MANALMAY INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

GREATER NOIDA
Department of Computer Science and Engineering

Name :- kapish subject code : KCS-071

Subject: Artificial intelligence Assignment no -3

Q1: -Explain Game Playing & Puzzles Theorem. What is Min Max Algorithm?
Also Explain Alpha beta Pruning by giving suitable example.

Ans: Game playing and puzzles theorem is a mathematical theorem that

describes the optimal strategy for solving a wide range of two-player games,
such as chess and checkers. The theorem states that the best possible move in
any given game can be determined by analysing all possible moves and
countermoves, and choosing the move that leads to the best possible outcome
for the player making the move.

The Min Max algorithm is a popular algorithm used in game playing and puzzle
solving. It is a search algorithm that tries to minimize the maximum possible loss
for a player by making the best possible move in any given situation. In other
words, the algorithm attempts to find the move that will give the player the
best possible outcome, while also minimizing the potential loss if the opponent
makes the best possible countermove.

Alpha beta pruning is a optimization technique used in game playing and puzzle
solving algorithms, such as the Min Max algorithm. The technique is used to
reduce the number of nodes that need to be searched in the game tree, by
eliminating branches of the tree that cannot possibly affect the final outcome of
the game.

For example, consider a game of chess where one player has a knight and a
bishop, and the other player has a rook and a pawn. If the player with the knight
and bishop is trying to determine the best possible move, they can use alpha
beta pruning to eliminate any moves that do not involve their knight or bishop.
This can save a significant amount of time and computational resources, as the
algorithm only needs to consider moves that actually involve the player's
pieces.
Q2: - What do you mean by knowledge representation in AI? Also Explain
Techniques of knowledge representation in AI KBS Systems.

Ans: In the field of artificial intelligence (AI), knowledge representation refers to

the way in which information about the world is encoded and manipulated by a
computer system. This information can include facts, rules, and concepts, and it
is used by AI systems to reason and make decisions.

There are many different techniques for representing knowledge in AI systems,

and these techniques can be broadly grouped into two categories: symbolic and
non-symbolic. Symbolic techniques use explicit representations of knowledge,
such as logic rules or ontologies, to encode information in a way that can be
easily understood and manipulated by a computer. Non-symbolic techniques,
on the other hand, use numerical or geometric representations of knowledge,
such as vectors or matrices, to encode information in a way that can be
processed more efficiently by a computer.

One example of a knowledge-based system (KBS) is an expert system, which is a

computer program that is designed to mimic the decision-making abilities of a
human expert in a particular domain. Expert systems use a combination of
symbolic and non-symbolic techniques to represent knowledge, and they are
often used in applications where human expertise is limited or expensive to
obtain, such as in medical diagnosis or financial analysis.

Q3: -What are the methods used for knowledge representation in AI Production
Systems.? Explain the different types of Logic theories in AI KBS Systems by
giving suitable example.

Ans: There are several methods that can be used for knowledge representation
in AI production systems, including:

1. Rule-based systems: In these systems, knowledge is represented as a set

of if-then rules that describe the relationships between different pieces
of information. For example, a rule might state that "if a bird has feathers
and can fly, then it is a bird."
2. Frame-based systems: In these systems, knowledge is represented as a
set of frames, which are structured collections of information about a
particular concept. For example, a frame for a bird might include
information about its appearance, behavior, and habitat.
 3. Semantic networks: In these systems, knowledge is represented as a
network of interconnected nodes and arcs, where each node represents
a concept and each arc represents a relationship between two concepts.
4. Ontologies: In these systems, knowledge is represented as a hierarchical
classification of concepts and their relationships.

There are several different types of logic theories that can be used in AI KBS
systems, including:

1. Propositional logic: This type of logic is used to represent and reason

about simple facts or propositions, such as "the sky is blue" or "a bird is a
mammal."
2. Predicate logic: This type of logic is used to represent and reason about
more complex relationships between entities, such as "all birds can fly" or
"some birds are red."
3. Modal logic: This type of logic is used to represent and reason about
concepts such as necessity, possibility, and obligation. For example, a
modal logic rule might state that "it is necessary for all birds to have
feathers."
4. Non-monotonic logic: This type of logic is used to represent and reason
about uncertain or incomplete information. For example, a non-
monotonic logic rule might state that "if a bird has wings, then it can fly
(unless there is evidence to the contrary)."

Q4: -Forward Chaining and backward chaining & Reasoning Process in AI

Systems. Also Explain the Techniques for Unification and Resolution in AI
Systems

Ans: Forward chaining and backward chaining are two different methods for
reasoning or inferring new knowledge from existing knowledge in AI systems.

