Quantitative Chemistry Topic 1

DefinetheTermRelativeMolecularMass
theaveragemassof a mde
Comparedto 1112 at the massof oneatomcarbon 12
AtomicStructureTopic 2 12
First ionization energy
theminimumenergyrequired to remove one electron tram
An atom in its gaseous state

Explain the convergence of lines in a hydrogen emissionspectrum

Energylevelsconverge at highenergy1frequency
Theionisationenergycan be determinedbythe frequency at the convergence limit
Periodicity Topic3 13
Compounds at Dblockelements arecoloured
ExplainWhy
have electrons
They unpaired
Thed orbitals are splitinto twoenergylevels
Electrons car transitionbetweenthese
energylevels
In the meantime theycan absorbenergyfromlight at a visiblewavelength and this onecan
observe the complimentarycolour

Why is SutterLarequivalent a non conductor at electricity

Sutteris a
simplemolecularstructure
Thatconsistsof covalentbonds and no delocalized electrons since all
outerelectrons are used in bonding

Why is Aluminiumtarequivalent a good conductor at electricity

It is a structureat positive ionsanddelocalizedelectrons
Thedelocalizedelectrons arefreeto move when a currentis applied

Whydoes 502have a high meltingpoint

It has a macromolecular1giantcovalentstructure
Thereforethereare
many strong bands thatmustbebroken tomelt

Formationof a complex in
using acid base theory
ALewisbaseand Lewis acidband
the ligand Clewisbase donates anelectron pair to theLewis acid
Forming a dativecovalentbond

Explainwhy completes of 2n'Tag are colourless compared to other transitionmetal complexes

like Cu cap
Thedorbitals aresplitintotwodifferentsets of energies theligand
by
Aspecific frequencyof visiblelight isabsorbedbyelectrons transitioning fromtowerto higher
energylevelwithinthe d sub level
thecolouremitted is thus the complimentary colouratthatwhich isabsorbed
Inorderforthesetransitionsto happen theremust be a partiallyfilled d sublevelwhichZn
doesnothave the 2 electrons areremoved from its notd

Definethetermelectronegativity
theability of an atomto attract a shoredpair of electrons in a covalentbond

Explainwhynoblegasesaren'tassigned electronegativityvalues
theyhavea fullandstableouterelectronshelland thusdonotformcompounds usually maybeexception
dativecovalent
end
Explainwhythemeltingpointsofgroup1 decreasedownthegroup
Theatomic1ionicradius oftheatoms increases andthus
theforcesofattractionbetweenmetalionsanddelocalizedelectronsdecreases
Explainwhythemelting pointsd group7 increasedown the group
thereareincreasingnumbersorelectronsandthus
 greaterinducedLondondispersionforceswhichmeansstronger intermolecular r alaltrachar

Stalethe acid base character at the oxides at the period 3 elementsfrom Na to Ari
NaandMgoxidesarebasic
ALoxidesareamphoteric
Sitoceoxidesareacidic
Ardoesnotformanoxide
Factors affecting electronegativity
Thenumberof Shells1Shielding
Thenuclearcharge
Theatomicradius

state the relationshipbetween the electronarrangement of an element and its groupand

period in the periodic table
Groups indicatethenumbers of electrons in thehighestenergylevel
Periodsindicate thenumberat occupied electronshells in theatom

Explain why Zinc is not considered a transition metal

Zinc any forms the oxidationstate Zn
which does not have the partially tilted d subshellneeded to exhibittransitionmetal
properties

Nitrogenoxidesoutline
Source produced hightemperature combustion leg car engines
by
Productsin reactionwithwater Nitricacid HN 03 or Nitric GD acid two
Environmentalproblem acid deposition respiratoryproblems corrosionproblems acidification
pollution atLakes soil trees vegetation ek
Characteristics of Transitionmetals
VariableoxidationStates
Catalyticproperties
Formcolouredcompounds
Magneticproperties
Formcomplex ions

