Xi Biology Practical

SECTION A: CORE EXPERIMENTS
EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM :
Study and describe locally available common flowering plants, from family
Solanaceae.
PRINCIPLE:
Taxonomy deals with identification, nomenclature and classification of
organisms. Bentham and Hooker's system of classification is universally
used for classification of plants. Field identification of plants is based
primarily on morphological features particularly the floral characters.
REQUIREMENT :
Locally available plant specimens of Solanaceae, Fabaceae and Liliaceae;
each specimen should have at least a small branch with a few inter nodes,
leaves, flowers and fruits; glass slides, cover glass, water, 100 ml beakers,
Petri dish, razor, blade, needles, brush, hand lens, dissecting microscope
and compound microscope.
PROCEDURE:
1. The twigs are kept in beakers containing water.
2. The vegetative and floral features of the plant are described in the
same sequence using terms described in the lab manual.
3. The flower bud is observed under a dissecting microscope or a hand
lens and the aestivation patterns of calyx and corolla, number of
sepals and petals (tri, tetra, pentamerous), number of stamens is
noted.
4. LS of the flower is cut, it is placed on a slide and observed under the
dissecting microscope to study: Position (attachment) of stamens; free
or epipetalous; extrorse/ introrse anthers (anther lobes in the bud
face away from axis – extrorse; anther lobes in the bud face towards
the main axis – introrse). Number of carpels (mono, bi, tri- carpellary);
Position of the ovary (epigynous, perigynous, hypogynous).
5. A stamen is mounted on a slide and the attachment of filament to
anther, dehiscence pattern of anther , number of anther lobes is
studied .
6. The pistil is mounted and the ovary, style and stigma is studied.
7. TS of the ovary is cut to study the number of locules and placentation.
8. The floral formula is written and the floral diagram of each specimen
is drawn based on the description.
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OBSERVATIONS:
The characters are observed and the family is identified to which the plant
belongs to.
Plant’s name : Angel’s Trumpets , (Brugmansia suaveolens)
Characteristics features:
1. Habit: Herbaceous annual
2. Root: Tap root
3. Stem: Erect, herbaceous, branched, solid, cylindrical, green
4. Leaf: Ex-stipulate, petiolate or sessile, simple, alternate, reticulate
venation
5. Inflorescence: Cymose
6. Flower: Ebracteate, ebracteolate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic,
bisexual, pentamerous, hypogynous
7. Calyx: Sepals 5, persistent, gamosepalous, green, valvate aestivation
8. Corolla: Petals 5, gamopetalous, white, valvate aestivation
9. Androecium: Stamens 5, epipetalous, alternate with corolla lobes,
polyandrous, anthers dithecous, introrse, dehiscence by apical pores.
10. Gynoecium: Bicarpellary syncarpous, ovary superior, bilocular,
ovary obliquely placed in the flower, ovules many per locule, axile
placentation, placenta swollen.
11. Fruit: Berry
12. Floral formula:
A twig of Angel Trumpet LS of flower
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Floral diagram
RESULT:
Based on vegetative and floral characteristics, the plant species belongs to
the family Solanaceae.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Each specimen should have at least a small branch with a few inter
nodes, leaves, flowers and fruits.
2. LS and mounting of the flower and flower parts should be done with
care.
3. Hands should be properly washed after the observations.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM :
Preparation and study of T.S. of dicot and monocot roots and stems
(primary).
PRINCIPLE: The study of internal morphology, i.e., cells of various tissues

in an organ of a living body is called Anatomy. Tissue, which is a group of
cells performing a common function, may be simple (parenchyma,
collenchyma and sclerenchyma) or complex containing more than one type
of cells (xylem and phloem). The tissues may be temporary (meristematic) or
permanent (sclerenchyma, parenchyma, collenchyma).
The internal organisation of these tissues differs in root, stem and leaves.
These differences are given in tabular form for easy identification. Various
tissues which constitute roots and stems are described briefly.
REQUIREMENT :
Samples of stem and root of sunflower, Cucurbita, maize, Canna, etc., or
any other locally available plant, safranin stain, dilute acid water, glycerine,
watch glass, slide, cover slip, brush, razor/scalpel blade, blotting paper,
microscope.
PROCEDURE:
1. Few thin green branches of recent growth are collected (i.e., non-
woody/ herbaceous without any secondary growth), preferably of the
thickness of a tooth-pick.
2. The material is held between the thumb and index finger in such a
way that the tips of the finger and smooth cut surface of the material
are in a line, while the tip of the thumb is just a few mm below the
upper surface of the material.
3. The surface of the razor blade/scalpel blade is done wet.
4. Carefully the blade is moved horizontally over the surface of material
in quick succession in a manner that a very thin and complete slice of
the material is cut and obtained over the surface of the razor blade.
5. After cutting several sections in this manner, all these are transferred
into a watch glass containing water.
6. A visual observation of the sections cut is made and the thinnest
possible and complete sections from the lot are picked and transferred
into a watch glass containing safranin and these are allowed to
remain there for about 2 mins.
7. With the help of a brush the section is transferred gently into another
watch glass containing water to remove excess safranin stain. The
material is kept for a few minutes and transferred into a watch glass
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containing a few drops of dilute acid in water to remove excess
safranin stain.
8. The section is washed with water and transferred on to a clean slide
containing 1 drop of glycerine.
9. A cover slip is placed over it avoiding air bubbles.
OBSERVATIONS:
All tissues which are lignified (as in sclerenchyma, collenchyma) are stained
red with safranin. The outline of the cut sections is observed. The presence
and composition of various tissues (epidermis, cortex, endodermis, pericycle,
vascular bundle) and characteristics of vascular bundle is noted. The
differences between the root and stem of monocots and dicots are noted.
From the anatomical point of view the monocot and dicot roots differ from
each other in the following features:
Anatomically, the dicot and monocot stems differ in the following features:
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RESULT:
The specimens provided are sections of the dicot and monocot stems and
roots.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Thin sections should be cut with a sharp blade/ scalpel.
2. Specimens should be stained appropriately with safranin.
3. Extra stain or glycerine should be bloated with filter paper.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM :
Study of osmosis by potato osmometer.
PRINCIPLE:
Osmosis is a common physical process observed in living cells and
tissues of all organisms. It is defined as the movement of molecules of
solvent from a region of its higher concentration to a region of its lower
concentration across a selectively permeable membrane, such as the plasma
membrane.
REQUIREMENT :
Fresh large sized potato tuber, beaker , 20 % sucrose solution, water, Petri
dish, blade/scalpel, bell pin needle marked with waterproof ink.
PROCEDURE:
1. The potato tuber is cut into two equal halves with a razor blade or
scalpel. The outer skin is peeled off. As the shape of the tuber is
irregular, the two halves are shaped in squares.
2. The centre of the tuber, the soft parenchyma, is scooped to make a
small cavity of circular or square shape. The cavity prepared by
scooping should have minimum thickness at the bottom.
3. Half the cavity is filled with 20% sugar solution. Fix a pin is fixed into
the cavity in such a way that the mark is in line with the sucrose
solution layer as shown in the Fig.
4. The osmometer is placed in a beaker/petri dish filled with water in
such a way that 2/3rd of the potato osmometer is dipped in water.
5. The setup is left undisturbed for about an hour.
6. The level of sugar solution is observed in the osmometer at the end of
the experiment.
OBSERVATIONS:
The level of sugar solution in the potato cavity rises after some time due to
the entry of water into the sugar solution through the selectively permeable
membrane of the cells of the potato.
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RESULT:
The movement of water from the Petri dish to the potato cavity occurs
because of the difference in the concentration of solvent molecules in the
two regions: sugar solution in the potato cavity and pure water in the Petri
dish.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The cavity should be deep enough to keep only a thin layer of tissues
at the base of the potato.
2. The sugar solution should be of sufficiently high osmotic
concentration as compared to the cell sap of potato cells.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM :
Study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels (e.g. Rhoeo or fleshy scale leaves of
onion bulb).
PRINCIPLE:
Living cells are generally turgid due to the presence of water. When cells are
immersed in hypertonic solution, shrinkage of protoplasm takes place with
visible separation of plasma membrane from the cell walls. This is called
plasmolysis and occurs due to exosmosis, a phenomenon in which water
from the cells moves into the surrounding medium which is hypertonic, that
is more concentrated than the cell sap.
REQUIREMENT :
Leaves of Rhoeo, 0.1% sodium chloride solution, 5% sodium chloride
solution, slide, cover slip, needle, forceps, droppers, petri dish /watch glass,
microscope.
PROCEDURE:
1. Two glass slides are taken and placed on the table.
2. A rhoeo leaf is taken from the Petri dish.
3. The leaf is folded and is torn along the lower side of the leaf.
4. Using forceps, two small segments of thin transparent layer are pulled
out from the lower epidermis of the rhoeo leaf.
5. The epidermal peels are placed on both glass slides.
6. Using a dropper, some sodium chloride 0.1% solution is taken from
the beaker.
7. 1 to 2 drops of solution are put on one slide.
8. Using another dropper, sodium chloride 5% solution is taken from the
beaker.
9. 1 to 2 drops of solution are put on the next slide.
10. A cover slip is placed over the peel of both slides using a needle.
11. The slides are placed one by one under the compound microscope.
12. These are observed under the microscope.
OBSERVATIONS:
After half an hour we can observe that cells in sodium chloride 0.1%
solution appear turgid, while cells in the sodium chloride 5 % solution show
plasmolysis.
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RESULT:
When plant cells are immersed in sodium chloride 5 % solution or
concentrated salt solution, water moves through the cell membrane into the
surrounding medium because the water concentration inside the cell is
greater than that which is outside the cell. Ultimately the protoplasm causes
shrinkage and assumes spherical shape. This is called plasmolysis. When a
plant cell is immersed in sodium chloride 0.1% solution or dilute salt
solution, the water moves into the cell because of the higher concentration
of water outside the cell than inside the cell. The cell then swells and
becomes turgid.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Take the epidermal peel from the lower surface of the rhoeo leaf.
2. Do not let the peel dry out.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM :
Study of distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of leaves.
PRINCIPLE:
Stomata are tiny microscopic structures present in leaves of all flowering
plants. Number and distribution of stomata per unit area is variable in the
leaves of different plants.
A typical stoma consists of a pair of guard cells enclosing an aperture in the
centre called the stomatal aperture. Stomata perform two important
functions; that of, transpiration and exchange of gases.
REQUIREMENT :
Leaf samples - (Hibiscus / Balsam / Bougainvillea/ Petunia /Cassia /
Solanum / any broad-leaved dicots and grass) microscope glass slides, cover
slips, water, needle, brush, and petri dishes/watch glasses.
PROCEDURE:
1. Fresh leaves are plucked from two different dicot and one monocot
plant.
2. Six watch glasses are taken and some distilled water is poured into all
watch glasses.
3. The leaves are split obliquely.
4. The peels are taken from the upper surface of the leaf using the
forceps.
5. The peels are placed into the watch glasses containing water.
6. Peels are also taken from the lower surface of the leaf using the
forceps.
7. These peels are placed into the other watch glasses containing water.
8. Using a dropper, few drops of Safranin solution are taken and put into
these watch glasses.
9. These leaf peels are placed on the clean glass slides one by one, using
a brush.
10. Some glycerine is taken using a dropper and put one drop of
glycerine on these slides.
11. Cover slips are taken and placed gently on the peel one by one
with the help of a needle.
12. Glass slides are observed under compound microscopes.
13. The number of stomata in the peels of both upper and lower
epidermis of the leaf is counted appearing in the microscopic field.
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OBSERVATIONS:
Type of leaf Name of the No. of stomata in the Shape of

