COMPANA LABORATORY EXERCISE (REPORT) 2

ENDOSKELETONS OF SELECTED VERTEBRATES (CHICKEN SKELETON)

Student's Name: Stephanie A. Almendral Date Performed: January 23, 2024

Course/Year/Section: BS-PSYC/3rd Year/XA1 Date Submitted: February 10, 2024
Instructor's Name: Joy Lan Marie P. Magbanua

Instructions: Please refer to the images.

(1) Name the different sections of the Chicken Skeleton.

(2) In the table below each image, name (1st Column) and briefly describe (2nd Column) the specific
parts of the corresponding sections.

SECTION

It is a protrusion of bone from a rib, which enables it to join onto the rib behind by
1. Uncinate process means of ligaments.

2. Neural spines It extends dorsally as a prominent spine.

3. Zygapophyses They are projections of the dorsal region of the neural arch.

It forms a true joint with the vertebral body and the tubercle with the transverse process
4. Capitulum of the same vertebra.

5. Vertebral Rib It articulates with the vertebra and carries the uncinate process.
1. Centrum It is heterocoelous or saddle-shaped.

2. Hypapophysis Midventral projections from the centrum.

3. Postzygapophysis It is projected posteriorly outward and downward.

4. Parapophysis It is on the centrum and articulates with the capitulum of the rib.

SECTION

It is an important structure that serves to mount the tail feathers, providing critical
1. Pygostyle
control surfaces, especially during takeoff and landing.

2. Caudal vertebrae It consists of several (five to nine) free caudal vertebrae, which end with the Pygostyle.
 SECTION

It is an important bone for the shoulder joint as it engages in 6 types of motion, which
1. Scapula allow for full-functional upper extremity movement including protraction, retraction,
elevation, depression, upward rotation, and downward rotation.

A secondary wing strut supporting the wing root (along with the coracoid) and
2. Clavicle
dampening lateral compressive forces.

It is a pair of bones that aid in wing movement and supply additional support to the
3. Coracoid
shoulder joint.

4. Interclavicle A membrane bone between and beneath the clavicles.

SECTION

A small, triangular part of the sternum that starts as cartilage and hardens. Likewise, it is
1. Xiphisternal process
an area for muscular attachment.

2. Keel The blade-like portion of the sternum which is set between the heavy breast muscles.
 SECTION

1. Costal facets Combined with the tubercles of the ribs.

2. Anterior matesternal The junction of the manubrium and the body of the sternum.
process

SECTION

It is a narrow strip of bone that runs along the border of the ischium to which it is joined
1. Pubis
for a short distance only.

2. Ischium An opening provides access to the sciatic nerve

3. Illioischiatic foramen The connection of the clavicular air sac.

4. Acetabular fenestra A deep socket or concavity.

 SECTION

This part integrates the posterior thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae. In particular, the
combination of these bones enables birds to be stronger and lighter by reducing the
1. Synsacrum number of muscles essential for controlling each vertebra.

Attached to the last thoracic, lumbar, and sacral vertebrae to make birds stronger and
2. Ilium
more stiff.

SECTION

The alula, or “thumb” of the bird, is its first freely movable digit. It usually has three to
1. Alular digit five tiny flight feathers, though the exact number can differ depending on the particular
species.

2. Carpometacarpus The carpal and metacarpal bones merge to form this avian wing bone.

This helps maintain the weight of the bird's body as well as provides stability while
3. Ulna
flying.

It is big and elongated, having a rounded head that links with the scapula, coracoid, and
4. Humerus
clavicle. The bone is pneumatic and has an attachment to the clavicular air sac.

5. Shoulder joint It is the round top end of the humerus.

 The patella, commonly referred to as the kneecap, is positioned above the chicken's knee
1. Patella and is attached to the tibia and femur through tendons. It gives the chickens more force
when they extend their legs to jump.

Compared to its shinbone or tibia, a chicken's thigh bone is considerably shorter. In

2. Femur
particular, this enables them to jump and maintain balance while resting.

3. Fibula It is a short rod-like bone that connects the tibiotarsus to the lateral condyle of the femur.

It is the connection of the tibia and the group of bones near the top of the foot.
4. Tibiotarsus
Additionally, it is the most recognizable bone in the chicken's skeletal structure.

5. Tarsometatarsus This is made up of a combination of metatarsal and distal tarsal bones.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT: Special thanks to the Department of Biology Laboratory Technician, Mr. Giovanni
Perez, for providing the pictures of specimens from the Comparative Anatomy Laboratory.

GUIDE QUESTIONS: Use diagrams to complement your answers.

