https://www.routledge.

com/Heating-and-Water-Services-Design-in-Buildings/Moss-
Moss/p/book/9780415291859

https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Hot+and+Cold+Water+Supply%2C+2nd+Edition-p-9780470779989

https://www.amazon.com/Water-Supply-British-Standards-Institution/dp/1405130024
https://www.abebooks.com/servlet/SearchResults?isbn=1405130024&cm_sp=mbc-_-ISBN-_-all
.
New 806
https://www.pandhengineering.co.uk/advice/hot-and-cold-water-pipework-design
MEP Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC4Wvckp5qJ2MoY5fyGJT_FQ/videos
Underground Water Tank: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DoiQuQmSy_w
VI : https://www.pandhengineering.co.uk/advice/hot-and-cold-water-pipework-design

CHAPTER 1: WATER SERVICES

1.0 Cold Water Services Pipe Material
http://www.level.org.nz/passive-design/
Water supply
Design a safe water supply system that meets building users’ requirements while also making efficient
use of water, energy and materials.
All habitable buildings must have a water supply that is potable(drinkable). That water supply must be
protected from contamination, and must not contaminate the water supply system or source.
As part of that water supply system, the building must provide appropriate facilities for personal
hygiene, and washing utensils, and hot water that is safe and will not cause scalding.
All water must discharge to a wastewater system to safeguard people from illness and protect them
from odours and waste matter.

Code requirements
The water supply must be installed in accordance with NZ Building Code Clause G12 Water supplies,
or AS/NZS 3500.1 Plumbing and drainage – Water services and AS/NZS 3500.4:2018 Plumbing and
drainage Part 4: Heated water services.
Other relevant Building Code clauses include G1 Personal hygiene, G2 Laundering, and G3 Food
preparation and prevention of contamination.
Sustainability considerations
While the first consideration in designing a water supply system is the building occupiers’ health and
safety, it is good practice to design systems that support efficient and sustainable use of water, energy
and materials.
By designing, building and renovating homes that use water efficiently, you can help to keep costs
down, and benefit the environment by, for example, reducing the need to draw more water from rivers
and waterways, reducing demand for energy, and reducing the need to build new infrastructure for
supply and disposal.
There are sustainability considerations in most aspects of water supply, including decisions about the
sources of water, location and layout of pipework and storage, materials used, heating methods, and
appliances and fixtures specified.
 • water as it is heated.

Low pressure pipes should be graded to allow air to exit from predetermined high points and to prevent
air locks from occurring
Generally, the higher the hazard, the higher the risk, so the safer the device must be.
Vacuum breaker
A vacuum breaker contains a float disc and an air inlet port. Under normal water flow, the float disc
closes off the air inlet port, but if the normal water flow is interrupted, the float drops, closing off the
system against backflow and, at the same time, opening the air inlet port.
A variety of vacuum breakers are available:

Atmospheric vacuum breaker

An atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB) is one of the simplest and least expensive backflow
prevention devices and can provide excellent protection against backsiphonage. It consists of a gravity
plunger or float disc that is forced upwards when the supply pressure is turned on, thus sealing off the
atmospheric vent overhead. As soon as the supply is interrupted or terminated, the float drops down
and opens the downstream pipework to atmosphere. There must be sufficient pressure to fully lift and
seal the float on the vent, so it is not suitable for use on very low pressure systems.

Hose connection vacuum breaker

A hose connection vacuum breaker (HCVB) is a specialised type of atmospheric vacuum breaker
designed to attach directly to the hose tap. It has a spring-loaded check valve that seals against an
atmospheric outlet when the water supply is turned on. When the supply is turned off, the device vents
to atmosphere, thus protecting against backsiphonage conditions. It is non-testable and should not be
used as protection against backpressure or be subject to continuous pressure (2 hours maximum is
permitted), i.e. no control valves should be located downstream of the device.
Pressure vacuum breaker
A pressure vacuum breaker (PVB) evolved due to a need to have a vacuum breaker that that can be
subject to constant pressure and is able to be tested in line. It is similar to the atmospheric vacuum
breaker except that there is a spring to hold the disc float in the open position during normal
operation. They have two isolating valves and two cocks for testing, one for each chamber. These
devices can be used under constant pressure but do not protect against backpressure. They must be at
least 300 mm higher than any downstream piping.
Double non-return valve assembly

Double non-return valve assembly

Essentially, a double non-return valve assembly (also known as a double check valve assembly or
DCVA) consists of two independently operated non-return valves within one body. One non-return
valve simply acts as a back-up. Because there is a risk that both valves will fail at the same time,
regular testing is imperative, and the device is limited to use in medium and low hazard situations.
This valve will protect against backpressure and backsiphonage but is not fail-safe. Because of the
spring pressures, there can be a significant reduction in pressure (up to 40 kPa) across this device.
Reduced pressure zone device

Reduced pressure zone device

This backflow protection device incorporates two independently-acting, spring-loaded check valves
separated by a differential pressure relief valve. Pressure between the two valves is lower than the
supply pressure during normal operation. If either check valve leaks, the pressure relief valve will
open, discharging water out of the system.
This device provides the maximum protection of any valve and can be used in high hazard situations.

Backflow prevention Typical applications

device

Air gap Taps, sinks

3.0 Valves and controls
Valves and controls are required – particularly in mains pressure systems – to protect water supplies
from contamination and to achieve the desired water pressure, flow and temperature.
On this page:
• Valve requirements
• Isolating valves
Valve requirements

Valve and control Function Required Recommended

device

Isolating valve Manually operated At the property • At the entry

valve to isolate one boundary for all point to the
section of the system mains connected building
installations
• At a supply tank
Adjacent to tank
• At the hot water
outlet where there is
cylinder
on-site supply
• Any other fixture
where frequent
maintenance is
required

Pressure limiting valve Limits the pressure With mains pressure • Where mains
within pre-set range systems where the pressure is very
water pressure could high or fluctuates
exceed the pressure excessively
rating of the pipe
material or hot water
cylinder

Non-return valve Prevents reverse At the hot water • At the property

flow within or from cylinder to prevent boundary
the system water from the
• At any pump
cylinder from
returning to the water
main or being
delivered from cold
water outlets if mains
supply fails