plant microscopic field guard cell
Upper Lower
epidermis epidermis
Dicot leaf Sample A
Sample B
Monocot leaf Sample C
RESULT:
The number of stomata is greater in the lower epidermis, and fewer are
present in the upper epidermis of the leaf taken.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. The curling of the peel should be avoided.
2. Always use a brush to transfer the peel from watch glass to the slide.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM :
Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and lower
surfaces of leaves.
PRINCIPLE:
Transpiration is loss of water in the form of vapour from the leaves and
other aerial parts of the stem. About 85% of transpiration takes place
through the stomata. Some amount of water is also lost through cuticular
transpiration. Rate of transpiration depends upon several factors like light,
temperature, wind, humidity and also on the size, type, number and
distribution of stomata on the leaves.
In the majority of plants, especially in dorsiventral leaves, the number of
stomata is more on the lower epidermis than the upper epidermis.
Transpiration can be easily demonstrated by cobalt chloride paper test.
Cobalt chloride is blue coloured in anhydrous (dry) form but turns pink
when it comes in contact with water. This property of cobalt chloride is used
to demonstrate that water is lost during transpiration. We can use the time
taken for the change of colour from blue to pink to measure the rate of
transpiration as affected by various external factors mentioned above.
REQUIREMENT :
A herbaceous broad leaved plant, filter paper, 5% cobalt chloride solution,
wire gauze, cello tape, binder clips, slides, rubber bands.
PROCEDURE:
1. 5 % cobalt chloride solution is taken from the beaker and poured into
the Petri dish.
2. Some filter paper strips are taken and dipped in the cobalt chloride
solution.
3. The strips are kept in the solution for 3-5 minutes. They become pink
in colour when wet.
4. The strips are removed from the solution using forceps.
5. The strips are placed on the wire gauze to allow them to dry.
6. The filter paper becomes blue in colour on drying.
7. Select one healthy leaf is selected and cleaned to remove the water
droplets using a filter paper.
8. Dry pieces of cobalt chloride paper are taken from the wire gauze.
9. The dried strips of cobalt chloride paper are placed: one on the upper
and the other on the lower surface of a leaf of the potted plant.
10. Two glass slides are taken and placed one over the upper and
the other over the lower side of the leaf.
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11. The slides are clipped together using binder clips.
12. The time taken by the cobalt chloride paper to change its blue
colour to pink is noted.
OBSERVATIONS:
The colour of cobalt chloride paper attached to both surfaces of the leaf is
observed at regular intervals and observations are noted in the table drawn.
Note: (√) mark for change in colour and (X) mark if there is no change in
colour.
Time taken for change of the colour from blue to pink (in
minutes)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Upper
epidermis
Lower
epidermis
The time taken to change the colour of the cobalt chloride paper from blue
to pink on the lower leaf surface is less than the upper surface.
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RESULT:
The quick change in the colour of cobalt chloride paper on the lower
surfaces indicates a higher rate of loss of water vapour from this surface
than the upper one.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Always use a well-watered potted plant for the experiment.
2. Always handle the dried cobalt paper with dry hands or forceps.
3. The leaf surface should not be wet while applying the cobalt chloride
strips.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM :
Test for the presence of sugar, starch, proteins and fats in suitable plant
and animal materials.
PRINCIPLE:
The food we eat is one of the necessary factors in our daily life that provides
nutritional support for the human body. Food consists of both organic and
inorganic substances. Carbohydrates, fats and proteins are the main
organic substances present in the food, which provide energy.
Carbohydrates :
One of the main components of our daily diet is carbohydrates. This type of
food includes sugars, starch and fibres. They are composed of sugar
molecules that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbohydrates are
classified into simple carbohydrates and complex carbohydrates.
Simple carbohydrates are composed of one or two sugar units. They act as
the quickest source of energy.
There are two types of simple carbohydrates: Monosaccharides and
Disaccharides.
Monosaccharides are the simplest carbohydrates, consisting of only one
sugar unit. Glucose, fructose and galactose are examples of
monosaccharides.
Disaccharides are composed of two chemically-linked monosaccharide units.
Sucrose, lactose and maltose are examples of disaccharides.
Complex carbohydrates are composed of long chains of simple carbohydrate
units. Complex carbohydrates can be classified as Oligosaccharides and
Polysaccharides.
Oligosaccharides consist of less than 10 monosaccharide units. Raffinose
and stachyose are examples of oligosaccharides.
Carbohydrates, made up of a large number of monosaccharide units, are
called polysaccharides. Starch, glycogen and cellulose are examples of
polysaccharides. Starch gives a blue-black complex with iodine.
Proteins:
Proteins are large biological molecules made up of a large number of amino
acid units. Amino acids are molecules consisting of both the amino (-NH2)
group and carboxyl group (-COOH). In proteins, the amino acid units are
linked together by specific linkages called peptide linkages. Most proteins
are soluble in acidic or alkaline solutions, but insoluble in water.
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Fats:
Fats are complex molecules made up of fatty acids and glycerol. Our body
needs fats for growth and energy. Fats contain carbon, hydrogen and
sometimes oxygen. Phosphorus, nitrogen and sulphur are also present in
some fats. They are insoluble in water, but soluble in non-polar s like
chloroform and benzene. They are found stored in many oil seeds and some
animal tissues.
Test for Sucrose

Benedict’s test
Requirements:
Benedict’s Reagent, Sugar cane extract, Concentrated HCl, NaOH solution,
Burner, Dropper, Test-tube, Test tube holder.
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test-tube is taken and sugar cane extract is added into
it.
2. A few drops of concentrated HCl is added to the test tube using a dropper.
3. The test tube is held securely with the help of a test tube holder.
4. The test tube is placed near the Bunsen burner and the solution is
allowed to boil for two minutes.
5. While boiling, the hydrolysis of sucrose occurs and the fructose converts
to glucose.
6. A few drops of NaOH solution is added to the test tube so as the solution
turns alkaline.
7. A few drops of Benedict’s reagent is added with the help of a dropper into
the test tube.
8. The test tube is placed near the Bunsen burner and the solution is
allowed to boil for a few minutes.
9. The changes are observed.
Observation:
The colour of the solution varies from blue to green. From green colour, it
finally changes to brick red or orange colour. This indicates that the solution
contains glucose.
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Test for Starch
Requirements:
Potato extract, Iodine solution, Test tube, Dropper.
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test-tube is taken and potato extract is added into it.
2. Five to six drops of iodine solution are added with the help of a dropper
into the test tube.
3. The test tube is kept undisturbed and the mixture is allowed to stand for
a few seconds.
Observation:
The presence of starch in the potato extract is indicated when the colour
changes to a blue-black colour.
Test for Proteins