Define the term Ligand

A species with a Lacepair ofelectrons
Whichbondsto a metal car in complex forming a dativecovalentband
Factors affecting the splitting at d orbitals
Natureof the ligand
Coordination Number
OxidationStates oftransitionmetals
Numberof Ligands

Statewhat ismeantbythetermcoiougatebase
Aspecies that has one less proton than its conjugate acid
Outlinewhy atomic radius decreases across period 3
Samenumber ofelectronshells andnuclear chargeincreases causing a stronger
punan outer
electrons

Explainwhytransitionmetals exhibitvariableoxidationStates comparedto alkalimetals

d and s orbirds which are close in energy
Transitionmetals contain
Alkalimetals have thesecondelectron removedfrom a muchlowerenergylevel
Bonding Topic 4 14
DescribehowSigmaco andPi r bandsform
TheSigmabandis thehead are overlapping at orbitals alongthe internuclearaxis
Thepibandis the paralleloverlapping of porbitalsaboveandbelowtheinternuclear axis

Outlinethenatureofmetallicbonding
Theelectrostaticattractionbetween a lattice at positiveionsanddelocalizedelectrons

Physicalproperties ofmetallicbanding
MalleableThedelocalizedelectrons allow the layersat positiveions
to slide pasteachotherwithout
disruptingthemetallicbonding

Outlinethenatureofionicbonding
Theelectrostatic attractionbetween oppositely chargedions in a latticestructure
Formedas a resultof electrontransferbetween atoms

Physical properties ofionicbonding

Nonconductor ofelectricity insolidstate astheions are in arigidlattice nothee
tomoves
Conductor of
electricity in liquidstate as the ions arefree to move

Outlinethenatureat covalent bonding

Theelectrostatic attraction between positively chargednuclei and a
pair of electrons
Formedas a result ofelectronsharing betweentwo nuclei

Bandangles andshapes of Molecules

Structure of Graphite
A layered structureofcarbonatoms heldtogether byweakLondonDispersionForces
Sp bonding andthuscan conductelectricity dueto delocalized pelectrons

Uses of Graphite
Usedaspercic lead layerscanslideoftontothepaper
 8 yer s
Usedas electrodes hasdelocalizedelectronsthat canflowparallel tolayers
Usedforthermalinsulation vibrations are not passedbetweenlayers
easily
LewisstructureforOzone

Q
Resonancestructurefor ozone
Thetwo oxygen oxygenbondsin ozone are actuallyofequallength
Delocalizationof the a bondoccurs giving rise to a resonancehybridd band order
15 0
Of 7.0
Definethetermhybridization
Themerging of atomicorbitals to form molecular orbitals atequal energyfor bonding
Energetics Topic 5 15
standardenthalpychargeofformation
Theenthalpychargewhen Imetof a compound is formed
fromits Maestandardconditions

Standardenthalpy charge of reaction Dito

Thepotentialenergy change when one mole at reactants react to form products
Understandard conditions 100
kpa and 298K
Define the term acreagebondenthalpy
Theenergyneeded tobreak 1mole at bonds in a gaseous molecule
IE is an averagecalculated from a range at similar compounds

Define the term endothermic reaction

Thesystemabsorbs heatfrom its surroundings

Statewhatthetermspontaneous means
Thereactiongivesout gibbsfreeenergythat cando work
DGhas a negativevalve Thereaction is energeticallyfeasible

Iron
Standard enthalpycharge atatomisation DH
The enthalpychargewhen onemole at gaseousatoms is formedfrom its elements
understandardtemperature pressure

Standardenthalpy change of solution

DHosoen

Enthalpy charge when I mole d solutedissolves toforman infinitely dilutesolution

under Stp
Kinetics Topic 6 16
Definethe term rate d reaction
Thechange in concentration or a reactant1productwithtime

