PLASTICITY
Prof. Dr. Maaz Akhtar
Professor,
Mechanical Engineering Department, NED UET
THEORY OF LINEAR ELASTICITY
• The theory of linear elasticity is useful for modelling materials
which undergo small deformations and which return to their original
configuration upon removal of load.
• Elastic deformations are termed reversible; the energy expended in
deformation is stored as elastic strain energy and is completely
recovered upon load removal.
• Almost all real materials will undergo some permanent deformation,
which remains after removal of load.
• With metals, significant permanent deformations will usually occur
when the stress reaches some critical value, called the yield stress, a
material property.
• Permanent deformations involve the dissipation of energy; such
processes are termed irreversible, in the sense that the original state
can be achieved only by the expenditure of more energy.
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CLASSICAL THEORY OF PLASTICITY
• The classical theory of plasticity grew out of the study of metals in
the late nineteenth century.
• It is concerned with materials which initially deform elastically, but
which deform plastically upon reaching a yield stress.
• In metals and other crystalline materials the occurrence of plastic
deformations at the micro-scale level is due to the motion of
dislocations and the migration of grain boundaries on the micro-
level.
• The deformation of microvoids and the development of micro-
cracks is also an important cause of plastic deformations.
• Plasticity theory began with Tresca in 1864, when he undertook an
experimental program into the extrusion of metals and published his
famous yield criterion discussed later on.
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• Further advances with yield criteria and plastic flow rules were
made in the years which followed by Saint-Venant, Levy, Von
Mises, Hencky and Prandtl etc.
CLASSIFICATION OF PLASTICITY PROBLEMS
There are two broad groups of metal plasticity problem which are of
interest to the engineer and analyst.
1. Small Plastic strains
It involves relatively small plastic strains, often of the same order as
the elastic strains. Analysis of problems involving small plastic strains
allows one to design structures optimally, so that they will not fail
when in service, but at the same time are not stronger than they really
need to be. In this sense, plasticity is seen as a material failure.
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2. Large Plastic Strains
The second type of problem involves very large strains and
deformations, so large that the elastic strains can be disregarded.
These problems occur in the analysis of metals manufacturing and
forming processes, which can involve extrusion, drawing, forging,
rolling and so on. In these latter-type problems, a simplified model
known as perfect plasticity is usually employed. The word “perfect”
means that the material in this model does not strain-harden, that is the
yield strength is used which is independent of the amount of plastic
strain.
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Does Plasticity is a desirable property?
• Yes. In case of metal forming, plasticity is needed. Such as
extrusion, wire drawing, sheet metal forming, rolling etc.
• In order to give desired shape to a material, we need to deform it
plastically. For example V-Bending and Edge-Bending.
• Permanent deformation can only be obtained if material is
deformed in plastic region else the material regain its initial state
during elastic deformation.
• But for structures, we don’t want any plastic deformation that’s why
yield point is considered as failure point.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF PLASTICITY THEORY
For basic plasticity theories following assumptions are usually made:
(1) Response is independent of rate effects
(2) Material is incompressible in the plastic range
(3) There is no Bauschinger effect
(4) The material is isotropic
(5) Yield stress is independent of hydrostatic pressure
• The first two of these will usually be very good approximations, the
other three may or may not be, depending on the material and
circumstances.
• For example, most metals can be regarded as isotropic. After large
plastic deformation however, for example in rolling, the material
will have become anisotropic: there will be distinct material
directions and asymmetries.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF PLASTICITY THEORY
In order to understand Bauschinger
effect see Figure. For even materials
similar strength is observed in tension
and compression as can be seen. But If
one takes a new sample and loads it in
tension till plastic range, then unloads it
and continues applying load under
compression.
One finds that the yield stress in compression is not the same as the
yield strength in tension, as it would have been if the specimen had not
first been loaded in tension. In fact the yield point in this case will be
significantly less than the corresponding yield stress in compression
for fresh specimen. This reduction in yield stress is known as the
Bauschinger effect.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF PLASTICITY THEORY
In order to exemplify the state two
approximations are made namely
isotropic hardening and kinematic
hardening. The solid line depicts the
response of a real material. The dotted
lines are two extreme cases of hardening
which are used in plasticity models.
The first is the isotropic hardening model, in which the yield stress in
tension and compression are maintained equal that can be seen in above
figure. The second being kinematic hardening, in which the total
elastic range is maintained constant throughout the deformation. The
presence of the Bauschinger effect complicates any plasticity theory.
Generally this effect is not considered while studying the plasticity.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF PLASTICITY THEORY
• Together with these, assumptions can be made on the type of
hardening and on whether elastic deformations are significant.