Biuret Test
Requirements:
1% CuSO4, 40% NaOH solution, Dropper, Egg Albumin, Test tube, Test tube
holder
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test-tube is taken and egg albumin is added into it.
2. A few drops of 40% NaOH solution is added with the help of a dropper
into the test tube containing the egg albumin.
3. 2 to 3 drops of 1% CuSO4 solution are added into the same test tube
contained in the egg albumin.
4. Then the test tube is shaked slowly in order to mix the solution present in
it completely.
5. The test tube is kept undisturbed and the mixture is allowed to stand for
5 minutes. After a few minutes, the changes are observed
Observation:
The solution in the test tube appears to be violet in colour. This indicates
that the sample that is tested contains proteins.
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Xanthoproteic Test
Requirements:
Ammonia solution, Concentrated HNO3, Dropper, Test tube, Egg albumin,
Test tube holder
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test-tube is taken and egg albumin is added into it.
2. Five drops of concentrated HNO3 are added with the help of a dropper
into the test tube containing the egg albumin.
3. Holding the test tube securely with a test tube holder, the sample is
brought to a boil over a burner.
4. As the solution starts to boil, a yellow precipitate is formed.
5. Then, a few drops of ammonia solution are added into the test tube
slowly.
6. The test-tube stirred continuously in order to mix the solution completely.
After a few minutes, the changes are observed.
Observation:
The sample contained in the test tube, which appeared to have yellow
precipitate, changes its colour to orange. This indicates that the sample
contains proteins.
Test for Fats
Sudan III Test
Requirements:
Sudan III Solution, Oil, Test tube, Dropper
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test-tube is taken and a few drops of oil are added into
it.
2. Then, into the same test tube, five to six drops of the Sudan III reagent
are added with the help of a dropper.
3. The test tube is stirred continuously and the solution is allowed to stand
for a while.
4. After a few seconds, the changes are observed.
Observation:
The presence of fat in the sample is indicated when pink colour droplets
appear on the test tube.
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Paper Spot Test
Requirements:
A piece of white paper, Peanut seeds, Watch glass
Procedure:
1. On the piece of white paper, the fresh peanut seeds are placed.
2. The peanut seeds are crushed and rubbed on the white paper.
3. The remaining peanut seeds are removed from the paper .
4. The changes are observed on the piece of white paper.
Observation:
The spot where the peanut seeds are rubbed turns translucent. This
indicates the presence of fats in the sample.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM :
Separation of plant pigments through paper chromatography.
PRINCIPLE:
The chloroplasts contain photosynthetic pigments - Chlorophyll a,
Chlorophyll b, Carotenes and Xanthophylls. Pigments absorb solar radiation
at different wavelengths of the visible spectrum for photosynthesis. These
pigments differ in their chemistry, and hence in their physicochemical
properties, such as molecular weight, solubility in the solvent etc.
Paper chromatography is a popular technique widely used for separating
various chlorophyll pigments from a mixture. In chromatography, pigments
move to different distances, depending on their solubility in the solvent
system, on a fine quality cellulose paper (Whatman No.1 chromatography
paper). Movement of pigments on the chromatography paper is governed by
the principle of adsorption and capillary action. The solvent system
components vary in density and thus move at different rates due to wick
action through the chromatography paper. Lighter components move faster
than the heavier components. Differential solubility of pigments in the
solvent system and the differential rates of mobility of solvent system
components is used for separation of pigments.
REQUIREMENT :
Chromatography chamber, Spinach leaves, Mortar and pestle, Scissors,
Ether acetone solvent, Acetone, Capillary tube, Pencil, Spatula, Scale, Filter
paper strips, Stapler, Thread, Watch glass
PROCEDURE:
1. A few freshly plucked green spinach leaves are taken.
2. Using scissors, the spinach leaves are cut into small pieces and
poured into the mortar.
3. A measuring cylinder is taken that contains 5 ml of acetone and
poured into the mortar.
4. The spinach leaves are grinded using the mortar and pestle.
5. The extract is placed into a watch glass using a spatula.
6. A strip of filter paper is taken having a narrow notch at one end of the
strip.
7. A horizontal line is drawn with a pencil about 2-3 cm away from the
tip of the notch.
8. A drop of the pigment extract is put in the middle of the line with the
help of a capillary tube.
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9. The drop is allowed to dry and repeated till four or five drops are
placed on the paper.
10. A gas jar is taken and ether acetone solvent is poured in it.
11. One end of the filter paper strip is folded and stapled.
12. Using a thread, the filter paper strip is hung in the gas jar.
13. The loading spot should remain about 1 cm above the solvent
level.
14. The gas jar is left undisturbed for some time.
15. The solvent is moved through the paper, it spreads the different
pigments of the mixture to various distances.
16. When the solvent is reached about 3/4th up the strip, the strip
is carefully removed and dried.
OBSERVATIONS:
The dried chromatographic paper strip shows four distinct paper bands.
Different pigments can be identified by their colours.
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RESULT:
The topmost orange yellow band of pigments in the separation corresponds
to carotene.
The yellowish band appearing below it indicates the xanthophylls.
The third from above dark green band represents chlorophyll a.
The lowermost yellowish green band is that of chlorophyll b.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Spinach leaves should be fresh and green.
2. The loading spot should be 2-3 cm away from the tip of the notch.
3. While hanging the strips in the gas jar, the loading spot should
remain about 1 cm above the solvent level.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM :
Study of the rate of respiration in flower buds/leaf tissue and germinating
seeds.
PRINCIPLE:
Respiration is a vital process in living organisms and generates energy
through breakdown of food materials in presence/absence of O2. The
released energy is used for all life processes. Rate of respiration depends on
internal and external factors (age, physiological status and type of cell,
temperature, and availability of oxygen).
REQUIREMENT :
Test tube, distilled water, Germinating seeds, flower buds, a cork with a
hole, measuring cylinder, conical flask, petroleum jelly, thread, KOH
solution, glass delivery tube with two bends at right angles.
PROCEDURE:
1. Using a spatula, about 30 germinating bean seeds are placed in a
conical flask.
2. 4 ml of potassium hydroxide solution is poured into a small test tube.
3. A cotton thread is tied around the neck of the test tube.
4. The test tube is suspended in the conical flask above the germinating
seeds.
5. The mouth of the conical flask is closed with a cork.
6. One end of a delivery tube is inserted into the conical flask through
the cork and the other is dipped in a beaker containing water.
7. The position of the water level is observed in the delivery tube. That is
the initial reading of the water level in the delivery tube.
8. The petroleum jelly is applied on the cork to make the apparatus air
tight.
9. The apparatus is kept undisturbed for two hours.
10. The same procedure is repeated for the flower buds.
OBSERVATIONS:
After two hours, the level of water has risen in the delivery tube at the end
dipped in the beaker of water. This level is noted as the final level.
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RESULT:
The rise in water level at the end of the delivery tube dipped in the beaker
proves that germinating seeds release carbon dioxide during respiration. In
the case of flower buds, the rise in water level is relatively lesser.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Ensure all connections are airtight.
2. Use a freshly prepared concentrated solution of potassium hydroxide.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 10
AIM :
Test for presence of urea in urine.
PRINCIPLE:
Urea is mainly excreted into urine via kidneys. The nitrogen of amino acids
is removed as urea. Normally a healthy adult person excretes about 15 g of
nitrogen per day; 95% of this nitrogen is excreted as urinary urea. The
amino groups of amino acids are ultimately removed as ammonia (NH3). This
NH3, is highly toxic, and is ultimately converted into urea. Normally urine is
acidic. If the urine is kept exposed to the atmosphere, it splits and ammonia
gets released and thus the stored urine becomes alkaline.
At optimum pH and temperature urease enzymes decompose urea into
ammonia and carbon dioxide which form ammonium carbonate (an alkaline
substance) which changes the slightly acidic solution to an alkaline
solution. When phenol red is used as an indicator in this reaction mixture,
the colour of solution changes from yellow to pink.
Urease Test
Requirements:
Spatula, Dropper, Urine sample, 1% acetic acid, 2% of Na2CO3, Urease
powder, Measuring cylinder, Phenol red indicator.
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test tube is taken.
2. With the help of a measuring cylinder, 5 ml urine sample is measured
and added into the test tube.
3. 4 to 5 drops of the phenol red indicator is added to the sample test tube
using a dropper.
4.Drops of 2% of Na2CO3 solution is added with the help of another dropper
dropwise until the pink colour starts developing in the test tube.
5. Then a few drops of 1% acetic acid is added dropwise until the pink
colour disappears.
6. Little urease powder is added into the urine sample test tube with the
help of a spatula.
7. Then the test tube is shaked slowly until the urease powder gets mixed.
8. The changes are observed
Observation and Conclusion:

The existence of urea in the given sample of urine is indicated when a red or
pink colour appears in the solution.
27
Sodium Hypobromite Test
Requirements:
Dropper, Test tube, Urine sample, Measuring cylinder, Sodium hypobromite
solution.
Procedure:
1. A clean and dried test tube is taken.
2. 2 ml urine samples are added into the test tube with the help of a
measuring cylinder.
3. To the same test-tube ,2 to 3 drops of sodium hypobromite solution is
added using a dropper.
4. The solution is mixed well.

The presence of urea in the given urine sample is indicated by the presence
of brisk effervescence of nitrogen around the test tube.
************
28
EXPERIMENT NO. 11
AIM :
Test for presence of sugar in urine.
PRINCIPLE:
In normal urine, practically there is no glucose. Presence of glucose in urine
is called glucosuria. To detect reducing sugars, such as glucose, fructose
etc. in urine Benedict's or Fehling's tests are done.
CuSO4 present in Benedict's solution or Fehling's solution is reduced on
boiling by the reducing substances (glucose, fructose etc.) to form the
coloured precipitate of cuprous oxide. The light green, green, yellow and
brick red precipitates of cuprous oxides depend on the concentration of
reducing substances present in urine.
Glucose reduces the blue cupric sulphate of Benedict's reagent or Fehling's
reagent to a coloured insoluble precipitate.
Benedict’s test
Materials required:
Test tube, test tube holder, urine sample, measuring cylinders, Benedict’s
solution and burner.
Procedure:
1. 2 ml urine sample is taken in a test tube.
2. 5 ml Benedict’s reagent is added to the test tube that contains urine
sample.
3. Using a test tube holder, the test tube is held firmly and heated for 2
minutes on the burner.
4. The test tube is kept shaking while heating.

