25 − 0.25 × year)
48. %PV efficiency = 20%
49. PVeff = 0.2
50. B = PVeff × Gtilt
51. % PV capacity
52. PV_power_output_ALK = Wcompressor_ALK + ALK_power_consumption
53. %Area needed for installing PV
54. Area_Needed_ALK = (PV_power_output_ALK)./B
55. %PV capital cost
56. PV_capital_Cost_ALK = 500 × Area_Needed_ALK
57. Total_initial_cost_ALK = ALK_Initial_Cost + PV_capital_Cost_ALK + (31,855.625 −
15.625 × year)
58. % Hydrogen selling price
59. HSP = M.M × Mole × (0.72)
60. % PEM Electrolyzer:
61. % Electrolyzer power consumption (kW)
62. W_Electrolyzer_PEM = mole × M.M × HHV
63. % PEM Initial Cost
64. PEM_Initial_Cost = (127262.5 − 62.5 × year) × W_Electrolyzer
65. %PEM power consumption from the PV
66. PEM_power_consumption = mole × HHV × (1570.75 − 0.75 × year)
67. PV_power_output_PEM = Wcompressor_PEM + PEM_power_consumption
68. %Area needed for installing PV
69. Area_Needed_PEM = (PV_power_output_PEM)./(B)
70. %PV capital cost
71. PV_capital_Cost_PEM = 500 × Area_Needed_PEM
72. Total_initial_cost_PEM = PEM_Initial_Cost+ PV_capital_Cost_PEM

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