• For example, consider the hierarchy of models illustrated in Figure
below, commonly used in theoretical analyses.
• In (a) both the elastic and plastic curves are assumed linear.
• In (b) work-hardening is neglected and the yield stress is constant
after initial yield. Such perfectly-plastic models are particularly
appropriate for studying processes where metal is worked at a high
temperature – such as hot rolling – where work hardening is small.
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ASSUMPTIONS OF PLASTICITY THEORY
• In many areas of applications the strains involved are large, e.g. in
metal working processes such as extrusion, rolling or drawing,
where up to 50% reduction ratios are common.
• In such cases the elastic strains can be neglected altogether as in the
two models (c) and (d). The rigid/perfectly-plastic model (d) is
the crudest of all – and hence in many ways the most useful. It is
widely used in analysing metal forming processes, in the design of
steel structures.
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GENERALIZED PLASTICITY MODEL
Stress and strain are related through 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 in the elastic region, E
being the Young’s modulus. The tangent modulus K is the slope of
the stress-strain curve in the plastic region and in general change
during a deformation. At any instant of strain, the increment in stress
dσ is related to the increment in strain dε through dσ = Kdε.
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PERFECTLY PLASTIC DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR
• Plastic deformation does not change volume. For a metal under
uniaxial stress, the two transverse plastic strains are equal, related to
the longitudinal plastic strain as derived as follows:
Mathematically: Using volume consistency 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑜
i.e. 𝑡𝑓 𝑊𝑓 𝑙𝑓 = 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑜 𝑙𝑜
∆𝑙 𝑙𝑓 −𝑙𝑜
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝜀= ⇒𝜀=
𝑙𝑜 𝑙𝑜
𝑙𝑓
⇒ 𝜀= −1 ⇒𝜀+1=𝜆
𝑙𝑜
𝑙𝑓 𝑊𝑓 𝑡𝑓
⇒ =1
𝑙𝑜 𝑊𝑜 𝑡𝑜
⇒ (𝜀𝑥𝑃 + 1)(𝜀𝑦𝑃 + 1)(𝜀𝑧𝑃 + 1) = 1
⇒ 𝜀𝑥𝑃 +𝜀𝑦𝑃 + 𝜀𝑧𝑃 = 0 ⇒ 𝜀𝑥𝑃 = 𝜀𝑦𝑃
𝜀𝑧𝑃
⇒ 𝜀𝑥𝑃 = 𝜀𝑦𝑃 =−
2
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PERFECTLY PLASTIC DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR
• In applications like metal forming, the plastic strain is so large that
elastic strain is negligible. Thus, we may neglect elastic strain, and
identify the net strain entirely with plastic strain in rigid, perfectly
plastic model.
• When the stress is within the yield strength, the material is rigid,
and the strain does not change. Even though a metal is capable of
arbitrarily large deformation, in many situations the plastic strain is
small, on the order of elastic strain.
• For example, the plastic deformation of the metal can be
constrained by elastic surroundings. When plastic strain and elastic
strain are comparable, we need to include both in the model. This
model is called elastic, perfectly plastic model. The net strain is the
sum of elastic strain and plastic strain: 𝜺 = 𝜺𝒆 + 𝜺𝒑
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STRAIN HARDENING AND FLOW RULE
• Work hardening, also known as strain hardening or cold working, is
the strengthening of a metal by plastic deformation. This
strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements and
dislocation generation within the crystal structure of the material.
• Many metals with a reasonably high melting point as well as several
polymers can be strengthened in this fashion. Dislocations on
intersecting slip planes permit both elastic interactions and
dislocation reactions to contribute to work hardening.
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STRAIN HARDENING AND FLOW RULE
• The stress-strain curve (Flow curve) in the region of uniform plastic
deformation does not increase proportionally with strain. The
material is said to work harden (i.e., strain harden).
• Flow plasticity is a solid mechanics theory that is used to describe
the plastic behavior of materials. Flow plasticity theories are
characterized by the assumption that a flow rule exists that can be
used to determine the amount of plastic deformation in the material.
In flow plasticity theories it is assumed that the total strain in a body
can be decomposed additively into an elastic part and a plastic
part.
• Flow rule is defined as the mathematical equation that governs the
plasticity. There are many relationship for flow rule proposed by
different scientists, but unfortunately not a single flow rule is
present that work for all materials under plastic deformation.
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STRAIN HARDENING AND FLOW RULE
Does work hardening is done at room temperature?
• Work hardening is generally done under cold-work or hot-work
environment.