Explainwhy increasing theparticle size of a solid decreases rate of reaction

Thesurfaceareadecreasesandthus
Thefrequencyofcollisionsdecreases

Define the termactivation energy

Theminimumenergyrequired reactants to initiate a reaction
by
Explain theeffectof a catalyst on rate of reaction
Therateincreasesbecause
thecatalystprovides analternativereactionpathway thatrequires a loweractivationenergyandthus
Moreparticleshavesufficientenergytoreactandthereare moresuccessfulcollisions perunitoftime

Whymightincreasing concentration of a reactant notincrease the rateof reaction

It the reactant is notinvolved in or beforethe rate determiningstep
If thereactant is already in largeexcess

Explain increasing temperature of a reaction mixture will significantlyincrease

the why
of
rate reaction
the kineticenergy of molecules increases this
Thefrequency arecollisions perwrit of time increases and
it means a greaterproportion at the molecules have the activationenergy
required for the reaction to take placeupon collision
Describetheequilibriumthatexistsbetween a liquidand itsvapourandhow this is akected
by
increasingtemperature
Therateatwhichmoleculesescape theliquid is the rate at which theyreturntoliquid
With increasingtemperaturemoleculeshave greaterkineticenergy
whichmeansthat a greater proportion of moleculeshavetherequiredenergytoescapefrom
thesurface at the liquid
Thereforetoreturn rate backto originalan increasein pressureis required

Factors thataffectrate ofreaction

Temperature
Catalyst
Concentration
Pressure
high
SurfaceArea

How can determine the rateexpression

you
Usingexperimentation
Test theerecton thereactionrate ofchanging each concentration independently
Determine theeffectof changing concentrations on rate
Equilibria Topic 7 17i
Discusstheeffectofadding a catalyst to an equilibriumreaction at constanttempand pressure
Theequilibrium is reachedfaster
Thereis nochange in thecareatreactantsIyieldat equilibrium
thepositionof equilibrium is notaffected
Theratesatforwardandbackwardreactionincreaseequally
Reduces
theactivationenergyneeded
Nocharge in Kc

Characteristics of a reversiblereaction in a state ofdynamic equilibrium

Theratesofforwardandreversereactions areequal
the concentrationsare all reactantsandproductsremainconstant
Itmustbe in a closed1isolatedsystem
TheHaberprocess
Nzt 3Hz 2NH DH 92Komori
450k
130 300atm pressure High
Ie catalyst

TheContactProcess
25oz O I 2so DH 196Komori
sooo
2105Pa
Kos catalyst
AcidsandBases Topic8 18

Stalewhat is meantby the termbuttersolution

Thesolutionresistschange in pH
Ontheaddition of small amounts of acid andbase

Distinguishbetweenstrong andweak acids

Astrongacid is assumed to be completely dissociated in solutionand
Aweakacid is onlypartiallydissociatedlionized

Define thetermacid baseaccording to Lewistheory

An acid is an electron pairacceptor
A base is an electronpairdonor
Definetheterm acid baseaccording to Branstad Lowrytheory
Anacid is a proton donor
Abase is a protonacceptor
Describequalitativelyhowindicators work
thereis an equilibrium between Hlnand In Hln In andAt
thecolours at Hlnand In aredifferent
Headdedto acid theequilibrium shiftstotheleft andthecolourof Hlnisseen
Itaddedto alkali the equilibrium shifts tothe rightandthecolour d In is seer

Techniques tomeasure the equivalence point

pHtitration
Calorimetry
Conductivitymeasurement
Redox Topic9 19

Definethetermstandardelectrode potential
Thepotentialof a reductionhalf reactionunderstandard conditionsrelativetothe standardhydrogenelectrode