A yellow precipitate appears which indicates the presence of sugar in urine.
Depending upon the concentration of sugar in the urine, either green,
yellow, or brick red precipitates are formed.
29
Fehling's test
Materials required :
Test tube, test tube holder, urine sample, measuring cylinders, Fehling’s
solution A, Fehling’s solution B and burner.
Procedure :
1. 2 ml urine sample is taken in a test tube.
2. 2 ml Fehling’s solution A is added to the test tube that contains a
urine sample.
3. 2 ml Fehling’s solution B is added to the test tube that contains urine
sample and Fehling’s solution A.
4. Using a test tube holder, the test tube is held firmly and heated gently
for 2 minutes on the burner.
5. The test tube is shaken while heating.

A green precipitate appears which indicates the presence of traces of sugar
in urine.
Depending upon the concentration of sugar in the urine, either green, yellow
or brick red precipitates are formed.
************
30
EXPERIMENT NO. 12
AIM :
Test for presence of albumin in urine.
PRINCIPLE:
Nitric acid causes the precipitation of albumin. When heated or treated with
sulphosalicylic acid, albumin undergoes coagulation.
REQUIREMENT :
Glass wares: Test tubes, graduated pipette (5 mL capacity), spirit lamp;
Chemicals: Concentrated nitric acid, acetic acid
Miscellaneous: test tube stand, test tube holder.
PROCEDURE:
(a) Nitric acid ring test
1. 5 ml concentrated nitric acid is taken accurately in a test tube
2. Some drops of the urine sample are added along the inner side of the test
tube with the help of a dropper and by inclining the tube.
4. The above step is performed so as to form a covering on the nitric acid 5.
The changes taking place in the test tube are noticed.

The changes taking place in the test tube are observed. At the intersection of
the two layers, a white ring appears which indicates that albumin is present
in the given sample of urine.
(b) Heat coagulation test

1. 6 to8 mL of urine is taken in a test tube.
2. The test tube is inclined at an angle and the upper one-third of the
test tube is heated by a low flame.
3. Turbidity is developed in the heated portion of the urine.
4. 1% acetic acid is added drop by drop and boiled.

If the turbidity persists it confirms the presence of albumin in the urine
sample (disappearance of turbidity, confirms the presence of phosphates).
************
31
EXPERIMENT NO. 13
AIM :
Test for presence of bile salts in urine.
PRINCIPLE:
Old and damaged RBCs are removed from the circulation mostly in the
spleen and to some extent in the liver by macrophages. Haemoglobin of the
RBCs is broken down in the cytoplasm of macrophages. When iron is
removed from the heme component of haemoglobin, the iron-free portion of
heme is converted to biliverdin, a green pigment, and then into bilirubin, a
yellow orange pigment. Bilirubin enters the blood and is transported to the
liver from the spleen. In the liver, bilirubin is secreted by liver cells into bile,
which passes into the small intestine and then into the large intestine.
Bilirubin is detected in urine in certain pathological conditions only.
REQUIREMENT :
Test tubes, measuring cylinders (10 ml), funnel, dropping pipette or drop
bottle, Lugol's iodine solution, concentrated nitric acid, test tube holder, test
tube stand.
PROCEDURE:
(a) Lugol's Iodine Test
1. 4 ml of urine sample is poured into a test tube.
2. 4 drops of lugol's iodine solution is added to this tube.
3. The tube is shaked well and observed.

A faint yellow to brown colour indicates absence of bile pigments while light
to dark green colour indicates the presence of bile pigments.
(b) Gmelins Test

1. Take 5 ml of concentrated nitric acid in a test tube.
2. Add an equal volume of the given urine sample to it slowly along the
sides of the test tube.

Formation of a green, blue, yellow or red ring at the junction of the two
solutions indicates the presence of bile pigments.
*******
32
SECTION B : SPOTTING
SPOT NO.1
Aim:
To study parts of a compound microscope.
Principle:
Magnified and real images of minute objects are obtained using a
combination of lenses. A compound microscope is a complex assemblage of
such lenses enabling highly magnified images of the microscopic living
organisms and intricate details of cells and tissues. A monocular mono-
objective compound microscope is normally used in a biology laboratory.
Requirement:
A compound microscope, silk cloth, lens cleaning fluid and lens cleaning
paper.
Observation:
(i) The microscope has a strong basal foot and a vertical arm joined by an
inclination joint. The arm can be tilted to different angles for its convenient
usage.
(ii) The stage of the microscope is round/rectangular/square shaped and is
fixed to the arm. In the centre of the stage is a small circular hole covered
with glass for passage of light.
(iii) The stage is provided with two clips or mechanical devices to fix and
hold the slide firmly in position. The material to be observed is brought into
view by moving the slide and then fixed with the help of clips at desired
position.
(iv) A movable (rack and pinion mechanism) or a fixed substage is provided
with an iris diaphragm and condenser. The condenser is a system of two or
more lenses to receive parallel light rays and to converge these on to the
object through the iris and the hole present in the stage. The diaphragm
helps in regulating the aperture size and thereby controls the amount of
light that passes through the slide. The needle/ pin is used to increase or
decrease the aperture size. Some microscopes do not have the condenser.
(v) An adjustable mirror is fitted below the condenser. It has Plano-concave
surfaces to focus the converging rays of light on the object through iris
diaphragm and condenser in order to obtain a brightly illuminated image of
the object.
(vi) The body of the microscope consists of a movable tubular body tube
raised on rack and pinion mechanism. The tube has an ocular or eye piece
33
of specific magnification (which can be changed for lower or higher
magnification, i.e., 5X, 10X or 15X. Eye piece with pointer are also available.
Two objective lenses 10X, 40X or 45X are mounted on a revolving nose piece
at the lower end.
Some microscopes may also have a third objective lens (100X) called oil
immersion lens.
The tube with eye and objective lenses can be moved up or down to focus
the object sharply with the help of coarse adjustment knob and fine
adjustment knob.
The object is first viewed under lower magnification using the coarse
adjustment and then under higher magnification by rotating the revolving
nose piece on which the objective lenses are mounted. While viewing at
higher magnification, only the fine adjustment knob is used for fine focus
tuning.
34
SPOT NO.2
Aim: Specimens/slides/models and identification with reasons
(a) Bacteria
(i) Bacteria ( sing.: bacterium ) are unicellular .

(ii) Cell wall is present.
(iii) Absence of membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, nucleus, golgi
bodies, plastids, etc.
(iv) Mesosomes are present.
(v) Bacteria exist in different shapes like globular (coccus), rod-shaped
(bacillus), spiral (spirillum) and comma-shaped (vibrio).
Systematic position :
Kingdom – Monera
Class – Eubacteria
35
(b) Oscillatoria
(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.

(ii) Thallus is filamentous, unbranched, multicellular.
(iii) The cells are arranged one above the other like a pack of cards.
(iv) Each cell has a definite cell wall.
(v) Some cells of the filament may be dead and appear as blank spaces in
the filament.
(vi) Fresh specimens of the filaments show oscillatory movements and hence
the name Oscillatoria.
Kingdom – Monera
Division – Cyanobacteria
Class – Cyanophyceae
36
(c) Spirogyra
(i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured alga commonly found in stagnant fresh

water bodies.
(ii) It is unbranched, filamentous and slimy to touch.
(iii) The filament is composed of a large number of long, cylindrical cells
placed one above the other in a single row.
(iv) The cells are characterised by long spiral ribbon-shaped chloroplasts
with several pyrenoids (Fig. 2.3).
(v) There is a single large vacuole in each cell.
(vi) Conjugation tubes formed between the cells of two different filaments
may also be found when in reproductive phase.
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Thallophyta
Class – Chlorophyceae
37
(d) Rhizopus
(i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.

(ii) Hyphae are tubular, multinucleate and without any septa
(coenocytic) (Fig.2.4).
(iii) Some hyphae are horizontal and grow parallel on the surface of the
substratum. These are called stoloniferous hyphae. Some hyphae grow down
into the substratum, and are called rhizoidal hyphae. Erect vertically
growing hyphae are called sporangiophores.
(iv) Sporangiophore bears the capsule or sporangium, which is globular in
outline.
(v) A dome-shaped columella is found inside the cavity of sporangium.
(vi) Numerous black spores fill the cavity between columella and the
sporangial wall.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Division – Eumycota
Class – Zygomycetes
38
(e) Mushroom
(i) Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body or basidiocarp of Agaricus.

(ii) The fungus is a saprophyte that grows in soil with decomposed organic
matter.
(iii) The thallus consists of an underground, highly interwoven mass of thick
colourless hyphae.
iv) A young fruiting body is a white, spherical, button-like structure. A
mature fruiting body can be distinguished into two parts (Fig. 2.5).
(a) An erect stalk or stipe composed of mass of vertically arranged hyphae,
and
(b) An umbrella like pileus attached ventrally at the centre to the stalk.
At the base of the stipe is collar like ring known as annulus, which is a
remnant of the covering of young basidiocarp.
(v) There are radiating plate-like structures called gills on the under surface
of pileus, which radiate from the centre to the periphery. The gills bear
basidia and basidiospores.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Class – Basidiomycetes
39
(f) Yeast
(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless.

