SKELETAL SYSTEM: Appendicular Skeleton In turtles, a distinct scapula and distinct coracoid are present

In most lizards, all three elements are present -- scapula,

Basic components coracoid, procoracoid -- although the procoracoid is reduced to more of
a process joined to the other bones
Paired fins or limbs and the girdles Among other reptiles, a scapula and coracoid are present in the
- the braces within the body that support them ossified skeleton, but the procoracoid has various fates

Anterior girdle In birds

- shoulder or pectoral girdles
- dermal and endochondral skeletal elements Replacement bones
- supports a pectroral fin or limb - the paired clavicles usually fuses with the unpaired interclavicle,
producing the composite wishbone, or furcula
Posterior girdle - both scapula and procoracoid of the endochondral girdle persist
- hip or pelvic girdle
- consisting of endochondral skeletal elements Dermal bones
- support the pelvic fin or limb - procoracoid may contribute to the portion of the scapula around the
glenoid fossa and to one end of the coracoid as the procoracoid
Pectoral Girdle process
- a skeletetal complex in the body wall immediately behind the head tha
articulates with the anterior fins or limbs In synapsids
- consisted of three pairs of replacement bones that were part of the
endoskeleton: Replacement bones
Coracoids - this three-part shoulder girdle is retained in pelycosaurs, therepasids,
scapulae, and monotreme mammals
suprascapulae
- four pairs of dermal bones In therian mammals, the procoracoid becomes vestigial
Clavicles (marsupials) or incorporated in to the manubrium of the sternum
Supracleithra (eutherians)
Posttemporal The coracoid becomes reduced and joins the scapula as the
Postcleithra coracoid process

Dermal bones
- the clavicle and interclavicle are present in therapsids and
monotremes, but in marsupials and eutherians, the interclavicle is
absent, the clavicle often reduced in size, and the scapula becomes the
predominant shoulder element
- the coracoid is reduced and fused to the scapula as the coracoid
process

Clavicles
- occur in all of classes of bony vertebrates but are best developed in
tetrapod
- bony fishes have tended to lose the replacement bones of the
pectroral girdle
- tetrapods have tended to lose dermal bones
- tetrapods carry over from rhipidistians (extinct lobes finned fishes) a
shoulder girdle consisting of dermal and endoskeletal elements
- however, tetrapods have a should girdle tha is structurally and
functionally detached from the skull; the dorsal series of dermal bones
are lost
In early tetrapods
- the connecting skull bone, the posttemporal, and adjoining shoulder
bones, supracleithrum and postcleithrum (=anocleithrum) are absent,
leaving a dermal should girdle composed of the remaining ventral
elements: the paired cleithrum and clavicle, and an unpaired midventral
interclavicle that joins both halves of the girdles across the midline
In modern amphibians
- the dermal bones are usually lost entirely (salamanders) or reduced in
prominence (frogs)
- the endoskeletal scapulaprocoracoid (the unit of the pectoral girdle
that contains the coracoid and scapula) becomes the predominant
girdle element, yet retains its fidelity to the cleithrum
In fishes
- the scapulacoracoid tends to be a single element
In primitive amniotes
- the clavicle and interclavicle persist, but the cleithrum is usally absent
In modern reptiles
Replacement bones
- the clavicle is lost but it is retained in many
- in turtles, it is incorporated into the plastron as the entoplastron
Dermal bones
- the endochondral three-part shoulder girdle is also retained but its
evolution becomes complicated in derived groups
Clavicle/collar bone
- a bone that serves as a strut between shoulder blade and the sternum
(breastbone)
In mammals
- clavicle is large in insectivores, primates, and in mammals with strong
forelimbs that are used for digging, climbing or flying
- on the other hand, there are mammals whose skeleton-muscular
system has undergone adaptations that have reduced the clavicle to a
mere splinter (cat) or eliminated it altogether (cetaceans, ungulates)
- in cats, the clavicle is a vestigial splinter reaching neither the sternum
nor the scapula
Pelvic Girdle
- a bony or cartilaginous structure in vertebrates, attached to and
supporting the hind limbs or fins
- no dermal components
- composed of a single bone with three parts: pubis, ischium, and ilium
Acetabulum
- at the junction of the pubis, ischium, and ilium
- a socket that accommodates the head of the femur
In fishes
- pelvic girdle consists of 2 cartilaginous or bony plates (ischiopubic
plates) that articulate with the pelvic fins
In tetrapods
- pair of cartilaginous plates form in embryos and each ossifies at 2
centers to form: pubis and ischium
- an additional blastema gives rise to the ilium
In birds
- ilium and ischium expanded to accommodate musculature needed for
bipedal locomotion (walking on two legs in an upright position)
- girdle is braced against lumbar and sacral vertebrae
- pubis bones are typically reduced (long but thin)
- the limited pubic symphysis provides a larger outlet for eggs
In mammals
- the ilium, ischium, and pubis ankylose early in postnatal life to form a
left and right innominate bone/hip bone
Fins
- membranous or webbed processes internally strengthened by Caudal fins can exist from different conditions
radiating and thin fin rays
- they form initially at the interface between dermis and epidermis but Heterocercal
then sink into the dermis (dermal fin rays) - if the tail contains dorsal and ventral lobes and if the notochord turns
- for steering devices for changing directions upward into a larger dorsal lobe
- stabilizers - Present in Paleozoic sharks
- slows or halt forward thrust
- plays minimal role in forward thrust Hypocercal
- a rare condition in which the vertebral column turns downward
Pterygiophores
- supports the proximal part of the fin close to the body Variants of heterocercal condition