Line strainer Filters particles of Where other valves • At the entry

solid matter from the could be damaged by point to the
water to protect solid materials building
other valves further
• At the hot water
downstream
cylinder on all
systems
 Pressure reducing Reduces the pressure To reduce mains • To provide
valve to a pre-set level pressure on a low balanced low
pressure hot water pressure cold
system water to other
fixtures on the
same system

Expansion control Releases pressure in On any valve-vented • Retrofitted to all

valve (cold water) the cold water feed hot water cylinder existing valve-
pipe caused by the vented hot water
expansion of water cylinders (low
in the storage water and mains
heater cylinder pressure)
during normal
operation

Pressure relief valve Releases pressure in On low pressure

(PRV) the storage cylinder (<120 kPa) valve-
if it rises above the vented hot water
pre-set limit systems that do not
incorporate an open
vent pipe

Temperature/pressure Operates above a On valve-vented hot • All valve-vented

relief valve (TPR) pre-set temperature water systems >120 systems (low and
and pressure kPa mains pressure)

Temperature limiting Controls the On the hot water On all hot water delivery
thermostat temperature of the delivery to all to personal hygiene
water personal hygiene fixtures
fixtures and on
wetback installations

Isolating valves
Isolating valves are required to be installed in accessible position points in the supply system to allow
maintenance and repairs to be carried out. They must be provided in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.1
and NZBC G12/AS1 as shown below:
Isolating valves

Location AS/NZS 3500.1 NZBC G12/AS1

At the boundary Yes Yes

Inlet to a storage tank Yes Yes

(cold or hot)

Outlet to storage tank Yes 2

(over 50 litres)

Inlet to a flushing cistern Yes 2

Each appliance Yes 2

Other considerations are durability, ease of installation, cost, and sustainability. Common materials
for domestic water supply include copper, polybutylene (PB), polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP-3
or PP Type 3), and cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).
See pipe materials for more.

1.3 Below Ground Cold Water Services Pipe Material

There are minimum and maximum depths at which service pipes should be laid:
Minimum depth is 750 mm
Maximum depth is 1350 mm
If you wish to install the service pipe either deeper or shallower than these depths you must notify the
local water supplier for permission.
Important note: The gas service should be at 600mm to ensure separation from the water service pipe.

Pipe Material:
Blue MDPE plastic pipe
Water heated to more than 50°C can cause serious burns in less than a minute. This creates risk,
particularly for children (who have sensitive skin) and the elderly (who have slower reaction times).
Under Acceptable Solution G12/AS1, in most buildings hot water delivered to sanitary fixtures such
as basins, baths and showers should not exceed 55°C (lower temperatures are required for some
buildings such as hospitals, schools, and care facilities).
Hot water may be delivered to domestic kitchen sinks and laundries at higher temperatures – generally
around 55°C to 65°C.
If a storage cylinder is used, the water must be heated to over 60°C at least once a day to prevent the
growth of Legionella bacteria. The water must then be tempered to reduce the temperature before it is
delivered to outlets. See storage cylinders for more detail.
Continuous flow systems are not at risk as they do not store water that would allow growth to occur.
Controlling pressure
In buildings with mains pressure water supply, a system of valves and controls will be required to
regulate water pressure and temperature. Many manufacturers and importers of plumbing valves,
tapware and appliances require 500kPa pressure maximums for warranty purposes, with the limiting
valves protected by line strainers. See Controlling pressure in storage cylinders and Valves and
controls for more detail.
Water heating options
Probably the key decisions to be made are which energy source to use, and whether to use a storage
system or a continuous flow one.
In continuous flow systems, water can be heated using electricity or gas. In storage systems, the water
can be heated using electricity, gas, solar energy or a wetback.
Each energy source has its advantages and disadvantages, as do storage and continuous supply
systems. In general, solar, heat pump and wetback systems are more energy efficient than traditional
electric and gas systems. Continuous flow systems can be efficiently used in some circumstances,
such as to boost a solar system, or to feed an outlet that is some distance from the main hot water
supply.
See water heating in the energy section of this site for more detail on these options.
The government’s Gen Less website has an online tool here to help homeowners and their advisors
select a water heating system.
Operational carbon must also be a consideration today – what systems contribute to a house with a
lower carbon footprint. In its advice to Government released in June 2021, the Climate Change
Commission recommended that New Zealand phase down use of fossil gas (natural gas) in existing
residential, commercial and public buildings and avoid the addition of new fossil gas demand (i.e. by
not installing new connections to buildings).
Other considerations
As well as specifying an efficient energy source, water and energy efficiency can be enhanced by:
• designing the system to minimise pipe runs – for example, by locating the storage cylinder
close to the kitchen, laundry and bathroom
• specifying low-flow fixtures
 • have temperature controlled by a thermostat (electric and gas heating).
A storage cylinder must be heated to at least 60ºC daily to remove the risk of microbial contamination
in the water.
NZS 4305:1996 Energy efficiency – domestic type hot water systems sets the energy efficiency
requirements for hot water storage cylinders including:
• maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water cylinders of different sizes
• maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas hot water cylinders.
Cylinder size
The hot water storage cylinder must be large enough to provide for a household’s peak hot water
demand, but more water will be heated than needed if the cylinder is too large. The appropriate size
depends primarily on the number of people in the household. Typical hot water usage is in the order
of 40–60 litres per day per person.
Significant standing losses occur from the cylinder and during the transfer to the point of use. For
greater efficiency, hot water storage cylinders should be short and broad rather than tall and slim, as
this reduces the surface area. Cylinder size varies enormously, around 460–810 mm diameter, but
most are typically around 480, 550 or 580 mm.
Taller cylinders may be better where heat is exchanged to and from other sources (such as a solar
collector or wetback) to the cylinder. For example, a wetback may draw cold water from the bottom
of the cylinder and return it as hot water to the top of the cylinder. A taller cylinder will allow a
greater temperature difference to be maintained and therefore improves the effectiveness of the
wetback.
Cylinder location
Minimise heat loss through the hot water pipes by locating the cylinder as close as possible to the
outlets where the majority of hot water is used.
The cylinder will lose more heat in a cold location (e.g. when located outside the insulated building
envelope) than a warm one (such as in the middle of the house or in a well-insulated space). Locating
the cylinder in a cupboard will help to retain heat. Modern gas storage cylinders are often designed for
installation outside the building envelope.
Other design factors to consider include:
• hot water system pressure – low or mains pressure
• provision of sufficient space for the cylinder
• access to replace the cylinder
• plan spaces where hot water will be used to be in close proximity – if an isolated hot water
outlet is required, or hot water demand will be low, a continuous flow water heater may be a
better option
• placement in relation to solar collectors or solid fuel burners where these are used for water
heating.
Cylinder insulation
Maximise energy efficiency by:
 • wrapping the cylinder with additional insulation
• insulating the hot water pipework.
Electric storage water heaters installed since 2002 must have ‘A’ grade insulation. These have a layer
of insulation of around 50mm between the water jacket and the outside of the cylinder. Cylinders that
were installed prior should have insulation in the form of a cylinder wrap added. Any cylinders that
are warm to the touch would benefit from having a cylinder wrap added.
Widely available as DIY kits, cylinder wraps are commonly made of polyester, fibreglass or sheep’s
wool insulating blanket with a foil jacket on the outside.
Controlling Legionella bacteria and tempering heated water
To prevent the growth of Legionella bacteria, stored water should be heated to not less than 60°C at
least once a day. If the thermostat control is set above 60°C, hot water storage systems are not at risk
of Legionella growth.
If the hot water storage system is partially heated by solar power or heat exchange system (wetbacks
or solar heat transfer system), the temperature must be boosted at least 60°C or higher on a daily
basis.