(ii) Cells form chains of buds that help in propagation.
(iii) Each cell has one vacuole.
(iv) Single nucleus is present in each cell.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Fungi
Class – Saccharomycetes
40
(g) Liverwort
(i) Marchantia thallus is dorsoventrally flat, thalloid structure that grows flat
on the surface of the soil substratum (Fig. 2.8).
(ii) Thallus is dichotomously lobed, with an apical notch in each lobe.
(iii) There is a dark median furrow called mid-rib on the dorsal side that
extends into each lobe.
(iv) Small cup-like structures called gemma cups are borne on the dorsal
surface of the thallus. They contain the vegetative propagules called
gemmae.
(v) Ventral side of the thallus bears colourless, unicellular rhizoids which
are of two types- (a) smooth walled, and (b) tuberculate rhizoids. The
rhizoids help in anchorage and absorption of water through their capillary
action.
(vi) Reproductive organs are borne on antheridiophores and
archegoniophores that arise from the apical notches of male and female
thalli respectively.
(vii) The antheridiophore has a flattened, more or less convex head or
receptacle which bears antheridia.
(ix) The archegoniophores are umbrella shaped structures, with outwardly
projected ribs. Between the ribs are the archegonia.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Hepaticopsida
41
(h) Moss
(i) The thallus of Funaria consists of small upright, 'stem' that bears, small,
ovate and leaf-like structures which are without midrib (Fig. 2.9).
(ii) The leaves are green and are spirally arranged on the stem-like portion.
(iii) The thallus is attached to the substratum by a cluster of rhizoids.
(iv) Rhizoids are long, colourless, septate and intertwined.
(v) Reproductive organs are borne on separate branches of the same thallus.
(vi) The flattened apex of the male branch bears the antheridia which are
club shaped, while the flattened receptacle of the female branch bears
archegonia which are flask shaped.
(vii) A mature Funaria plant bears (on female branches) the sporophyte
which consists of a prominent conical capsule raised on a long stalk known
as seta and a foot which is embedded into the tissues of the gametophyte.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Bryophyta
Class – Musci/Bryopsida
42
(i) Fern
(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely growing, subterranean

rhizome (Fig. 2.10).
(ii) Rhizome is short, thick and is covered with scale leaves, remnants of leaf
bases and clusters of adventitious roots.
(iii) The aerial shoot consists of several large compound leaves called fronds.
(iv) Each compound leaf arises from a bud. The young leaf has circinate
venation.
(v) Leaves are long, up to 1.0-1.5m length, compound with leaflets arranged
on either side of mid-rib called rachis. Rachis is the extended part of the
petiole.
(vi) Petiole is long, cylindrical and covered with hairs when young.
(vii) Leaflets or pinnules have wavy margins, and are sub sessile.
(viii) Large numbers of greenish (when young) or black (when mature) sac-
like structures are borne on the ventral side of the pinnule at the point of
bifurcation of each vein. These are called sori (single: sorus).
(ix) Each sorus contains a cluster of sporangia bearing spores.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Pteridophyta
Class – Filicopsida
43
(j) Pine
(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree (Fig.2.11).

(ii) Stem is hard, woody, cylindrical, rough and branched.
(iii) Branches are of two types- (a) branches of unlimited growth, and
(b) branches of limited growth.
(iv) Both types of branches bear a large number of brown, membranous
scaly leaves.
(v) Branches of limited growth are borne in the axil of scale leaves. They are
2-3 cm long and bear a cluster of long, needle-like leaves.
(vi) The needle-like green leaves are called acicular leaves.
(vii) The dwarf branch with its needles is known as spur shoot.
(viii) Reproductive organs are borne in male and female cones in the same
plant.
(ix) Male cones are borne in large clusters (8-40). They are small, green,
conical and composed of central axis surrounded by large number of
green and small microsporophylls which are compactly arranged.
(x) Microsporophylls bear two elongated saclike structures at the base on the
ventral side. These are called pollen sacs. Pollen grains are winged.
(xi) Female cones are large, 10-30 cm in length consisting of
megasporophylls. Megasporophylls are compact when young but spread
apart when mature. Each megasporophyll has
(a) bract scale and (b) ovuliferous scale which bears 2 ovules on the ventral
side.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Gymnosperm
Class – Coniferopsida
44
(k) Monocotyledonous plant
(i) Plant body differentiated into roots, stems, and leaves (Fig. 2.13).
(ii) Fibrous root system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound with parallel venation.
(iv) Flower trimerous.
(v) Ovules situated inside the carpels.
(vi) Seed has one cotyledon
Example: maize, wheat, sugarcane, paddy
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Monocotyledonae
45
(l) Dicotyledonous plant
(i) Plant body is differentiated into roots, stems and leaves (Fig. 2.12).
(ii) Taproot system.
(iii) Leaves simple or compound, with reticulate venation.
(iv) Flowers tetramerous or pentamerous, either solitary or in clusters
forming inflorescence.
(v) Reproductive organs are stamens and carpels. Within the carpels, ovules
are present.
(vi) Seeds have two cotyledons.
Example: Hibiscus, pea, gram, lady's finger, ground nut.
Systematic position
Kingdom – Plantae
Division – Angiosperm
Class – Dicotyledonae
46
(m) Lichen
i) The body of lichen is a thallus, which is grey or greyish in colour. Yellow,

red, orange or brown segments may be present in some species
ii) There are different forms of thallus. Three main categories of thalli are
recognised on the basis of their general growth, form and nature of
attachment to the substratum. These are as follows:
(a) Crustose
• These are encrusting lichens with thin, flat, inconspicuous thallus without
lobes.
• The thallus appears as a thin layer or crust, closely attached by its whole
of the lower surface to stones, rocks, barks of wood trees, etc.
(b) Foliose
• Foliose lichens are leafy lichens with flat lobed and horizontally spreading
thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by rhizoid-like structures.
(c) Fruticose
• These are shrubby lichens with cylindrical, flat or ribbon-like upright,
generally branched and pendulous thalli.
• These are attached to the substratum by disc-like structures at their
bases.
47
SPOT NO.3
Aim: Virtual Specimens/slides/models and identification.
(A) Amoeba
The features are as follows:

(i) The whole body is made up of a single cell (acellular organisation).
(ii) Body shape is irregular with many blunt pseudopodia (Fig. 3.1).
(iii) A deeply stained nucleus of almost round shape is present.
(iv) A contractile vacuole and several food vacuoles are present in the
cytoplasm.
Systematic position
Phylum – Protozoa
Class – Sarcodina
(B) Hydra
The external features are as follows:

(i) Body, called polyp, is elongated and cylindrical (Fig. 3.2).
48
(ii) Long, slender and contractile tentacles (6-10) are present that encircle
hypostome with an opening at the tip. This end is called oral end.
(iii) The opposite (aboral) end of the body is flat, which helps the animal to
attach itself to the substratum. This is called basal disc.
(iv) Bud-like structures branch out from the polyp, which ultimately
separate as young hydra (vegetative propagation).
(v) Sometimes, gonads may be seen as small bulges on the body.
Systematic position
Phylum – Cnidaria
Class – Hydrozoa
(C) Liver Fluke

(i) A leaf-like dorso-ventrally flattened body (Fig. 3.3), about 20-30 mm in
length, and 4 to 12 mm in width in the middle.
(ii) Anterior part of the body is broader with a conical end.
(iii) Mouth is present at the tip of the cone, and is surrounded by a
muscular oral sucker.
(iv) On the ventral surface of the body there is a muscular ventral sucker
situated 3-5 mm behind (posterior) the oral sucker, and it is called
acetabulum.
(v) Slightly anterior to the acetabulum on the ventral surface, there is an
opening called genital aperture or gonopore.
(vi) At the tip of the posterior end, an opening called excretory pore is
present.
(vii) Liver fluke is bisexual.
Systematic position
Phylum – Platyhelminthes
Class – Trematoda
49
(D) Ascaris

(i) Body long (20 to 40 cm), cylindrical (5 to 6 mm diameter) with no
segmentation (Fig. 3.4).
(ii) Sexes are separate; the females are longer than the males.
(iii) Both the ends are pointed; the posterior end of male is ventrally curved.
(iv) Mouth is situated at the anterior end, and is surrounded by three lips,
one present mid-dorsally and rest two lips are situated ventrolaterally (for
viewing these lips a magnifying lens is needed).
(v) Single longitudinal lines are present on the dorsal, ventral and on the two
lateral sides, all along the length of the body. Out of these, the lateral lines
are comparatively more distinct than the other lines.
(vi) Excretory pore is present on the ventral surface slightly behind the
anterior end.
(vii) In addition to the ventrally curved posterior tip, the male worm has a
pair of penial spicules very close to the cloacal opening.
(viii) In case of female specimen, a female genital aperture is present mid
ventrally at about one-third distance from the anterior end.
Systematic position
Phylum – Aschelminthes
Class – Nematoda
50
(E) Leech

(i) The body is elongated with convex dorsal surface, and flat ventral surface
(Fig. 3.6).
(ii) The dorsal surface is dark green, and the ventral surface is yellowish
brown.
(iii) Size varies from 6 to 10 cm in length. However, leeches may contract or
elongate their body much beyond the limits mentioned.
(iv) Body surface always remains moist due to secretion of mucus from the
body wall.
(v) At the anterior end on the ventral surface a cup-shaped anterior sucker
is present. Mouth is present in the centre of the anterior sucker. A ventral
sucker is also present at the posterior end of the body.
(vi) Anus is present on the dorsal side at the junction of the last metamere
and the posterior sucker.
(vii) Hundred or more very closely arranged grooves or annuli are present on
the body surface. There are 33 body segments each with five superficially
marked annuli except the few anterior and posterior ones.
(viii) Each of the five anterior metameres bears a pair of eyes on the dorsal
margin. Each eye looks like a dark spot.
(ix) There are 17 pairs of ventro-laterally arranged nephridiopores in the
metameres starting from 6th to 22nd.
(x) The male and female genital apertures are present on the ventral side in
the middle of the 10th and 11th metameres.
Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida
Class – Hirudinea
51
(F) Earthworm