• In cold-working environment the temperature is maintained
between 0.3 to 0.5 times the transition temperature while for hot-
working environment temperature ranges between 0.5 to 0.8 times
the transition temperature.
• But for very soft/ductile material like Aluminum, extrusion is done
at room temperature such as windows panels. Reason of deforming
at room temperature is that the application is not critical or does not
required structural integrity. Also, deforming at room temperature
will not strain hardened to larger extent that resulted in brittle sort
of failure like cracking.
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STRAIN HARDENING AND FLOW RULE
What are the benefits that we obtained while work-hardening under
cold or hot environment?
• Work-hardening under cold or hot environment will resulted in less
load requirement for deformation. Because by heating the yield
point value is decreased and material will plastically deform at
lesser load. This will also reduce the capacity of equipment required
like loading hammers, motors etc.
• Secondly, it will avoid the failure due to strain hardening. Stress
relieving will be done due to temperature and material wont get
strain hardened. Also, metal forming is done in multiple passes to
reduce strain hardening effect.
• On the other hand, if metal forming is done at room temperature, it
will strain hardened the material. This might resulted in failure
because of the formation of micro-cracks. This material can not be
used in structural applications.
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STRAIN HARDENING AND FLOW RULE
• Empirical relationships attributed to Ludik and Holloman can be
used to describe the shape of plastic stress-strain curve. It has
general form 𝜎 = 𝐾𝐻 𝜀 𝑛 or 𝜎 = 𝜎𝑌 + 𝐾𝐿 𝜀 𝑛 , where, 𝜎 is stress, 𝜎𝑌 is
yield stress, 𝜀 is strain, 𝐾𝐻 and 𝐾𝐿 are different strength coefficients
and 𝑛 is strain hardening exponent (n=0 for perfectly plastic solids,
n=1 for perfectly elastic solids & n=0.1-0.5 for most metals).
• Another flow equation known as Ramberg-Osgood law, works upto
ultimate tensile strength is given by:
𝑛𝑅𝑂 𝑛𝑅𝑂
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎𝑜 𝜎
𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = + 𝐾𝑅𝑂 = +𝛼
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝜎𝑜
• where, 𝐾𝑅𝑂 is Ramberg Osgood strength coefficient, 𝑛𝑅𝑂 is
Ramberg Osgood strain hardening coefficient, 𝜎𝑜 is offset yield
𝜎𝑜 𝑛𝑅𝑂 −1
stress, E is Young’s modulus and 𝛼 is 𝐾𝑅𝑂
𝐸
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VISCOELASTIC AND VISCOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
• Materials having rate dependent deformation are commonly known
as viscoelastic material.
• Although the viscoelastic materials can suffer irrecoverable
deformation, they do not have any critical yield or threshold stress,
which is the characteristic property of plastic behaviour.
• In many forming processes the deformation rates are small enough
to consider the material behavior to be independent of strain rate
and to use an elastoplastic material model.
• For high strain rates this assumption leads to faulty results.
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VISCOELASTIC AND VISCOPLASTIC BEHAVIOR
• In a tensile test the yield stress is seen to increase with higher strain
rates.
Polymers and certain alloys show softening behavior immediately after
reaching the yield point. At larger strains the softening is followed by
hardening.
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FAILURE THEORIES (YIELD CRITERIA)
• All engineering materials are classified as ductile or brittle.
• Generally a ductile material is one in which gross plastic
deformation is greater than 5%, while brittle material having plastic
deformation less than 5%.
• Ductile materials show large plastic deformation and observed
necking prior to fracture but brittle materials fails suddenly without
proper indication.
• Both materials behave in different manner; hence they have
different failure criteria.
• One single theory cannot be used to predict failure in both the
materials.
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FAILURE THEORIES (YIELD CRITERIA)
• Permanent deformation in ductile material is observed when load
reaches the yield point.
• Any further load will strain hardened the material.
• In brittle materials yield point is not clear (determined by offset
method) and fracture usually occurs near to ultimate tensile strength
(UTS).
• Hence, for ductile material failure criteria is based on Yield Strength
while for brittle material failure criteria is based on ultimate tensile
strength.
• Following section will discuss different failure theories for ductile
and brittle material.
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FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIAL
• As discussed earlier that for ductile materials, failure is initiated
when material reaches the yield point. Also, all failure theories are
formulated by consider principal values of stresses or strains.
(a) Maximum Shear Stress Theory
• It is also known as Tresca criteria states that yielding begins when
maximum shear stress at a point reaches the maximum shear stress
at yield under uniaxial tension or compression.