Draw a suitablediagram of apparatus forelectrolysis

Production atMgusing molten Mgce

A Is positiveelectrode
anode
Cathode Mg t 2e Mg

µ
Negative
Anode 2cL Cla t 2 e
Y
ElectrolytefinderMgad

Draw a diagram of a voltaic cell

voltmeter

SaltBridge 71

I l lTl Il
lo

Definethetermreduction
Thegainofelectrons
Thegainof hydrogen
Thelossofoxygen

Define the termoxidation

TheLoss of electrons
Thelossofhydrogen
Thegainofoxygen

The standardhydrogenelectrode SHE

m
H2at 100hPa 298k

Ill

Inertplatinum electrode

I Mddm Hag
Oxidisingagentvs Reducing Agent
Oxidisingagent is reducedand reducing agent is oxidised
OrganicChem Topic 10 t 20
Draw on SNzMechanism usingcurlyarrows pda solvents
protic dissolve
dipoles
strong
A saltsbutnot the

B fun E v L
nucleophile

FreeRadical Substitution of chlorine or equivalent with an alkane

Initiation Cle Zee
Propagation
A GH cuts HCl
Hs Az GHCe t Ce
Termination
Cl Ce Az or
Clo Celts GHSA
Hs Cz
Hs Hio

Features of a homologous series

Samefunctionalgroup
Samegeneralformula
Successivemembersdiffer attack
by
Similarchemicalproperties
Gradationin physicalproperties

Define the term stereoisomers

Compounds with the same structural formula and different arrangements in terms of
3Dstructure
Define the term structural isomers
Compoundswith thesame molecular formulas thatdiffer in thearrangementoftheiratoms
structurally

State the conditionsneededfor a compound to showgeometrical isomerism

Theremust berestricted rotationaround a double band
the carbonatoms of thedouble band musthavetwodifferentatoms groupsattached to
them

OpticalActivity
A molecule must bechiral for opticalactivity to occur
Opticalactivity is arotation of the plane atphone polarized light

SbiMechanism Using curlyarrows

2
R R fightOH R OH Ce Rateexpression KERCe
Nitration of Benzene mechanism
N Hasa Hot Hot t Hso
µ
conc HNO and Hasek at a temp of 50C

at can recombinewim asai iron

earlier
Cdt HUQ CutsNO Hao

Reduction of Nitrobenzene

NHI
105N syn
concHee
Nitrobenzene Phenylammonium
ions
carried out under reflux at 100C
NHI Et NH
OH Ho
ammonium
phenyl phenylamine
ions

Electrophilic addition mechanism

H CHS H 4h3 H CH
d
H
c
H
H
1
H y Br
t
a
H H IH iBr it
Eggs
Evidence that the Hekate structure is not the structure ofbenzene
Equal C C band lengths
Regularhexagonshape
Undergoes substitution reaction morereadily thanaddition
Does not react withbrominewater
Substitutionforms
onlyone isomer thepresence ofdouble bonds wouldform 2 isomers
Morestablethan expectedcompared to the hypotheticalmolecule cyclohua l 3,5 triere
Enthalpycharge at hydrogenation isless exothermic thanpredicted forcyclohexa 1,3 s triere
 Reaction pathways for topic 10 & 20
Startingwith
Staring withethene
ethene in
in the
the middle
middle,fill
fillininall
the boxes
the with
boxes thethe
with appropriate molecule
appropriate showing
molecule thethe
showing structural
structural
formula and name.
formula and name. Add the reagents and reaction conditions for each ste p

T f H
ft
Free radical substitution
UV, halogen fl ft
H C C H Free radical U d c ce Ce C C ca
ft ft
substitution
H H UV, halogen H H
Alkane Dihalogenoalkane Trihalogenoalkane
Free radical &
substitution Electrophilic addition Electrophilic addition
M Tetrahalogenoalkane
UV, halogen H2, Ni catalyst, 150oC Halogen, RTP