Water temperatures to prevent scalding/prohibit the growth of Legionella

Tempering heated water

The Building Code requires that hot water be delivered at a temperature that avoids the likelihood of
scalding. As water heated to 60°C or more can cause serious burns, water must be tempered before it
is delivered to users though taps and other outlets.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 sets maximum temperatures for water delivered to sanitary fixtures.
For most types of building, the maximum temperature is 55°C for outlets such as basins, baths and
showers (the limits are lower for buildings such as hospitals and schools).
For kitchen sinks and laundries, maximum temperatures of around 55°C to 65°C are acceptable.
Temperatures can be reduced to acceptable levels by installing:
• a tempering valve, or
• a thermostatic mixing valve.
A tempering valve is installed in the hot water line close to the cylinder and has a cold water
connection to provide a pre-set hot water temperature at fixtures. Valves are factory pre-set but are
able to be adjusted to cater for specific temperature requirements.
1.4.2 Pipe jointing systems
The type of pipe jointing system used depends on the pipe material.

Jointing system Copper PB PP uPVC PE PEX

Brazing *

Manipulative mechanical jointing *

Non-manipulative jointing *

Crimp ring * * *

Sliding sleeve * *

Heat fusion welding * *

Solvent cement welding *

Brazing is the most common method for joining copper pipe in New Zealand. Straight joins are made by

soldering using a solder that comprises copper, phosphorus and 15% silver, to create a lapped capillary

joint that is permanent and durable.

Manipulative mechanical jointing uses brass fittings to make copper pipe connections. A nut is

placed over the end of the pipe and a swaging (crox) tool is inserted to expand the pipe, creating a

rolled groove to secure the nut in position. The joined ends are made watertight using plumbers’ hemp

or thread tape. This joint is most commonly used for connecting pipes to valves and fixtures. It is prone

to loosening over time and should therefore not be used in concealed or inaccessible locations.

Non-manipulative jointing also uses brass fittings, but instead of expanding the pipe with a swaging

tool, a brass ‘olive’ is placed over the pipe and compressed between the nut and fitting to create a

secure joint that can easily be separated later.

Crimp ring uses an external stainless steel or copper ring that is placed over the pipe, then compressed

with a hand tool. As long as the ring is correctly placed and aligned, the resulting joint is very robust.

Sliding sleeve uses a sleeve that is placed over the pipe end and then expanded to go over the

serrated spigot. A special tool forces the sleeve over the pipe and spigot to create an effective joint.

Sleeves can be removed with the application of heat and then reused. The disadvantage of this

connection is that the tools to create it can be difficult to use in confined spaces.
Heat fusion welding is where the surface of the pipe and connection are melted together using a

heating iron. As the two ends are overlapped and fused without the application of welding fillers, the

result is effectively a continuous pipe.

Solvent cement welding also overlaps and fuses the pipes but uses a solvent to ‘glue’ the pipes

together.

Noise and air locks in pipework

How to prevent water hammer and air locks.

On this page:

• water hammer
• air locks in water supply pipework

Water hammer

Water hammer (or pressure surge) generally occurs in a high pressure system when the flow of water is
suddenly stopped. A sudden fluctuation in flow velocity sets up shockwaves through the pipework,
causing the pipe to vibrate making a ‘hammering’ sound. It mostly occurs in metal pipes, although it can
occur in plastic pipes.

Fast-acting taps such as lever taps with ceramic disc washers, solenoid valves such as those on washing
machines, spring-closing valves and pumps are often a cause of water hammer. It is related directly to
the water velocity – the faster the water travels, the greater likelihood of water hammer.

It is better to prevent water hammer than trying to fix the problem once a building is complete.

To reduce the likelihood of water hammer:

• avoid direct contact of pipes with the structure

• clip pipes with rubber insulated clips or clip over the pipe insulation
• fix pipework rigidly to prevent movement
• provide relief bends or flexible sections of pipe to absorb shock
• fit grommets or cushioned packers where pipes pass through structural members
• get a licensed plumber to install a water hammer arrestor on the pipe upstream from the device
(such as dishwasher or washing machine) that is causing the problem. These devices use a
piston and air pressure to absorb the surge in pressure
• if you suspect that too-high water pressure is contributing to the problem, ask a licensed
plumber to install a 350 kPa pressure-limiting valve on the water supply. Check that this is
compatible with your plumbing fixtures and appliances. (Mains water pressure can be up to 900
kPa or even more in a few locations).

Air locks in water supply pipework

If air enters a water supply system, it will accumulate at high points and can restrict the flow of water. If
there is not enough pressure to push the air bubble through the pipe, the air lock will remain until the
pipeline is manually purged.