Forward chaining starts with a set of known facts or rules, and then applies
those facts or rules to infer new information. For example, if a forward chaining
system knows that "all birds have feathers" and "this animal is a bird," it can
infer that "this animal has feathers." This method is commonly used in rule-
based systems, where the rules are applied in a forward direction to generate
new information.

Backward chaining starts with a goal or conclusion that the system is trying to
prove, and then works backwards to find the information that is needed to
support that goal. For example, if a backward chaining system is trying to prove
that "this animal has feathers," it might start by asking whether "this animal is a
bird," and then use the rule "all birds have feathers" to support the conclusion.
This method is commonly used in question-answering systems, where the
system is trying to find the information that is needed to answer a specific
question.

In both forward chaining and backward chaining, the process of reasoning or

inferring new knowledge from existing knowledge is known as unification. This
process involves matching the terms or concepts in the known facts or rules
with the terms or concepts in the goal or conclusion, and then combining those
facts or rules in a way that supports the goal.

One technique for unification in AI systems is called resolution, which involves

taking two clauses or statements and combining them to produce a new clause
or statement. For example, if the system knows the clauses "all birds have
feathers" and "this animal is a bird," it can use resolution to combine these
clauses and produce the new clause "this animal has feathers." This technique is
commonly used in logic-based systems, where the facts and rules are
represented using logic rules or clauses.

Q5: -Explain Rules of Inference in Propositional & Predicate Logic theories in

Artificial Intelligence Systems.

Ans:In propositional logic, the rules of inference are used to infer new
propositions or statements from existing propositions or statements. These
rules specify the conditions under which a new proposition can be derived from
one or more existing propositions, based on the logical relationships between
the propositions.

Some common rules of inference in propositional logic include:

1. Modus ponens: If the proposition "if P then Q" is true, and the
proposition "P" is also true, then the proposition "Q" must be true.
2. Modus tollens: If the proposition "if P then Q" is true, and the proposition
"Q" is false, then the proposition "P" must be false.
3. Hypothetical syllogism: If the propositions "if P then Q" and "if Q then R"
are both true, then the proposition "if P then R" must be true.
4. Disjunctive syllogism: If the propositions "P or Q" and "not P" are both
true, then the proposition "Q" must be true.
In predicate logic, the rules of inference are used to infer new predicates or
statements from existing predicates or statements. These rules specify the
conditions under which a new predicate can be derived from one or more
existing predicates, based on the logical relationships between the predicates.

Some common rules of inference in predicate logic include:

1. Universal instantiation: If the predicate "for all x, P(x)" is true, then the
predicate "P(a)" must be true for any specific value of "a."
2. Existential generalization: If the predicate "P(a)" is true for some specific
value of "a," then the predicate "there exists an x such that P(x)" must be
true.
3. Universal generalization: If the predicate "P(a)" is true for some specific
value of "a," and the predicate "P(a)" logically follows from the premises,
then the predicate "for all x, P(x)" must be true.
4. Existential instantiation: If the predicate "there exists an x such that P(x)"
is true, then the predicate "P(a)" must be true for some specific value of
"a."

Q6:- Explain the steps involved in the knowledge Engineering process in

Knowledge Based Systems. Give an example.

Ans: The knowledge engineering process is the process of creating a

knowledge-based system (KBS), which is a computer program that uses a formal
representation of knowledge to reason and make decisions. This process
involves several steps, including:

1. Identify the problem or domain: The first step in the knowledge

engineering process is to identify the problem or domain that the KBS will
be used to solve. This might involve identifying the specific task that the
KBS will be used for, the specific domain of knowledge that the KBS will
need to be familiar with, and the specific goals or objectives that the KBS
will be trying to achieve.
2. Gather and organize knowledge: The next step is to gather and organize
the knowledge that will be used by the KBS. This might involve
conducting interviews with experts in the domain, collecting relevant
data or information from sources such as books or databases, and
organizing the knowledge into a logical structure that can be easily
understood and manipulated by the KBS.
3. Develop a representation of knowledge: The third step is to develop a
representation of the knowledge that has been gathered and organized.
 This might involve using a formal language or notation, such as logic or
ontologies, to encode the knowledge in a way that can be easily
understood and manipulated by the KBS.
4. Implement the KBS: The fourth step is to implement the KBS itself, using
the representation of knowledge developed in the previous step. This
might involve writing computer programs or algorithms that can
manipulate the knowledge representation and use it to reason and make
decisions.
5. Test and evaluate the KBS: The final step is to test and evaluate the KBS
to ensure that it is working correctly and achieving the desired goals or
objectives. This might involve running the KBS on a set of test data,
comparing the results with the expected outcomes, and making any
necessary changes or improvements to the KBS.