1. Enumerate and describe the different processes projecting from the vertebrae.
The different processes projecting from the vertebrae consist of firstly, the Uncinate process. This is a
protrusion of bone from a rib, enabling it to join on to the rib behind by means of ligaments. The second is
the Odontoid process, which is a projection from the axis or the second vertebra of the cervical region. Next is
the Transverse process, which extends from the centrum and articulates with small, Y-shaped, posterolaterally
directed ribs. Lastly, there is also the spinous process whose primary function is providing a place for muscles
and ligaments to attach.

2. Briefly discuss the different types of vertebrae of birds. Describe the type of centrum that allows
flexibility of their neck.

The different types of vertebrae of birds include the 14 Cervical vertebrae, which extends from the skull to the
first thoracic vertebral body. Following this is the 5 Thoracic vertebrae, where each is connected to two ribs,
one on each side. The first three thoracic vertebrae are fused in chickens. The 6 Lumbar and 2 Sacral
vertebrae are also found in birds. These two are fused together into one long synsacrum that also includes
several fused caudal vertebrae. The final vertebrae is the 15 Caudal vertebrae. The last 3-4 caudal vertebrae
are fused into a single, flattened bone called the pygostyle, which provides attachment for several tail
feathers.

The type of centrum that allows flexibility in a bird’s neck is the Heterocoelous centrum. Its articulating
surfaces are saddle-shaped, which allows maximum flexibility since it is necessary for birds to have high
flexibility for the lateral or ventral movement of their neck without stretching the nerve cord.

3. Differentiate Carinate birds from Ratite birds.

While Ratite and Craniate birds belong to the same avian class, they share fundamental avian traits. Feathers,
beaks, and a warm-blooded metabolism characterize both groups, aligning them with the broader avian
classification. These commonalities serve as a foundation for understanding the intricate differences that set
Ratite and Carinate birds apart. Ratite primarily comprises flightless birds that have evolved to adapt to a
terrestrial lifestyle. One of the defining features is the degeneration of wings, rendering them unsuitable for
flight. The sternum in Ratite lacks a keel, presenting a raft-like structure, which is in stark contrast to the
prominent keel in flight-adapted birds. The dromaeognathous skull, with distinct sutures, distinguishes Ratite
birds further. Additionally, the quadrate articulates with the skull by a single head, and the scapula and
coracoid are fused, often with small or absent clavicles. The pelvic structure lacks posterior fusion of the ilium
and ischium, and a pygostyle is generally absent. Feathers in Ratite have free barbs without the presence of
barbule hooks. Male members typically possess a penis, and the young are precocious, hatching as
independent individuals. In contrast, Craniate birds are characterized by their ability to fly, as evidenced by
well-developed wings. The sternum in Craniate birds is equipped with a keel, serving as an anchor for flight
muscles. The skull is not dromaeognathous, and sutures disappear early in development. The quadrate
articulates with the skull by a double head, and the scapula and coracoid are connected by ligament, meeting
at right angles. Craniate birds generally have well-developed clavicles. The pelvic structure features the
posterior fusion of the ilium and ischium, enclosing a sciatic foramen, and a pygostyle is usually present.
Feathers exhibit united barbs with barbule hooks, contributing to aerodynamic efficiency. The oil gland,
absent in Ratite, is usually present in Craniate birds. Pterylae, the feather tracts, are regularly arranged. Males
rarely possess a penis, and the young may be either precocious or altrices, dependent upon hatching.

4. Describe the design and related function of the bird’s synsacrum. (ATASHA)

The synsacrum is formed by the fusion of the sacral, posterior thoracic, and lumbar vertebrae. These three
bones reduce the number of muscles required for control, and the hip pelvic bones are either entirely or
partly unified with the synsacrum, resulting in birds being slimmer and lighter. Additionally, this contributes to
a greater firm framework that suits its needs for aerial activity, movement, and breathing. A few caudal
vertebrae are also at ease posterior to the synsacrum. The last portion of it, commonly referred to as the
pygostyle, is distinguished by the attachment of elongated and rigid tail feathers. Moreover, the central part
of the synsacrum is enlarged to accommodate the glycogen body but its purpose remains uncertain, although
it could potentially be linked to equilibrium.
 5. Provide reason/s behind the design of the bird’s pelvic girdle.

The pelvic girdle is one of the anatomical structures that underwent modification in birds. In particular, it is
composed of three sets of interconnected bones, which are the ilia, the ischia, and the pubes that are fused
with the synsacrum. The aforementioned bones tend to be separate from those found in other vertebrates.
That said, birds can weigh less as a result of this specific adaptation leading to fewer bones. Additionally, the
intricate fusion of pelvic bones offers rigid support for the legs to withstand the forces of flight. Furthermore,
the pelvic girdle is designed to enhance aerodynamics. This other adaptation decreases the disturbance
caused by air, which could potentially destabilize the bird during flight, and allows them to fly smoothly.
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