Addition polymerisation

H ft Electrophilic addition
H RH
low pressure (LDPE) or

II
Hydrogen halide, RTP high pressure (HDPE)
H c
H
I
H
c a
1
M
H
c
H i'Ifn
Halogenoalkane Alkene Polyalkene
Electrophilic addition
Nucleophilic substitution
Steam, conc. H2SO4, heat
warm NaOH(aq),
SN1 polar SN2 polar Reduction Reduction
protic aprotic NaBH4 in aqueous or Heat, LiAlH4 in dry ether
solvent, M M solvent alcoholic solution or LiAlH4 followed by aqueous acid

f it Oxidation 4 yo
4
Oxidation
H C c OH acidified potassium
manganate (VII) yo acidified KMnO4 H C C
l or potassium H C C or K2Cr2O7, 1 OH
H H H
dichromate (VI),
DISTIL
I
H
IH REFLUX

Primary alcohol Carboxylic acid

Nucleophilic substitution/ Aldehyde Nucleophilic substitution/
Esterification/condensation Esterification/condensation
carboxylic acid, conc. H2SO4, primary alcohol, conc. H2SO4,
gentle reflux gentle reflux

EE E II E o EIE.it
H H H
Secondary alcohol Ester
Oxidation Reduction Electrophilic substitution
acidified KMnO4 NaBH4 in (aq) or alcoholic solution or Halogenation: eg. Cl2,
or K2Cr2O7,
REFLUX
LiAlH4 in dry ether followed by
aqueous acid
r
AlCl3 catalyst, dry ether
Q1
it is it Nitrobenzene
Chlorobenzene
HC c c H Electrophilic substitution
Nitration: conc. H2SO4,
H H Benzene
conc. HNO3, 50 oC

Ketone M
NHI 402
MHz
QI QI
NaOH
Reduction
Sn, conc. HCl,
Reflux
Phenylamine ion
Phenylammonium Phenylammonium
Nitrobenzeneion
Phenylamine
Measurement
Topic11 21
Statewhat is meantby thetermprecision
the closeness of aggreement of a set of measurements to each other

What information can be obtained from an H NMR spectrum

Thenumberof Hydrogenenvironments
Theratio of hydrogenenvironments
Thesplittingpatterns
Biochemistry OptionB

Outlinehow Green Chemistry reduces the production of hazardousmaterials and

chemical waste
Replacesplastics with biodegradable starch based plastics
Useenzymesinstead of polluting detergents
Replaceorganictoxic solvents withCoe
Industrialsynthesis of ethanoicacidfrommethanoland carbon monoxide which has100
atomeconomy
Energy recovery

Solubility ofvitamins
Vitamin A fat soluble dueto the Lang nonpolarhydrocarbon backbone
Vitamin C watersoluble as it contains 4 hydroxyl groups which can form hydrogen bands
withwater

Explainhowvitamin A is important tovision

ThevitaminA isoxidisedto 11 cis retinal
there is extended conjugation
cisretinalconverts to trans retinalthroughthe absorption of
lightwhichallowsyouto see
Outlinethedifferencesbetweennormal hemoglobin and foetal hemoglobin
Foetal hemoglobinhas a higheraffinity for oxygen
Foetalhemoglobin is less sensitive to inhibitors
Foetal hemoglobincontainstwogamma units insteadof the two beta unitsfound in
adult hemoglobin

Components of a nucleotide
Pentose sugar deoxyribose
Phosphate group
Nitrogenousbase

DescribehowDNA determines theprimarystructure at a protein such as insulin

It provides a sequence at threebases known as a triplet
Whichprovidethe instruction for a particular amino acid

Outlinehowplasticscanbemademorebiodegradable
Addstarch catalysts to plasticduring manufacture to allowdigestionbymicroorganisms
lacticacid basedones
Replace traditional plasticswith PLApoly
BlendtraditionalandPCAbasedplastics

Glucose vs starch in producing

energyforrespiration
Glucose
readilypasses through theintestine wall and dissolves inblood
isimmediatelyavailableforenergy1respiration
it is transported rapidlyaroundthebody
Starch
must be hydrolysed brokendownintosmaller molecules before it can provide
Outlinewhycellulosefibres are strong
they aremadeupof long straightunbranched chains
Theyhavemultiplehydrogenbondsbetweenchains
Theyhavemicrofibrils a rigid1cablestructure

