SKELETAL SYSTEMS

IN VERTEBRATES

O. M. Adheke
 INTRODUCTION
• Most animals are protected by skeletal systems.
• These systems are collection of materials such
as chitin, cartilage or bone.
• Chitin is common in arthropods; contains
hardened proteins/minerals.
• Cartilage contain chondroblasts and
macromolecules.
• Bones contain osteocytes (bone cells), collagen
and minerals
 Chitin
• A polymer of N-polysaccharide.
• Tough, light and flexible covering.
• Makes up the cell walls of fungi and
exoskeletons of insects.
• Resembles cellulose structurally.
• In crustaceans, chitin is made up of calcium
and magnesium salts.
 Cartilage
• Made up of living cells (chondroblasts)
• Acts as shock absorber due to great tensile
strength.
• Forms entire skeletal system in sharks and
rays.
• In mammals, there are three types; hyaline,
fibro and elastic.
• Cartilage do not have their own blood supply.
 HYALINE – Precursor of bone
 Hyaline cartilage possess mostly type II
collagen fibers.
– It has a perichondrium. It is the weakest of all cartilages.
– Commonly found in ribs, nose, larynx, trachea.
 Fibro-cartilage does not have a perichondrium.
Also possess collagen fibers.
– Commonly found in invertebral discs, joint capsules,
ligaments.
 Elastic cartilage contains elastin in its matrix.
– It possesses perichondrium. Found in external ear and
epiglottis.
 Bone
• A connective tissue that is made up of
mineralized extracellular matrix.
• This mineral is calcium hypoxyapatite; which
makes it hard.
• Bones also contain osteocytes and collagen
fibers.
• Bones have their own blood supply.
• As embryo grows, bone cells replace cartilage
cells (OSSIFICATION).
 Bones are covered by
PERIOSTEUM

 This periosteum contains

osteoprogenitor cells.

Metaphysis disappears
upon maturity.

 Bone tissue are either

COMPACT or SPONGY.

 Spaces in the spongy

bone are filled with RED
MARROW.
 Types of bones
• Long bones
– all possess shafts; humerus, femur, etc.
• Short bones
– carpal bones
• Flat bones
– skull cap, sternum
• Irregular bones
– vertebral bones
 BONE FORMATION
• Endochondral ossification:
– Bone is formed from a pre-existing cartilage.
– The cartilage model serves as a TEMPLATE.
– Here, long bones and some axial bones are
formed.
• Intramembranous ossification:
– Bone is formed by differentiation of mesenchymal
cells into osteoblasts
– No form of cartilage model is needed.
– Examples are; clavicle, mandible, flat bones of face
and skull.
 TYPES OF SKELETONS
• Hydrostatic skeleton:
– Found in soft-bodied invertebrates e.g. hydra,
earthworm, sea stars, etc.
– Possess body fluids that help maintain its shape.
– They have two (2) body layers (OUTER and
INNER).
– Outer layer lies longitudinally, while Inner layer
lies circularly.
– Body SHORTENS upon contraction of outer layer.
– Body LENGTHENS upon contraction of inner layer.
• Exoskeleton:
– Commonly found in mollusks and arthropods.

– In mollusks, the mantle secretes CaCO3 in its shell.

– In arthropods, its exoskeleton is a non-living

cuticle that contains chitin.
– Animals with exoskeleton moult periodically.
– Moulting (ecdysis) helps to accommodate growth.
• Endoskeleton:
– Found majorly in vertebrates.
– The skeleton is made up of bones (except
cartilagenous fishes).
– Bones are of various sizes and shapes.
– Bones are attached together by ligaments to form
JOINTS.
– Muscles are attached to bones to enable
movement/locomotion.
 VERTEBRATE SKELETON
• Made up of axial and appendicular parts.
• AXIAL parts are skull, vertebral column, ribs,
and sternum.
• APPENDICULAR parts are limb bones and
girdles.
• Skull is made up of 8 cranial bones and 14
facial bones.
• In humans, vertebral bones are 33;
(C7 + T12 + L5 + S5 + Co4)
• Ribs are of three (3) types; true, false and
floating.
• The first seven (7) ribs are true
(VERTEBROSTERNAL)
• The next three (Ribs 8 – 10) are false
(VERTEBROCHONDRAL)
• The final two (Ribs 11 – 12 ) are the floating
ones.
• Pectoral girdles are; scapula and clavicle.
• A pair of pelvic bones form the pelvic girdles;
contain three bones; ileum, ischium, and pubis.
 JOINTS
• Junction sites of two or more bones.
• They are either mobile or immobile.
• Classified into 3;
– fibrous
– cartilagenous
– synovial joints.
 Synovial joints
• Possess synovial cavities; allow movement.
• they include;
– Ball and socket joints (shoulder and hip)
– Hinge joints (knee and elbow)
– Pivot joints (axis and atlas)
– Gliding (plane) joints (metatarsal joints)
– saddle joints (metacarpal joints)
– ellipsoid joints (phalangeal joints)
 Contents of a vertebra
• Centrum (vertebral body)
• Neural arch (form neural canal) – houses the
spinal cord.
• Haemal arch (in fishes)
• A pair of transverse processes.
• Presence of pre-zygapophyses and post-
zygapophyses (at centrum)
• Presence of diapophyses and parapophyses
(in higher vertebrates at neural arch)
1ST AND 2ND CERVICAL
VERTEBRA
CERVICAL VERTEBRA
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
LUMBAR VERTEBRA
Types of vertebra (based on centrum
structure)
Type Key features Where it can be
found
PROCOELOUS Concave ANTERIORLY; Convex Alligator, Lizard, frog,
POSTERIORLY salamander
OPISTHOCOELOUS (Reverse of Procoelous) Some salamanders
AMPHICOELOUS Concave in BOTH SIDES Fishes
HETEROCOELOUS Concave LATEROMEDIALLY; Aves
Convex SUPERO-INFERIORLY

ACOELOUS Flat on both sides; no Mammals

depressions