(i) Body narrow and elongated about 150 mm in length and 3 to 5 mm in
diameter (Fig. 3.5). The anterior end of the body is pointed whereas the
posterior end is slightly depressed or blunt.
(ii) Entire body is divisible into more than 100 externally distinct segments
of almost equal size. These segments are called metameres.
(iii) Body surface of the living animal is slimy and moist due to the secretion
of mucus from the body wall.
(iv) Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the body can be easily distinguished, as
the dorsal surface is darker than the ventral one. Besides this, a mid-dorsal
dark line is also visible all along the length of the body due to underlying
dorsal blood vessel.
(v) Mouth is situated ventrally in the first metamere called the peristomium.
(vi) Anus is situated at the tip of the last metamere.
(vii) In the adult earthworm, the skin or body wall around the segments 14th
to 16th is comparatively thick, and it is called clitellum.
(viii) Female and male genital apertures are present ventrally in the14th and
the 18th segments respectively. The female genital aperture is situated mid-
ventrally, whereas the male genital apertures are ventro-lateral in position.
(ix) A pair of genital papillae is also present ventrolaterally in the 17th and
the 19th segment just above and below the male genital apertures.
(x) On the ventral surface, four pairs of openings of spermathecae are
situated ventrolaterally in the grooves between 5/6, 6/7, 7/8 and 8/9
segments.
Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida
Class – Oligochaeta
52
(G) Prawn

(i) Size of the animal is variable. Usually, it measures between 20 and 30 cm
in length (Fig. 3.7).
(ii) Usually orange-red in colour, however, the colour is variable.
(iii) A bit laterally compressed body is elongated, bilateral and symmetrical.
(iv) Body is apparently divided into anterior cephalothorax (fused head and
thorax) and posterior abdomen.
(v) The cephalothorax can be identified by a thick and hard shield- like
cover, called the carapace. Anteriorly the carapace is extended as a serrated
and pointed rostrum.
(vi) A pair of stalked compound eyes are present at the anterior end of
cephalothorax.
(vii) Abdomen consists of six segments each with its own set of biramous
appendage.
(viii) At the end of the last abdominal segment, a terminally pointed
structure, telson, is present.
(ix) There are 19 pairs of jointed appendages, i.e., one pair in each segment.
In the cephalothoracic region, there are 13 pairs of appendages of which
antennules, antenna, chelate legs, and nonchelate legs are the prominent
ones. The appendages of the five anterior abdominal segments are called the
pleopods or swimming legs. The appendages of the last abdominal segment
are broader and called uropod.
Systematic position
Phylum – Annelida
Class – Crustacea
53
(H) Silkworm

(i) Body colour is creamy white and measures approximately 25 mm in
length (Fig. 3.8).
(ii) Heavy and stout body is divisible into head, thorax and abdomen.
(iii) Head is comparatively small. Thorax is provided with three pairs of
jointed legs and two pairs of wings. Abdominal segments are continuous
with thoracic segments.
(iv) The entire body as well as wings are covered with microscopic scales.
(v) A pair of compound eyes and an antenna are present on the head.
(vi) In sitting posture, the wings remain outstretched (like the wings of an
aeroplane).
(vii) They are nocturnal.
Systematic position
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta
54
(I) Honey bee
Honeybee is a social insect, and three distinct morphological forms

(members) can be identified in a colony of bees. These are queen, workers,
and drones. All the three morphological forms of bees have the features of
an insect (Fig. 3.9).
Following common features are present in all the members of the colony:
(i) Body is divided into three distinct regions: head, thorax and abdomen.
(ii) Head is somewhat triangular. A pair of large compound eyes is present
dorso-laterally on it. Three small ocelli are present on the dorsal surface
between the two compound eyes. Mouthparts are present ventrally on the
head.
(iii) Thorax consists of three segments, i.e., prothorax, mesothorax and
metathorax. One pair of jointed legs is present ventrally in each of the
thoracic segment. There are two pairs of membranous wings present
dorsally in the mesothorax and the metathorax.
(iv) Abdomen: A six-segmented abdomen is present behind the metathorax.
A very narrow region in between the abdomen and thorax.
Systematic position
Phylum – Arthropoda
Class – Insecta
Order – Hymenoptera
55
(J) Snail

(i) Body of the animal remains lodged within a hard and one-piece spirally
coiled calcareous shell (Fig. 3.10).
(ii) There is a wide opening at the end of the last whorl of the shell, which
remains closed by another calcareous plate called operculum.
(iii) The body consists of four regions: head, foot, visceral mass and mantle.
(iv) It inhabits shallow freshwater (paddy fields, ponds) and moves with its
foot.
Systematic position
Phylum – Mollusca
Class – Gastropoda
(K) Starfish

(i) Starfish is an unique marine organism, which can be identified by its
star-shaped pentamerous structure (Fig. 3.11).
(ii) Body with apparent radial symmetry with diameter ranging between 15-
20 cm.
56
iii) Body has a central disc from which five tapering arms radiate.
(iv) The entire body surface bears numerous small-sized blunt
protuberances.
(v) The lower surface is called the oral surface, as mouth is situated centrally
on this side (Fig. 3.11a).
(vi) Radiating from the mouth there are five grooves, the ambulacral grooves,
which continue in the five arms on the oral side.
(vii) Special organs, called tube feet, are present in these ambulacral
grooves.
(viii) The upper surface is called aboral surface, where anus is present (Fig.
3.11b).
(ix) At the margin of the central disc on the aboral surface is a circular sieve-
like structure called madreporite situated near the junction of two arms.
Systematic position
Phylum – Echinodermata
Class – Asteroidea
(L) Shark

(i) It is a marine fish having elongated, streamlined, dorsoventrally flattened
body at anterior end and laterally compressed at posterior end (Fig. 3.12).
(ii) Body measures up to 60 cm in length.
(iii) Body is covered with minute placoid scales that can be felt when skin is
rubbed from tail to snout.
(iv) Body is divided into head, trunk and tail.
(v) A crescentic mouth is present on the ventral surface of the head behind
the tip. Mouth has several rows of sharp and backwardly pointed teeth on
both upper and lower jaws.
(vi) Tail is elongated with heterocercal caudal fin (the upper and lower halves
of unequal size).
(vii) Body bears a number of unpaired and paired fins. The unpaired fins
have two dorsal, a lobed caudal and a median ventral fin. Pectoral and pelvic
fins are in pairs.
57
(viii) Five pairs of gill slits are present laterally between mouth and pectoral
fins.
(ix) A median groove-like cloacal aperture is situated ventrally between the
two pelvic fins.
(x) Sexual dimorphism is visible as males have midventrally situated
copulatory organ.
Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Subphylum – Vertebrata
Superclass – Pisces
Class – Chondrichthyes
(M) Rohu

(i) Streamlined and laterally compressed body, which is grey or black on the
dorsal side; and silvery on the ventral surface. Size may reach up to 1m in
length (Fig. 3.13).
(ii) Body is divisible into head, trunk and a tail with homocercal (dorsal and
ventral lobes are of equal size) caudal fin.
(iii) Head is extended between the snout and the posterior end of the
operculum (i.e., gill cover). Snout is depressed and obtuse. The operculum is
free and open along the posterior and ventral margins. Mouth is a
transverse opening near the tip of the snout, which has fleshy lips.
(iv) The margin of the lower lip is fimbriated.
(v) The whole body is covered with overlapping cycloid dermal scales.
(vi) Both unpaired and paired fins are present on its body. The unpaired fins
are a dorsal fin, a caudal fin and an anal fin. Pectoral and pelvic fins are
paired.
Systematic position
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Super Class - Pisces
Class– Osteichthyes
58
(N) Frog
The following features can be observed: (Fig. 3.14)

(i) The body consists of head and trunk, neck is absent.
(ii) Highly placed external nasal opening, eyes are bulging and covered by a
nictitating membrane. The outer boundary of middle ear is covered by a
membrane, called tympanic membrane.
(iii) Skin is naked, (that is without any type of scales) and slimy (secretion of
mucous glands presents in the skin).
(iv) Mouth is terminal, having protractible bifid tongue. Upper jaw is beset
with several rows of spiny teeth, lower jaw has no teeth.
(v) Forelimbs are smaller than the hindlimbs. The forelimbs have four, and
hindlimbs have 5 clawless digits. An interdigital web-like membrane is
present in the hind-limbs, which is used for swimming.
Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Class –Amphibia
59
(O) Lizard

(i) Body is divided into head, neck, trunk and elongated tail.
(ii) Body is covered with rough epidermal scales.
(iii) Head is triangular with a cone-shaped snout having a wide mouth. A
pair of nostrils and eyes present on the head. Eyes are dorso-lateral in
position on head.
(iv) Two pairs of pentadactyl (five digits) limbs; the digits are clawed.
(v) The skin provides the animal with protective colouration in its
environment.
Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Class – Reptilia
(P) Pigeon
The external features are as follows (Fig. 3.16):

(i) Body covered with feathers.
(ii) Streamlined body divisible into head, neck and trunk.
60
(iii) A small and round head, having beak without teeth. In addition, the
head bears a pair of nostrils, large eyes and opening of the ears (covered
with feathers).
(iv) Eyes are provided with movable eyelids and nictitating membrane.
(v) Cylindrical neck is very flexible to facilitate mobility of the head.
(vi) Forelimbs are modified into two wings for flying. The hindlimbs have
four-clawed digits of which the first one is backwardly directed and the
remaining three are forwardly directed. It helps in perching and bears the
weight of the body while standing.
(vii) Cloacal aperture is situated at the posterior end of the trunk.
Systematic position
Phylum - Chordata
Subphylum - Vertebrata
Class - Aves
(Q) Rabbit