Two types Diphycercal

1. Basals - if the vertebral column ends with a very little upending
2. Radials - extend support from the basals into the middle region of
the fin Homocercal
- a caudal fin composed of two lobes of equal proportion
Fins occur single, except for a pair near the head (pectoral fin) and a
second pair posterior to this (pelvic fins) Limbs
- formally termed as Chiridium
Types of Fins - a muscular appendage with a well-defined joints bearing digits
(fingers and toes), not a fin at its end
1. Fin rays
Three recognized regions
Ceratotrichia Autopodium - the distal end of the limb; the wrist and ankle, which in
- found in cartilaginous fishes turn support their respective digits
- long horny rays composed of a material similar to what composed the
dorsal spines of spiny sharks Zeugopodium - middle limb region; ulna and radius of the forearm,
tibia and fibula of the shank
Lepidotrichia
- found in bony fishes Stylopodium - limb region closest to the body; humerus of the upper
- consist of jointed bony dermal scales aligned end to end arm, femur of the thigh
- usually an ossified or chondrified series of tiny elements that
strengthen this web Glenoid fossa
- a depression within the pectoral girdle
Actinotrichia - articulates with the humerus
- found in some bony fishes
- the tip of the fin may be further stiffened by additional keratinized rods Acetabulum
- a deep socket in the pelvis
2. Paired fins - receives the femur
- classication of paired fins is based on what girdle they are attached
Manus or Hand
Pectoral fins - the wrist, palm, and digits constitute a functional unit--the hand
- braced against the glenoid fossa or glenoid region of the scapula and (manus)
coracoid - there are several digits, each beginning proximally with a metapodial
element (metacarpals on the forelimb, metatarsals on the hindlimb)
Pelvic fins followed by a chain of phalanges
- braced against a prominence on the lateral or posterior aspect of the - the digits rest upon several separate bones, collectively known as the
pelvic plate carpals in the wrist and the tarsals in the ankle
- in some marine vertebraes, the major trend has been toward
Three categories of Paired Fins polyphalangy, a proliferation in the number of phalanges