Air may enter the system from:

• a cylinder vent
• the tank if it runs low
 • ensuring a dual flush cistern is specified
• installing a water-efficient toilet pan
• using collected rainwater or treated greywater for flushing
• installing waterless composting toilets where no mains sewer connection is available.
Many older cisterns use far more water than necessary – up to 12 litres is not uncommon. To reduce
the amount of water used, replace the inefficient cistern with a modern dual-flush one that uses 6 / 3
litres or 4.5 / 3 litres. (A new pan may be needed where a dual flush cistern cannot be fitted to the
existing one.)
Toilets are covered by the New Zealand Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme, and must have
efficiency labels on them – see Appliances below.
If fitting a new pan/cistern is impractical, options you can use to reduce water usage include:
• placing an object such as a brick, or plastic milk bottle filled with water that has the top firmly
screwed on into the cistern to reduce the amount of water required to fill an older cistern
• adjusting the float ball by bending it down slightly to reduce the volume of water in the
cistern – ensure that sufficient flow and volume is maintained for an adequate flush
• ensuring that the cistern supply shuts off fully when not in use.
In all cases, sufficient flow and volume must be maintained so the pan is cleared with a single flush.
Other fixtures
Water usage can be reduced by specifying/installing:
• For main-pressure systems, low-flow showerheads that use less than 9 litres of water per
minute and still deliver a comfortable shower
• aerators on taps used for hand washing. These relatively inexpensive devices reduce water
flow from around 18–28 litres per minute to 6, 8 or 12 litres per minute. Aerators are not
suitable for taps on baths where a larger volume of water is required.

Reduced water flow by specifying an aerator

An aerator on a tap used for handwashing will reduce the flow while still providing plenty of water.
Aerators should not be specified for taps on fixtures such as baths where a large volume of water is
required.
Appliances
Reduce water use by recommending water-efficient appliances. Under the Water Efficiency Labeling
Scheme (WELS), certain products must display a WELS label. These include:
2.0 Backflow prevention
The water supply system must be designed and used to prevent contamination from backflow.
On this page:
• Causes of backflow
• Code requirements
• Using an air gap to prevent backflow
• Backflow prevention devices
• Installation requirements
• Testing
Backflow is the unplanned reversal of flow of water (or water and contaminants) into the water supply
system.
For backflow to occur, there must be a physical connection, or cross-connection, between the water
supply and any delivered water or contaminant. A common situation is the end of a garden hose
submerged in a bucket or other container of liquid. Backflow can also arise from appliances, pools,
and water storage tanks such as header tanks and rainwater tanks.
As well as using the methods described below to minimise the risk of backflow, advise building
owners to take simple precautions such as not submerging garden hoses or spray heads from showers
and sinks, and always turning off the water supply at the tap when it is not being used.
Causes of backflow
Backflow is caused by a difference in pressure and may occur due to:
• backsiphonage – the supply pressure is less than the downstream pressure, allowing water to
be pushed in the wrong direction
• backpressure – for example, insufficient relief of pressure in a vessel where water is heated.

Backsiphonage
Principle of backpressure

Backflow can only occur where there is a connection or cross-connection. Cross-connections can
occur in any situation where fixtures are connected directly to the main supply such as:
• irrigation systems
• dishwashers
• washing machines
• coffee machines
• swimming pools, spa pools or ornamental pools that are filled by hose
• water softeners
• pesticide and fertiliser attachments for hoses
• fridges and icemakers
• bidets
• retractable spray outlets to tubs and sink
• flexible shower hoses
• storage tanks.
Code requirements
Building Code Clause G12 Water supplies requires that potable water supply must be protected from
contamination and installed in a manner that avoids the likelihood of contamination within the system.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires backflow prevention to be provided where it is possible for
water or contaminants to backflow into a piped potable water supply. Backflow can be prevented
either through an air gap or a backflow prevention device (see below).
The Acceptable Solution also provides that there must be no likelihood of a cross-connection between
a private water supply (such as a rainwater tank) and mains water supply.
Responsibility for preventing backflow may rest with:
• the network utility provider who may install a backflow prevention device as part of the meter
assembly, or
• the individual property owner whose responsibility it is to comply with the requirements of
the network utility provider and the Building Code, and to protect building users.
Using an air gap to prevent backflow
In most situations, an air gap is the most cost-effective and reliable form of backflow prevention.
An air gap should be used to prevent backflow from rainwater tanks and other water supply tanks into
the mains-supplied water system. Air gaps should also be used to prevent backflow of contaminants
from all appliances and fixtures that are connected to the water supply.
For swimming and spa pools, provide a dedicated water supply with an approved air gap.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires that the air gap must be the greater of 25 mm, or twice the
diameter of the supply pipe.

Principle of air gap used for backflow prevention

If mains supply is used to top up a private water supply, backflow can be prevented by using a
floating weight can be used to operate a valve, ensuring that the maximum water level always
remains at least 25 mm below the mains inlet. Alternatively, a double non-return valve can be used.

Mains water supply top-up valve and air gap backflow prevention
If a piped supply is used to top-up the rainwater storage tank, a simple commercially available
floating switch will ensure that top-up water is added only when the level in the tank is low. A float
valve should not be used because it will add piped water whenever there is any draw-off.

Double non-return valve installation to prevent backflow contamination of a potable water

supply
If there is any direct connection between mains supply water and a rainwater collection system, then a
means of preventing backflow, such as a double non-return valve, must be designed into the system.

Air gap separation between potable water supply and spill level

Air gap separation in a storage tank

Backflow prevention devices

If the system is a high pressure system and a pipe is directly connected to an appliance or sanitary
fixture, it may not be possible to use an air gap. In this case, a backflow prevention device must be
installed.
The appropriate device for a particular installation will depend on the:
• hazard level of any potential contaminant
• potential for cross-connection
• type of backflow expected
• physical limitation of the device and the environment.
Cross-connections are rated according to Building Code Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 to three
hazard levels:
• High – this has the potential to cause death
• Medium – this would endanger health
• Low – this is a nuisance but does not endanger health
Generally, the higher the hazard, the higher the risk, so the safer the device must be.
Vacuum breaker
A vacuum breaker contains a float disc and an air inlet port. Under normal water flow, the float disc
closes off the air inlet port, but if the normal water flow is interrupted, the float drops, closing off the
system against backflow and, at the same time, opening the air inlet port.
A variety of vacuum breakers are available:

Atmospheric vacuum breaker

An atmospheric vacuum breaker (AVB) is one of the simplest and least expensive backflow
prevention devices and can provide excellent protection against backsiphonage. It consists of a gravity
plunger or float disc that is forced upwards when the supply pressure is turned on, thus sealing off the
atmospheric vent overhead. As soon as the supply is interrupted or terminated, the float drops down
and opens the downstream pipework to atmosphere. There must be sufficient pressure to fully lift and
seal the float on the vent, so it is not suitable for use on very low pressure systems.