(i) A medium sized animal, about 40 cm in length when adult.
(ii) Body is covered with hair and is divisible into the head, neck, trunk and
a small tail.
(iii) Head is pear-shaped with a blunt snout. Anteriorly it bears a mouth and
a pair of external ears, the pinna. The upper lip has a median cleft through
which the incisor teeth get exposed. Few prominent and stiff hairs are
present laterally on the upper lip. These are touch- sensitive (tactile) and
called vibrissae or whiskers.
61
(iv) A short but highly flexible neck is present between the head and the
trunk.
(v) Males have a small, cylindrical and muscular penis, a pair of scrotal sacs
in which a pair of testes are lodged. Females have slit-like vulva. Females
also have four to five pairs of mammary glands, which open ventrally as
teats or nipples along the thorax and abdomen. Animals are viviparous.
(vi) Tail is short, upwardly directed and furry.
Systematic position
Phylum – Chordata
Class –Mammalia
*******
62
SPOT NO.4
Aim: Mitosis in onion root tip cells and animal cells (grasshopper) from
permanent slides.
Principle: Somatic growth of both plants and animals takes place by

increase in the number of cells. The cells divide mitotically wherein the
number of chromosomes remains unchanged in the daughter cells from that
in the maternal cells. Cells from the growing root-tips and apex of shoot
buds are suitable for mitotically dividing cells. In animals mitotically,
dividing cells can be easily scored from the bone marrow of a vertebrate.
Requirement: Permanent slides available in the laboratory, compound

microscope.
Observation:
The stages of mitosis can be broadly put into two events: karyokinesis
(division of nucleus) followed by cytokinesis (division of cytoplasm, and
ultimately of the cell). Those cells, which are not in the phases of cell
division are considered to be in interphase.
Interphase
i) The cells are mostly rectangular, oval or even circular in shape, with
almost centrally situated densely stained nuclei.
ii) The chromatic (coloured) material of the nucleus is homogeneous and
looks granular.
iii) The boundary of the nucleus is distinct.
iv) One or few nucleoli (Sing: nucleolus) can also be observed inside the
nucleus.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
(a) Prophase
i) Intact nuclear outline is seen.

ii) The chromatin (seen as a homogeneous material in the nucleus at
interphase) appears as a network of fine threads (chromosomes).
iii) Nucleoli may or may not be visible (Fig. 6.1b).
iv) If the cell under observation is in the early stage of prophase then the
chromatin fibres (chromosomes) are very thin. However, in the cells at late
prophase, comparatively thicker chromatin fibres would be visible.
v) In the late prophase the nuclear membrane may not be noticed.
63
(b) Metaphase
i) The nuclear membrane disappears.

ii) Chromosomes are thick and are seen arranged at the equatorial plane of
the cell (Fig. 6.1c).
iii) Each chromosome at this stage has two chromatids joined together at the
centromere, which can be seen by changing the resolution of the
microscope.
iv) Nucleolus is not observed during metaphase.
(c) Anaphase
i) This stage shows the separation of the chromatids of each chromosome. ii)
The chromatids separate due to the splitting of the centromere. Each
chromatid now represents a separate chromosome as it has its own
centromere.
iii) The chromosomes are found as if they have moved towards the two poles
of the cell.
iv) The chromosomes at this stage may look like the shape of alphabets 'V',
'J' or 'I' depending upon the position of centromere in them.
v) Different anaphase cells show different stages of movement of
chromosomes to opposite poles, and they are designated to represent early,
mid and late anaphase (Fig. 6.1d).
(d) Telophase
i) Chromosomes reach the opposite poles, lose their individuality, and look
like a mass of chromatin (Fig. 6.1e).
ii) Nuclear membrane appears to form the nuclei of the two future daughter
cells.
CYTOKINESIS
i) In plants, a cell plate is formed in the middle after telophase. The plate can
be seen to extend outwards to ultimately reach the margin of the cell and
divide the cell into two. (Fig. 6.2).
ii) However, in an animal cell, the two sides of the cell show constrictions
formed from the peripheral region in the middle of the cell, which grow
inward and meet to divide the cell into two daughter cells.
64
65
SPOT NO.5
Aim: Different types of inflorescence (cymose and racemose).
Principle: In angiosperms the flowers are borne either singly or in clusters.

Flowers borne singly are solitary, and those borne in clusters together on a
common stalk or peduncle form an inflorescence. It is the reproductive shoot
composed of a number of shoots of limited growth (dwarf shoots) termed
flowers. Pedicel is the stalk of a flower.
Requirement: Inflorescences of locally available plants, hand lens, beaker,

water.
Observation:
Types of Inflorescence
On the basis of sequence of development of flowers on the peduncle the

inflorescences are of the following kinds:
1. Racemose (Indefinite or indeterminate)
2. Cymose (definite or determinate)
Racemose Inflorescence :
a) The unbranched main axis bearing stalked (pedicellate) flowers as in
mustard, radish, Crotalaria is simple raceme (Fig. 10.1 a).
b) Sessile flowers borne on elongated axis as seen in amaranth is
referred to as spike (Fig. 10.1 b).
c) If the main axis is pendulous and bears stalkless (sessile) unisexual
flowers, the inflorescence is catkin, e.g., mulberry (Fig. 10.1 c).
d) Fleshy peduncle covered by long showy bract with spike inflorescence
as in banana and Colocasia is called spadix (Fig 10.1 d).
e) In corymb inflorescence, which is a relatively shorter and broder
raceme, the pedicel of lower flowers are longer than the upper ones
66
and all the flowers reach the same level (Fig 10.1 e). e.g., Cassia
auriculata, Gynandropsis, candy tuft.
f) An inflorescence with extremely reduced main axis bearing a cluster of
pedicellate flowers with more or less equal stalk is referred to as
umbel (Fig 10.1), e.g., coriander, Allium cepa (onion).
g) In Head or Capitulum type, sessile flowers are borne in a dense
cluster in a common receptacle, which is the flattened main axis (Fig
10.1 g) e.g., sunflower.
h) If the main axis is branched then the inflorescence is termed as
compound. A panicle as seen in mango and drumstick is a compound
raceme(Fig 10.1 h). Likewise, there can be compound spadix, e.g.,
palm, compound umbel, e.g., coriander, compound corymb, e.g.,
candy tuft.
Cymose Inflorescence:
There are mainly three types of cymose inflorescence viz. monochasial cyme,
dichasial cyme, polychasial cyme.
a) In monochasial cyme a single flower arises in the axil of a leaf of an
ordinary shoot or the peduncle ends in a single flower (Fig 10.2 a), e.g.
Hibiscus rosasinensis (shoe flower).
b) Dichasial cyme consists of only three flowers, out of which the central
one is the oldest and the two lateral ones arising in the axils of bracts
below the older flower are youngest (Fig 10.2 b, c), e.g., Jasminum.
67
c) In polychasial cyme the main axis ends in a flower with more than two
branches arising from the peduncle below the terminal flower (Fig
10.2 d)., e.g., Calotropis.
68
SPOT NO.6 (A)
Aim: Study of Human skeleton with the help of virtual images/models only.
Principle: Human skeleton in adults is composed of 206 bones. It is
divisible into two categories: Axial and appendicular skeleton. The axial
skeleton consists of the bones of the skull, vertebral column, sternum and
ribs. The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs along with
their girdles.
Requirement: Specimen of human skeleton
Observation:
(a) Human Skull
(i) It is composed of two sets of bones - cranial and facial (Fig. 33.1).
(ii) Cranial bones are occipital, parietal, frontal, temporal, sphenoid and
ethmoid bones.
(iii) Corresponding to their location in the body, the cranial bones have a
strong bone case for eyes called orbit.
(iv) Facial bones form the front part (i.e., face) of the skull.
(v) A single U-shaped bone called hyoid is present at the base of the buccal
cavity.
(vi) A nasal passage formed by nasal bones is present just below the orbit.
(vii) Maxilla and premaxilla bones form the upper jaw, and the mandible
bone forms the lower jaw. These two bones also form the face, and into them
are lodged teeth in special sockets. Teeth are not bones.
(viii) Distinct sutures in zig-zag fashion are present at the junctions of the
frontal with the two parietals, as well as between the two parietals.
69
(ix) The occipital bone has a very big foramen at its posterior base, the
foramen magnum, through which the brain is continued posteriorly as a
spinal cord.
(x) The skull is dicondylic, i.e., it has two occipital condyles for articulation
with the first cervical vertebra.
(b) Vertebral Column
(i) It consists of 26 serially arranged units (Fig. 33.2) called vertebrae

(singular: vertebra).
70
(ii) Each vertebra has a central hollow portion called the neural canal
through which the spinal cord passes. The first vertebra is the atlas and it
articulates with the occipital condyles of the skull.
(iii) Vertebral column has several types of vertebrae: cervical (7), thoracic
(12), lumbar (5), sacral (1 which is fused), and caudal or coccygeal (1 which
is fused).
(iv) A typical vertebra (Fig. 33.3) has a — (i) centrum, the modified notochord
(ii) two laterally projecting transverse process (iii) a neural canal through
which passes the spinal cord (iv) a mid dorsal neural spine formed by the
union of the neural arch. Intervertebral discs are present between the centre
of two neighbouring vertebrae.
(c) Rib Cage and Sternum
(i) Sternum forms the floor of the branchial basket. It bears 7 (seven)
notches for articulation with ribs. It has a hexagonal disc at the top called
manubrium. Lower end has a reduced bone called xiphoid process (Fig.
33.4).
(ii) Ribs can be put under two classes: the thoracic ribs, and the sternal ribs.
The thoracic ribs articulate with the thoracic vertebrae, and the sternal ribs
do so with the sternum. Some (7) of the thoracic ribs are attached to the
sternal ribs with the help of ligaments, enabling the increase and decrease
in volume of the thoracic chamber during respiration.
(iii) There are 12 (twelve) pairs of thoracic ribs. Each rib is a thin flat bone
and is carried ventrally from the vertebral column. It has a head articulating
with the centrum, and tubercle articulates with transverse process of
vertebrae (Fig. 33.4).
(iv) 7 (seven) pairs of thoracic ribs are attached to the sternal ribs.
71
(v) Last 5 (five) pairs of thoracic ribs do not articulate with sternal ribs, and
are called false ribs. Among these, the last 2 (two) pairs of false ribs are free
and are called floating ribs.
(d) Pectoral Girdle
(i) It consists of a clavicle and a scapula (Fig. 33.5).