 Lobed Fins Polydactyly

- generally consist of a fleshy proximal portion (lobe) containing the
skeleton and its attached muscles, an a membranous distal portion that
is stiffened by fin rays
- the fin resembles a paddle and arised from a narrow base
- characteristic of dipnoan and crossopterygians
 Fin Fold Fins
- characteristic of cartilaginous fishes
- have broad base
- it is broad in modern sharks and was broader in Paleozoic
- the pectoral fins of cartilaginous fishes, ancient and modern exhibit a
wide diversity of skeletal morphology
 Ray Fins
- the rays lepidotrichia are the same as those other bony fishes
- with reduction of the basal skeleton during time, fins have become
increasingly flexible and a number of species have lost their pelvic fins
3. Median Fin
- fishes have one or more median dorsal fins and many have
midventral anal fin just behind the anus
- act as keels, keeping motionless fishes from rolling to the left and right
Median dorsal fin
- unpaired median fin on the back of fishes and some other
4. Caudal Fins
- used for propulsion during locomotion in fishes
- classified on the basis of direction taken by the terminal portion of the
notochord, vertebral column and their shape
- a condition when a species has more than five digits
Wrist (carpus)
- the generalized pentadactul hand consists of three or more less
regular rows of carpal bones
- the proximal row has a radial carpal (radiale)
- at the distal end of the radius, an ulnar carpal (ulnare) at the end of
the ulna and an intermedium between the two
- traditionally, the basic tetrapod limb was thought to consist of five
digits that were named and numbered by their pentadactylous pattern
- structural modifications of the manus and pes involve reduction in the
number of bones, disproportionate lengthening or shortening of
segments, and in some aquatic tetrapods, increase in number of
phalanges
Modern amphibians: digits have been reduced to four or fewer
Birds: three
Ungulate (hoofed animal): one
Loss of digits is accompanied by loss or reduction of associated
carpals and metacarpals or tarsal and metatarsals
Adaptation for the Life of the Ocean
- the hands have become paddlelike flippers in well-adapted marine
amniotes
- flippers are generally flattened and stout, and in several taxa the
number of phalanges has greatly increased
- penguins obtain thrust for swimming solely from their flipperlike wings,
their webbed feet serving as rudders
Adaptation for Flight
- two carpals (radiale and ulnare) form in the proximal row, and three in Mesotarsal joint
the distal row - a simple hinge joint passing between proximal (astragalus = tibiale)
- as development progresses, the three distal carpals unite with the 3 and (calcaneum = fibulare) and distal tarsal elements
metacarpals to form a rigid carpometacarpus - found in birds
- the first finger of birds that maneuver, alight, and take off in limited
spaces is elongated, prominent, and independently movable and is Intratarsal joint
called an alula - the line of ankle flexion passes between the calcaneum and
- bats have five fingers; the thumb is normal and bears a claw astragalus
- the four fingers are elongated and are associated with four greatly - crocodiles
elongated metacarpals
Crurotarsal joint
Pes or Hind foot - the ankle joint forms between the crus/shin (tibia and fibula) and
- the distal segment of the hind limb of vertebrates, including the tarsus proximal tarsals (astragalus and calcaneum)
and foot - the main joint of ankle bending between the tibia and the astragalus;
- comparable bone to bone with the manus except there is no the calcaneum has no contact with the tibia but forms a heel to which
consistent equivalent of the pisiform bone muscles can attach
- in mammals, the fibulare is the specific tarsal that articulates with the - mammals
fibula, but it is more commonly called the calcaneum
- the tibiale, commonly called the astragalus, actually fuses with the
intermedium and together they articulate with the tibia

In tetrapods
- they primitively had four centrale in the pes
- the number was reduced to one or two in primitive reptiles and to one
in primitive mammals
- the total structure of the anuran pes provides a suitable base for
pushing off when jumping, and is equally useful in locomotion in the
water

Tabiotarsus
- united proximal tarsals and lower end of tibia

Tarsometatarsus
- united distal tarsals with the upper end of three fused metatarsals
- most birds have four toes, and a few have three: ostriches alone have
two

Zygodactyly
- with each foot having two forward-pointing and two backward-pointing
toes forming an X

In mammals
- lack an intratarsal joint but have a large hinge joint where the tibia and
fibula meet the ankle
- the tibale (pink) is the principal weight bearing bone of the ankle
- the other proximal tarsal, the fibulare (yellow) is elongated backward
in plantigrade, upward in digitigrade and ungligrades

Adaptations for Swift-footedness

- mammals with pentadactyly hands and feet are usually plantigrade,
which mean that the wrists, ankles, and digits all rest on the ground
- mammals in which only the first digit has been reduced or lost tend to
be digitigrade, which means that they bear their weight on digital
arches with wrist and ankle elevated
- unguligrade, few digits touch the floor

Unguligrade

Artiodactyls
- even toed ungulates
- the weight of the body tended to be distributed equally between digits
3 and 4
- such a foot is said to be paraxonic because the body weight is borne
on two parallel axes
- creates a cloven hoof seen on those animals whose have cleft
Ex: pigs, camels, hippos, ruminates, antelopes, goat

Perissodactyls
- odd toes ungulates
- the body weight is increasingly tended to be borne on digit 3, the
middle digit
- this is a mesaxonic foot
- creates a hoof not possessing any clefts
Ex: horse, rhinoceros, zebra, and tapirs

Hominoids
- metatarsal arch or instep distributes the body weight over four solid
bases: the heel and ball of each foot
- the great toe or hallux is opposable in many primates but not in
humans

Three types of ankle joints