Hose connection vacuum breaker

A hose connection vacuum breaker (HCVB) is a specialised type of atmospheric vacuum breaker
designed to attach directly to the hose tap. It has a spring-loaded check valve that seals against an
atmospheric outlet when the water supply is turned on. When the supply is turned off, the device vents
to atmosphere, thus protecting against backsiphonage conditions. It is non-testable and should not be
used as protection against backpressure or be subject to continuous pressure (2 hours maximum is
permitted), i.e. no control valves should be located downstream of the device.
Pressure vacuum breaker
A pressure vacuum breaker (PVB) evolved due to a need to have a vacuum breaker that that can be
subject to constant pressure and is able to be tested in line. It is similar to the atmospheric vacuum
breaker except that there is a spring to hold the disc float in the open position during normal
operation. They have two isolating valves and two cocks for testing, one for each chamber. These
devices can be used under constant pressure but do not protect against backpressure. They must be at
least 300 mm higher than any downstream piping.
Double non-return valve assembly

Double non-return valve assembly

Essentially, a double non-return valve assembly (also known as a double check valve assembly or
DCVA) consists of two independently operated non-return valves within one body. One non-return
valve simply acts as a back-up. Because there is a risk that both valves will fail at the same time,
regular testing is imperative, and the device is limited to use in medium and low hazard situations.
This valve will protect against backpressure and backsiphonage but is not fail-safe. Because of the
spring pressures, there can be a significant reduction in pressure (up to 40 kPa) across this device.
Reduced pressure zone device

Reduced pressure zone device

This backflow protection device incorporates two independently-acting, spring-loaded check valves
separated by a differential pressure relief valve. Pressure between the two valves is lower than the
supply pressure during normal operation. If either check valve leaks, the pressure relief valve will
open, discharging water out of the system.
This device provides the maximum protection of any valve and can be used in high hazard situations.

Backflow prevention Typical applications

device

Air gap Taps, sinks

 Vacuum breakers (VB) Industrial plants, cooling towers, laboratories, laundries,
swimming pools, lawn sprinkler systems, fire sprinkler systems

Double check valve In-house pumps, elevated tanks, non-toxic boilers

assembly (DCVA)

Reduced pressure backflow Industrial plants, hospitals, morgues, chemical plants, irrigation
assembly (RPBA) systems, pumps, elevated tanks, boilers, fire sprinkler systems

Installation requirements
All backflow prevention devices require a building consent for installation and must be:
• installed by a registered plumber
• installed as near as practicable to the potential point of contamination
• protected from physical and frost damage
• isolated from corrosive or toxic environments
• installed above surrounding ground level so that leakage from air ports and discharge ports is
readily visible
• installed in a position and manner to be accessible for maintenance and testing
• fitted with a line strainer upstream to prevent particles in the pipework from rendering the
device ineffective
• attached only after the pipework has been flushed
• installed without the application of heat.
Testing
Backflow prevention devices may be testable or non-testable. Their use in a particular situation
depends on the degree of hazard. Non-testable devices may only be used on low-hazard rated systems.
Testable devices must be tested on installation and at regular intervals to the standard set down by
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1: 3.7 Testing. Non-testable devices should be checked every 2 years
maximum.
3.0 Valves and controls
Valves and controls are required – particularly in mains pressure systems – to protect water supplies
from contamination and to achieve the desired water pressure, flow and temperature.
On this page:
• Valve requirements
• Isolating valves
Valve requirements

Valve and control Function Required Recommended

device

Isolating valve Manually operated At the property • At the entry

valve to isolate one boundary for all point to the
section of the system mains connected building
installations
• At a supply tank
Adjacent to tank
• At the hot water
outlet where there is
cylinder
on-site supply
• Any other fixture
where frequent
maintenance is
required

Pressure limiting valve Limits the pressure With mains pressure • Where mains
within pre-set range systems where the pressure is very
water pressure could high or fluctuates
exceed the pressure excessively
rating of the pipe
material or hot water
cylinder

Non-return valve Prevents reverse At the hot water • At the property

flow within or from cylinder to prevent boundary
the system water from the
• At any pump
cylinder from
returning to the water
main or being
delivered from cold
water outlets if mains
supply fails

Line strainer Filters particles of Where other valves • At the entry

solid matter from the could be damaged by point to the
water to protect solid materials building
other valves further
• At the hot water
downstream
cylinder on all
systems
 Pressure reducing Reduces the pressure To reduce mains • To provide
valve to a pre-set level pressure on a low balanced low
pressure hot water pressure cold
system water to other
fixtures on the
same system

Expansion control Releases pressure in On any valve-vented • Retrofitted to all

valve (cold water) the cold water feed hot water cylinder existing valve-
pipe caused by the vented hot water
expansion of water cylinders (low
in the storage water and mains
heater cylinder pressure)
during normal
operation

Pressure relief valve Releases pressure in On low pressure

(PRV) the storage cylinder (<120 kPa) valve-
if it rises above the vented hot water
pre-set limit systems that do not
incorporate an open
vent pipe

Temperature/pressure Operates above a On valve-vented hot • All valve-vented

relief valve (TPR) pre-set temperature water systems >120 systems (low and
and pressure kPa mains pressure)

Temperature limiting Controls the On the hot water On all hot water delivery
thermostat temperature of the delivery to all to personal hygiene
water personal hygiene fixtures
fixtures and on
wetback installations

Isolating valves
Isolating valves are required to be installed in accessible position points in the supply system to allow
maintenance and repairs to be carried out. They must be provided in accordance with AS/NZS 3500.1
and NZBC G12/AS1 as shown below:
Isolating valves

Location AS/NZS 3500.1 NZBC G12/AS1

At the boundary Yes Yes

Inlet to a storage tank Yes Yes

(cold or hot)

Outlet to storage tank Yes 2

(over 50 litres)