Explainhow a noncompetitive inhibitor reduces Vmax

It bindsat theallosteric site awayfromactivesites
Renders the activesiteinnerfective
bychangingtheshape
Outlinethesignificance ofthevalueattheMichaelisconstant km
Ahighvalueofkm indicateshighersubstratecanc needed forenzymesaturation
Alowvalueof km indicates the reaction is fast at low substrateconcentration

Outlinewhy anthocyanins are coloured

They havehighly coniougated systems due to alternating double and singlebonds
Visiblelight is absorbedcausingelectrontransitions and thus the complimentary
colour isemitted
Explainwhy the bluequinoidalbasechangesto the red at a Flaugliumcation as
pHdecreases
Itgains protons
whichdecreases the extent of conjugation in the aromaticbackbone
Thisincreases theenergyat electron transitions
OutlinetheimportanceofLinoleicacid forhumanhealth
DecreasesLDL cholesterol level
Whichtherefore unblocks arteriesand decreases the riskof heartdisease

ExplainhowpHcauses a loss of activityat an enzyme

Theactivesite is altered conformationaltered
Aminogroups on the side chains react
to loseor
gainprotonsbasedonbonds
pH
Theionicbonds are altered H altered

Describewhatismeant
by a condensation reaction
A reaction in whichtwomolecules bond toform a larger molecule
and a verysmallmolecule HDusually is evolved

Explainhow the inclusionof carbohydrates in plastics makes them biodegradable

Makes theplasticMare water soluble
bacteria1microorganisms
carbohydrates are brokendown
by
Theplasticbecomes moreaccessible tobacteria as holesarecreated
Plastic of a Lowerdensity ismoresusceptible towater1oxygenmeatandpressure

Explain the roles of cis andtrans retinal in vision

Cisretinalbindsto the proteinopsinand formsrhodopsin
Rhodopsinextendsthe coniougationin retinalandthusallows the absorption ofvisible light
Whenvisiblelight isabsorbed cis retinal changes to trans retinal
thechangetotransretinaltriggersonelectricalnervesignal
 s

Identify the structuralfeaturewhich allows rhodopsin to absorbvisible light

Ithasan extensivesystem at conjugationwhichmeans delocalizedelecransover muchofthemolecule

Explain the hemoglobin oxygen saturation curve

Oxygenbindsfirsttothe activesiteatdeoxygenatedhemeandalterstheshape atother activesites
cooperativebinding
Asmoreoxygenbindstotheheme theaffinityof the partiallyoxygenated hemoglobin foroxygen
increases

Explainwhy carbonmonoxide is toxictohumans

CO has a greater affinityforhemoglobinthanoxygen
Thusoxygenuptakeis startedcausinghypoxia

Advantages at biode adeableplastics

Renewable resowce
Digestedbybacteria in arelatively shorttimeperiod
Reduceduse ofpetrochemicals
Degradeintonon toxicproducts

Disadvantagesofbiodegradableplastics
Requireuse oflandfor cropproduction
Increaseduseoffertilizersleading toeutrophication
Maybreakdownbeforeendof use
Releaseatmethaneduringdegradation

Outlinehowthe oxygensaturation of hemoglobin isaffected changes in thebloodplasma

LowCO2levelscausesmoreoxygen tobind toheme
by
HighpHcauses moreoxygentobind toheme
Lowtemperature causes more
Organicphosphates candecreaseaffinityfor oxygen
CO acts as a competitiveinhibitor

Explainwhyfoetalhemoglobin has a greater affinityfor oxygen

containstwogammaunits instead ofthetwobetaunitsfound in adults
Lesssensitivetoinhibitors
Recieves Ozfrom partially deoxygenatedblood so can work at low
PQ