(ii) Scapula is a large triangular flat bone with a slightly elevated ridge called
spine. The spine projects as a flat, expanded process called the acromion.
(iii) The clavicle is a long slender bone with two curvatures. The clavicle
articulates with the acromion.
(iv)Below the acromion is a depression called the glenoid cavity, for
articulation of the head of the humerus to form the shoulder joint.
(e) Pelvic Girdle
(i) It consists of two halves.

(ii) Each half is formed by the fusion of three bones - ilium, ischium and
pubis (Fig. 33.6).
(iii) At the point of fusion of the above bones is a cavity called acetabulum to
which the thigh bone articulates.
(v) The two halves of the pelvic girdle meet ventrally to form the pubic
symphysis.
72
(f) Bones of the Hand or Fore Limb
(i) It is made up of bones consisting of humerus, radius and ulna, carpals,

metacarpals and phalanges (Fig. 33.7).
(ii) Humerus is a straight bone with a long shaft, and forms the upper arm.
(iii) The head of the humerus fits into the glenoid cavity of the pectoral
girdle. It has a crest at its proximal end in the form of deltoid ridge for the
attachment of arm muscles. The distal end has a foramen and a trochlear
process, which forms an elbow joint with radius and ulna.
(iv) Radius-ulna consists of 2 (two) separate bones of the forearm namely
radius and ulna. Ulna is more developed and has olecranon process at its
proximal end, which form elbow joint with humerus.
(V) Carpals consist of 8 (eight) small bones arranged in two rows. It forms
the wrist (Fig. 33.8).
(vi) Metacarpals are made up of 5 (five) long bones forming the palm of hand.
(vii) Phalanges consist of 2 (two) in the thumb and 3 (three) bones in the
remaining four fingers, thus totalling 14 (fourteen) bones.
73
(g) Bones of the Leg or Hind Limb
(i) It is made up of femur, tibia and fibula, patella (knee cap) tarsals,
metatarsals, phalanges (Fig. 33.9).
(ii) The femur is the longest bone. The head of the femur fits into the
acetabulum of the pelvic girdle. The proximal end has trochanters for
attachment of thigh muscles. The distal end has two condyles, which
articulate with triangular shaped patella and proximal part of tibia to form
the knee on the ventral side.
(iii) Tibia-fibula consists of two separate bones namely tibia and fibula and
is present in the shank region of the leg. Tibia is more developed than fibula.
Its proximal end articulates with femur and patella and forms a knee.
(iv) There are 7 (seven) tarsal bones, which are arranged in two rows to form
the ankle. The largest bone of these is calcareous which forms a heel (Fig.
33.10).
(v) Metatarsals consist of 5 (five) bones and form a foot.
(vi) Phalanges consist of 2 (two) bones in the big toe and three bones in each
of the remaining toes thus totalling 14 (fourteen) bones.
74
SPOT NO.6 (B)
Aim: To study different types of joints in the human skeleton.
Principle: Bones may be movable, slightly movable or immobile depending

on the nature of joints. Joints are defined as regions/surfaces of contact
between bone and cartilage.
Requirement: Specimen of human skeleton, charts and models of skeleton.
Observation :
(a) Gliding Joints

(i) These are flat joints, which allow back and forth or side-to-side movement
of all or a few joining elements. However, twisting is not possible.
(ii) These joints are found between the bones of tarsals and carpals (Fig.
34.1).
(b) Pivot Joints

(i) These joints allow rotational movement.
(ii) These joints are found between the atlas and axis vertebrae of backbone.
It is the odontoid process of the axis vertebra over which the atlas along
which the skull rotates (Fig. 34.2).
(c) Hinge Joints

(i) These joints allow movement in one plane only.
(ii) These joints are present in the elbow and knee (Fig. 34.3).
(d) Saddle Joints

(i) These joints allow movement in two planes.
(ii) These joints are found in the bones of metacarpals and carpals of the
thumb (Fig. 34.4).
(e) Ball and Socket Joints

(i) These joints allow movement in more than two planes (Fig. 34.5).
(ii) These joints are present between humerus with pectoral girdle, femur
with pelvic girdle, and malleus with incus (in ear ossicles).
75
76
*******
77
A: List of Experiments
1. Study and describe locally available common flowering plants, from family
Solanaceae (Poaceae, Asteraceae or Brassicaceae can be substituted in case
of particular geographical location) including dissection and display of floral
whorls, anther and ovary to show number of chambers (floral formulae and
floral diagrams), type of root (tap and adventitious); type of stem
(herbaceous and woody); leaf (arrangement, shape, venation, simple and
compound).
2. Preparation and study of T.S. of dicot and monocot roots and stems
(primary).
3. Study of osmosis by potato osmometer.
4. Study of plasmolysis in epidermal peels (e.g. Rhoeo/lily leaves or flashy
scale leaves of
onion bulb).
5. Study of distribution of stomata on the upper and lower surfaces of
leaves.
6. Comparative study of the rates of transpiration in the upper and lower
surfaces of leaves.
7. Test for the presence of sugar, starch, proteins and fats in suitable plant
and animal
materials.
8. Separation of plant pigments through paper chromatography.
9. Study of the rate of respiration in flower buds/leaf tissue and germinating
seeds.
78
10. Test for presence of urea in urine.
11. Test for presence of sugar in urine.
12. Test for presence of albumin in urine.
13. Test for presence of bile salts in urine.
B. Study and Observe the following (spotting):
1. Parts of a compound microscope.
2. Specimens/slides/models and identification with reasons - Bacteria,
Oscillatoria,
Spirogyra, Rhizopus, mushroom, yeast, liverwort, moss, fern, pine, one
monocotyledonous plant, one dicotyledonous plant and one lichen.
3. Virtual specimens/slides/models and identifying features of - Amoeba,
Hydra,liverfluke, Ascaris, leech, earthworm, prawn, silkworm, honey bee,
snail, starfish, shark, rohu, frog,
lizard, pigeon and rabbit.
4. Mitosis in onion root tip cells and animals cells (grasshopper) from
permanent slides.
5. Different types of inflorescence (cymose and racemose).
6. Human skeleton and different types of joints with the help of virtual
images/models only.
79

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SECTION A: CORE EXPERIMENTS

Plant’s name : Angel’s Trumpets , (Brugmansia suaveolens)

A twig of Angel Trumpet LS of flower

PRINCIPLE: The study of internal morphology, i.e., cells of various tissues

Type of leaf Name of the No. of stomata in the Shape of

Dicot leaf Sample A

Monocot leaf Sample C

Test for Sucrose

Test for Proteins

Test for Fats

Sudan III Test

Sudan III Solution, Oil, Test tube, Dropper

Observation and Conclusion:

Observation and Conclusion:

Observation and Conclusion:

Observation and Conclusion:

Observation and Conclusion:

(b) Heat coagulation test

Observation and Conclusion:

Observation and Conclusion:

(b) Gmelins Test

Observation and Conclusion:

Aim: Specimens/slides/models and identification with reasons

(i) Bacteria ( sing.: bacterium ) are unicellular .

(i) It is a blue-green algae of fresh water bodies.

(i) Spirogyra is a green-coloured alga commonly found in stagnant fresh

(i) Thallus is an interwoven mass of hyphae called mycelium.

(i) Common edible mushroom is the fruiting body or basidiocarp of Agaricus.

(i) Cells are oval or spherical in shape, and colourless.

(i) Dryopteris is a fern (Pteridophyta) with obliquely growing, subterranean

(i) Pinus is a cone-shaped tall tree (Fig.2.11).

i) The body of lichen is a thallus, which is grey or greyish in colour. Yellow,

Aim: Virtual Specimens/slides/models and identification.

The features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

(C) Liver Fluke

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

Honeybee is a social insect, and three distinct morphological forms

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows:

The following features can be observed: (Fig. 3.14)

The external features are as follows:

The external features are as follows (Fig. 3.16):

The external features are as follows:

Principle: Somatic growth of both plants and animals takes place by

Requirement: Permanent slides available in the laboratory, compound

i) Intact nuclear outline is seen.

i) The nuclear membrane disappears.

Aim: Different types of inflorescence (cymose and racemose).

Principle: In angiosperms the flowers are borne either singly or in clusters.

Requirement: Inflorescences of locally available plants, hand lens, beaker,

On the basis of sequence of development of flowers on the peduncle the

(a) Human Skull

(b) Vertebral Column

(i) It consists of 26 serially arranged units (Fig. 33.2) called vertebrae

(c) Rib Cage and Sternum