Inlet to a flushing cistern Yes 2

Each appliance Yes 2

 Each backflow prevention device Yes Yes

Each thermostatic mixing valve Yes 2

Each pressure limiting device Yes 2

At each branch serving a separate dwelling Yes Yes

HOT WATER
Hot water supply
Hot water supply must be adequate to meet building users’ needs while also keeping them safe. It
should also support efficient use of both energy and water.
On this page:
• Code requirements
• Controlling temperature
• Controlling pressure
• Water heating options
• Other considerations
In designing a water heating system, the key decisions will include the source of energy for water
heating, whether to use a storage cylinder or continuous flow system, system layout, and system
capacity (including delivery rate, recovery rate, actual and potential number of users, type and number
of fixtures within a household).
The system must be designed to meet safety requirements, which largely concern controlling
temperature and pressure to ensure there is minimal risk of scalding or of a storage cylinder
exploding.
A well-designed system will also minimise energy and water use, for example by using an efficient
heating source, ensuring the pipe runs are relatively short, and by using efficient fixtures and
appliances.
Code requirements
The NZ Building Code clause G12 Water supplies requires hot water systems to meet a number of
objectives including to:
• provide potable hot water to outlets for consumption, food preparation, utensil washing and
oral hygiene
• prevent growth of Legionella bacteria, which can cause serious health problems
• protect users from scalding during personal hygiene activities
• be safe from explosion
• be efficient and avoid energy wastage.
NZS 4305:1996 Energy efficiency – domestic type hot water systems sets the energy efficiency
requirements for hot water storage cylinders including:
• maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water cylinders of different sizes
• maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas hot water cylinders.
There are also mandatory New Zealand Minimum Energy Performance Standards (MEPS) under
Building Code Acceptable Solution H1/AS1. EECA has published a list of electric storage water
heaters that comply with these.
Controlling temperature
Water heated to more than 50°C can cause serious burns in less than a minute. This creates risk,
particularly for children (who have sensitive skin) and the elderly (who have slower reaction times).
Under Acceptable Solution G12/AS1, in most buildings hot water delivered to sanitary fixtures such
as basins, baths and showers should not exceed 55°C (lower temperatures are required for some
buildings such as hospitals, schools, and care facilities).
Hot water may be delivered to domestic kitchen sinks and laundries at higher temperatures – generally
around 55°C to 65°C.
If a storage cylinder is used, the water must be heated to over 60°C at least once a day to prevent the
growth of Legionella bacteria. The water must then be tempered to reduce the temperature before it is
delivered to outlets. See storage cylinders for more detail.
Continuous flow systems are not at risk as they do not store water that would allow growth to occur.
Controlling pressure
In buildings with mains pressure water supply, a system of valves and controls will be required to
regulate water pressure and temperature. Many manufacturers and importers of plumbing valves,
tapware and appliances require 500kPa pressure maximums for warranty purposes, with the limiting
valves protected by line strainers. See Controlling pressure in storage cylinders and Valves and
controls for more detail.
Water heating options
Probably the key decisions to be made are which energy source to use, and whether to use a storage
system or a continuous flow one.
In continuous flow systems, water can be heated using electricity or gas. In storage systems, the water
can be heated using electricity, gas, solar energy or a wetback.
Each energy source has its advantages and disadvantages, as do storage and continuous supply
systems. In general, solar, heat pump and wetback systems are more energy efficient than traditional
electric and gas systems. Continuous flow systems can be efficiently used in some circumstances,
such as to boost a solar system, or to feed an outlet that is some distance from the main hot water
supply.
See water heating in the energy section of this site for more detail on these options.
The government’s Gen Less website has an online tool here to help homeowners and their advisors
select a water heating system.
Operational carbon must also be a consideration today – what systems contribute to a house with a
lower carbon footprint. In its advice to Government released in June 2021, the Climate Change
Commission recommended that New Zealand phase down use of fossil gas (natural gas) in existing
residential, commercial and public buildings and avoid the addition of new fossil gas demand (i.e. by
not installing new connections to buildings).
Other considerations
As well as specifying an efficient energy source, water and energy efficiency can be enhanced by:
• designing the system to minimise pipe runs – for example, by locating the storage cylinder
close to the kitchen, laundry and bathroom
• specifying low-flow fixtures
 • specifying appliances that use water and energy efficiently
• installing a continuous-flow hot water system, particularly for remote outlets, so that hot
water does not need to be stored
• insulating the pipes to reduce heating costs (but this has less impact than reducing pipe
lengths)

Avoiding waste through long hot water pipe runs

If a kitchen is remote from the hot water storage system, install a secondary continuous-flow system
to reduce water wastage.

3.1 Storage cylinders

Hot water storage systems can be used with energy-efficient heating sources such as solar or heat
pump or they can use gas or electricity as the primary energy source. A disadvantage is that they can
run out of hot water.
Find out about:
• code requirements
• cylinder size
• cylinder location
• cylinder insulation
• controlling Legionella bacteria
• tempering heated water
• specific requirements for gas storage water heaters.
Code requirements
Under Building Code clause G12 Water supplies, hot water systems must provide water in a manner
that allows for the control of Legionella bacteria but minimises the risk of scalding. Adequate hot
water must be provided for utensil washing and personal washing/bathing.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 requires that storage cylinders must:
• be large enough to meet draw-off demand
• have sufficient recovery capacity to be ready for the next draw-off demand
• include a non-return valve (unless supply is from a water tank)
 • have temperature controlled by a thermostat (electric and gas heating).
A storage cylinder must be heated to at least 60ºC daily to remove the risk of microbial contamination
in the water.
NZS 4305:1996 Energy efficiency – domestic type hot water systems sets the energy efficiency
requirements for hot water storage cylinders including:
• maximum standing heat loss (kWh per day) for electric hot water cylinders of different sizes
• maximum gas consumption rate and minimum thermal efficiency for gas hot water cylinders.
Cylinder size
The hot water storage cylinder must be large enough to provide for a household’s peak hot water
demand, but more water will be heated than needed if the cylinder is too large. The appropriate size
depends primarily on the number of people in the household. Typical hot water usage is in the order
of 40–60 litres per day per person.
Significant standing losses occur from the cylinder and during the transfer to the point of use. For
greater efficiency, hot water storage cylinders should be short and broad rather than tall and slim, as
this reduces the surface area. Cylinder size varies enormously, around 460–810 mm diameter, but
most are typically around 480, 550 or 580 mm.
Taller cylinders may be better where heat is exchanged to and from other sources (such as a solar
collector or wetback) to the cylinder. For example, a wetback may draw cold water from the bottom
of the cylinder and return it as hot water to the top of the cylinder. A taller cylinder will allow a
greater temperature difference to be maintained and therefore improves the effectiveness of the
wetback.
Cylinder location
Minimise heat loss through the hot water pipes by locating the cylinder as close as possible to the
outlets where the majority of hot water is used.
The cylinder will lose more heat in a cold location (e.g. when located outside the insulated building
envelope) than a warm one (such as in the middle of the house or in a well-insulated space). Locating
the cylinder in a cupboard will help to retain heat. Modern gas storage cylinders are often designed for
installation outside the building envelope.
Other design factors to consider include:
• hot water system pressure – low or mains pressure
• provision of sufficient space for the cylinder
• access to replace the cylinder
• plan spaces where hot water will be used to be in close proximity – if an isolated hot water
outlet is required, or hot water demand will be low, a continuous flow water heater may be a
better option
• placement in relation to solar collectors or solid fuel burners where these are used for water
heating.
Cylinder insulation
Maximise energy efficiency by:
 • wrapping the cylinder with additional insulation
• insulating the hot water pipework.
Electric storage water heaters installed since 2002 must have ‘A’ grade insulation. These have a layer
of insulation of around 50mm between the water jacket and the outside of the cylinder. Cylinders that
were installed prior should have insulation in the form of a cylinder wrap added. Any cylinders that
are warm to the touch would benefit from having a cylinder wrap added.
Widely available as DIY kits, cylinder wraps are commonly made of polyester, fibreglass or sheep’s
wool insulating blanket with a foil jacket on the outside.
Controlling Legionella bacteria and tempering heated water
To prevent the growth of Legionella bacteria, stored water should be heated to not less than 60°C at
least once a day. If the thermostat control is set above 60°C, hot water storage systems are not at risk
of Legionella growth.
If the hot water storage system is partially heated by solar power or heat exchange system (wetbacks
or solar heat transfer system), the temperature must be boosted at least 60°C or higher on a daily
basis.

Water temperatures to prevent scalding/prohibit the growth of Legionella

Tempering heated water

The Building Code requires that hot water be delivered at a temperature that avoids the likelihood of
scalding. As water heated to 60°C or more can cause serious burns, water must be tempered before it
is delivered to users though taps and other outlets.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 sets maximum temperatures for water delivered to sanitary fixtures.
For most types of building, the maximum temperature is 55°C for outlets such as basins, baths and
showers (the limits are lower for buildings such as hospitals and schools).
For kitchen sinks and laundries, maximum temperatures of around 55°C to 65°C are acceptable.
Temperatures can be reduced to acceptable levels by installing:
• a tempering valve, or
• a thermostatic mixing valve.
A tempering valve is installed in the hot water line close to the cylinder and has a cold water
connection to provide a pre-set hot water temperature at fixtures. Valves are factory pre-set but are
able to be adjusted to cater for specific temperature requirements.
As water may be delivered at any temperature to non-personal hygiene fixtures such as sinks and
laundries, a tempering valve is not required to these fixtures. However, if a wetback water heater or
other uncontrolled heat source is used, tempering the supply to all fixtures is good practice.
Most dishwasher and washing machine manufacturers may require the installation of a tempering
valve for warranty purposes where the unit does not heat its own water.

Tempering valve

Specific requirements for gas storage water heaters

Gas storage water heaters must have:
• adequate ventilation of the cylinder
• a flue to remove exhaust gases.
They must be:
• serviced annually
• flushed out regularly to remove water sediment at the bottom of the cylinder
• checked to ensure that vents are not blocked.
All gas water heaters sold in New Zealand must comply with minimum energy performance standards
(MEPS).
3.2 Controlling pressure in storage cylinders
Most new hot water cylinders are mains pressure, but existing buildings may use low pressure
systems.
On this page:
• mains pressure, unvented system
• low pressure, pressure-reducing valve system
• low pressure, open-vented, header tank system
• advantages and disadvantages of different types of storage water heater
Storage water heater systems may operate as:
• a mains pressure, unvented system, where the operating pressure is the same as the incoming
supply (120–1,400 kPa, but typically 350–700 kPa)
• a low pressure system that uses a pressure-reducing valve to reduce the mains pressure water
(3–12 m head/30–120 kPa)
• a low pressure, open-vented system, where pressure is provided by a cold water storage,
header tank (3–12 m head/30–120 kPa). Still found in older homes but not normally installed
in new homes today
Mains pressure storage water heaters are the main type of new installation in New Zealand.
Mains pressure, unvented system
Mains pressure, unvented, storage water heater systems supply mains pressure hot water to all outlets
so both the hot and the cold water is delivered to outlets at the same pressure. An internal or external
expansion vessel allows the heated water to expand, and systems must incorporate a pressure relief
valve in case the expansion vessel fails.
All mains pressure cylinders (>120 kPa) require the pressure relief valve to be both pressure and
temperature operated (temperature pressure relief or TPR) in order to provide a dual failure mode.
Where a mains pressure unvented system is used, valves must be specified for the particular system to
achieve the required pressure rating.
One problem with a single valve for relieving pressure is that hot water is wasted as the water expands
during the frequent heat-up cycles. To prevent this, an expansion control valve, set at slightly less
pressure, is installed on the inlet side of the cylinder and will relieve cold water during the heat-up
cycle. It is normal for an expansion control valve to drip approximately 5 litres of water per day. Both
these valves must have a correctly-sized copper drain line that discharges to a safe and visible
location.
Mains pressure, unvented, storage water heater system

Low pressure, pressure-reducing valve system

Note: This system may be open-vented or unvented.
The low pressure, open-vented, pressure-reducing valve system works in the same way as the header
tank system but uses a pressure-reducing valve to reduce the high pressure water from the mains
supply down to a pressure, or head, that is able to be maintained within the height of the vent pipe,
which usually discharges above the roof.
This system, commonly known as an unequal pressure system, supplies low pressure hot water and
high pressure cold water to fixtures. Its major disadvantage is that it is difficult to achieve balanced
flow to a shower.
The unvented, low pressure system must also include a pressure relief valve.
These are old systems that wouldn’t be installed today – modern systems have much better
performance.
Valves must be installed so they are:
• accessible for repairs and maintenance
• protected from damage
• protected from frost.
By law, only licensed plumbers can carry out work on water supply pipes and systems.

Low pressure, open-vented, pressure-reducing valve storage water heater system

Low pressure, unvented, pressure-reducing valve storage water heater system

Low pressure, open-vented, header tank system

Traditionally, low pressure, open-vented systems provided the hot water supply for New Zealand
houses. In order to provide adequate hot water supply pressure, cold water is stored in a header tank
located at a higher level than the storage water cylinder, from which water is gravity-fed into the
bottom of the storage water cylinder.
As the water is heated, it rises to the top of the cylinder where it can be drawn off through taps or
shower outlets and will be replaced from the header tank. The gravity feed provides the water pressure
that pushes the water to the outlets, as long as they are at a lower level than the stored water.
As heating causes the water within the cylinder to expand, an open-vent pipe provides an outlet for
excess pressure. The pipe usually feeds back into the header tank supply.

Low pressure, open-vented, header tank storage water heater system

Advantages and disadvantages of different types of storage water heater

Low pressure, Low pressure, pressure-reducing Mains pressure,

open vented valve (open vented or unvented) unvented

Advantages

Inexpensive to install and * *

maintain

Few valves required * *

Equal pressure system * *

Unequal pressure system *

High pressure hot water *

Quick hot water delivery *

Smaller diameter *
pipework may be used
Greater flexibility of pipe *
layout

Quiet operation *

Wet back connection OK * *(if open-vented)

Disadvantages

Larger diameter * *(for hot water supply)

pipework required

Grading to avoid air *

locking essential

Low pressure supply * *(for hot water)

Prone to pressure * *
fluctuations

Noisy and subject to *

water hammer

More water wastage *

More valves required *

Increased wear and tear *

on pipes and fittings

Difficult to install *
wetback
3.3 Hot water pipes
Hot water pipes must be appropriate for the temperature and pressure of water being piped.
On this page:
• materials
• pressure rating of thermoplastic pipes
• de-rating (rate of loss of strength) factors of some commonly used pipe material
Also see pipe materials, pipe installation, and valves and controls.
Materials
Hot water pipes must be able to withstand the maximum temperature of the water being piped. Pipe
material may be copper or an appropriate thermoplastic material.
Materials suitable for hot water supply pipes include:
• copper
• polybutylene (PB)
• chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC or PVCc)
• random polypropylene (PP-R)
• cross-linked polyethylene (PEX).
Thermoplastic piping should not be used where a hot water system includes an uncontrolled heat
source such as a wetback or a solar heating system.
Acceptable Solution G12/AS1 and AS/NZS 3500.4 require the first metre of length of pipe from
water heaters to be in copper.
Grades of PEX vary, and few grades will tolerate 100°C water for any significant length of time.
Pressure rating of thermoplastic pipes
Pipes are classified according to their pressure rating (PN) at 20°C. For example, a pipe rated PN16 is
rated for a pressure of 160 MPa at 20°C. Thermoplastic pipes lose strength and ability to withstand
the pressure with increasing temperature, and this differs with different materials.
De-rating (rate of loss of strength) factors of some commonly used pipe materials

Temp Poly- Polyvinyl- Chlorinated polyvinyl- Poly- Cross-

(°C) butylene chloride chloride ethylene linked
poly-
ethylene

20 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0

27 1.0 0.9 1.0 0.9 0.7

38 0.9 0.6 0.8 0.8 0.8

49 0.8 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.8

60 0.7 0.2 0.5 0.4 0.7
71 0.6 * 0.4 * 0.7

82 0.6 0.4 0.6

93 0.4 0.2 0.5

104 * * *

* Not resistant to long-term service beyond this temperature.

3.4 Appliances and fixtures
Efficient appliances and fixtures can significantly reduce water use.
On this page:
• Household water use
• Toilets
• Fixtures
• Appliances.
Household water use
BRANZ monitored 51 random houses in Auckland and found that showers, washing machines and
toilets account for almost three quarters of the water used. It makes sense therefore to focus on these
three areas for potential water savings.

Toilets
In an average home, around one litre in five is used for toilet flushing. This can be reduced by:
 • ensuring a dual flush cistern is specified
• installing a water-efficient toilet pan
• using collected rainwater or treated greywater for flushing
• installing waterless composting toilets where no mains sewer connection is available.
Many older cisterns use far more water than necessary – up to 12 litres is not uncommon. To reduce
the amount of water used, replace the inefficient cistern with a modern dual-flush one that uses 6 / 3
litres or 4.5 / 3 litres. (A new pan may be needed where a dual flush cistern cannot be fitted to the
existing one.)
Toilets are covered by the New Zealand Water Efficiency Labelling Scheme, and must have
efficiency labels on them – see Appliances below.
If fitting a new pan/cistern is impractical, options you can use to reduce water usage include:
• placing an object such as a brick, or plastic milk bottle filled with water that has the top firmly
screwed on into the cistern to reduce the amount of water required to fill an older cistern
• adjusting the float ball by bending it down slightly to reduce the volume of water in the
cistern – ensure that sufficient flow and volume is maintained for an adequate flush
• ensuring that the cistern supply shuts off fully when not in use.
In all cases, sufficient flow and volume must be maintained so the pan is cleared with a single flush.
Other fixtures
Water usage can be reduced by specifying/installing:
• For main-pressure systems, low-flow showerheads that use less than 9 litres of water per
minute and still deliver a comfortable shower
• aerators on taps used for hand washing. These relatively inexpensive devices reduce water
flow from around 18–28 litres per minute to 6, 8 or 12 litres per minute. Aerators are not
suitable for taps on baths where a larger volume of water is required.

Reduced water flow by specifying an aerator

An aerator on a tap used for handwashing will reduce the flow while still providing plenty of water.
Aerators should not be specified for taps on fixtures such as baths where a large volume of water is
required.
Appliances
Reduce water use by recommending water-efficient appliances. Under the Water Efficiency Labeling
Scheme (WELS), certain products must display a WELS label. These include:
 • clothes washing machines
• dishwashers
• lavatories
• showers
• taps.
The WELS label shows a star rating for relative water efficiency – the more stars, the better, up to a
maximum of 6 (currently 4 for showers) – and a water consumption or water flow figure. The latter is
given in:
• litres per minute (showers and taps)
• litres per wash (clothes washing machines and dishwashers)
• llitres per half flush, full flush, and average flush – the average of four half flushes and one
full flush (for lavatories).
More information can be found at the water efficient products page of the Ministry for the
Environment website.
Information about water efficiency can also be found at the Australian water efficiency rating scheme
website www.waterrating.gov.au.
Do not specify or install waste disposal units. Instead, where possible, encourage building users to
compost all organic kitchen waste.