• For multiaxial state of stress, shear stress is obtained by:
𝜎1 −𝜎2 𝜎2 −𝜎3 𝜎3 −𝜎1
𝜏1 = , 𝜏2 = , 𝜏3 =
2 2 2
• Maximum shear stress is largest, if σ1 > 𝜎2 > σ3 then
𝜎3 − 𝜎1
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
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• Consider an element from uniaxial tension subjected to yield,
hence, 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0
• Therefore, using Mohr’s circle equation principal stresses will be
𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝑥𝑥 2 2 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦
equal to: 𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = ±
2 2 2 2
𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 0
𝜎1 −0 𝜎𝑦 −0
• Maximum shear stress gives, 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2
𝜎𝑦
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
2
• If the principal stresses are unordered, yielding under multiaxial
state of stress occurs for any one of the following conditions:
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 = ±𝜎𝑦 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = ±𝜎𝑦
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• For two dimensional system (let 𝜎3 = 0), above equations become
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦
𝜎2 = ±𝜎𝑦
𝜎1 = ±𝜎𝑦
• Above results when plotted on two dimensional principal plane, it
gives a hexagon as shown below:
Figure: Tresca Yield Locus
A
𝜎𝑦
• At point ‘A’ which makes -45ᴼ with x-axis, shear stress is equal to 𝜏𝐴 = .
2
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FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIAL
(b) Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
• This theory is also known as Von-Mises theory or Octahedral shear
stress theory. It states that yielding occurs when the distortional
strain energy at a point equals to the distortional strain energy at
yield under uniaxial tension or compression.
• Consider 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 are principal stresses and 𝜀1 , 𝜀2 , 𝜀3 are
principal strains, then total strain energy is given by:
1
𝑈𝑇 = 𝜎1 𝜀1 + 𝜎2 𝜀2 + 𝜎3 𝜀3
2
• From Hooke’s law, stress-strain relationships are given by:
𝜎1 𝜈 𝜎2 𝜈 𝜎3 𝜈
𝜀1 = − 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 , 𝜀2 = − 𝜎1 + 𝜎3 , 𝜀3 = − 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
1 2
⇒ 𝑈𝑇 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜈 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3
2𝐸
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• Total stress is the sum of hydrostatic and deviatoric states of stress
as shown in figure:
Figure: Total strain energy is sum of hydrostatic and deviatoric state of stress
• Energy stated with hydrostatic state of stress 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎3 = 𝑝
3 1−2𝜈
gives: 𝑈𝐻 = 𝑝2
2 𝐸
• Also, 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 = 3𝑝, hence strain energy for hydrostatic state of
1−2𝜈 2
stress become: 𝑈𝐻 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎3
6𝐸
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• Hence strain energy for deviatoric state of stress can be determine
by
𝑈𝐷 = 𝑈𝑇 − 𝑈𝐻
1+𝜈
⇒ 𝑈𝐷 = 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3
3𝐸
• Consider an element from uniaxial tension subjected to yield,
hence,
𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = 𝜎𝑧𝑧 = 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 𝜏𝑦𝑧 = 𝜏𝑧𝑥 = 0
⇒ 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = 0
1+𝜈
⇒ 𝑈𝐷 = 𝜎𝑦 2
3𝐸
• Comparing deviatoric relations, we get
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 − 𝜎2 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑦 2
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⇒ 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 2 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 2 = 2𝜎𝑦 2
1 2 2 2
⇒ 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎3 + 𝜎3 − 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦
2
• For plane stress condition 𝜎3 = 0 , above relation simplified to
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 2
• Above relation is an equation of ellipse, which gives for plane stress
condition an elliptical shape yield surface as shown in figure below:
Figure: Von-Mises Yield Locus
A
1 1
• At ‘A’ 𝜎1 = 𝜎 and 𝜎2 = −𝜎 , hence 𝜎 = 𝜎 , i.e. 𝜏𝐴 = 𝜎 .
3 𝑦 3 𝑦
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Comparison of Tresca and Von-Mises
• Comparison of Tresca and Von-Mises failure criteria tells that Tresca
criteria is more conservative and gave 15% less yield surface area as
shown in figure below:
Figure: Comparison of Von-
Mises and Tresca Yield criteria
• Historically, Tresca was considered to be more fundamental of
the two, but Von-Mises form was seen as an appealing,
mathematically convenient approximation to it. Now, both are
usually stated side by side with little or no preference.
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Comparison of Tresca and Von-Mises
• The Tresca theory is more conservative than the von Mises theory. It
predicts a narrower elastic region.
• The Tresca criterion can be safer from the design point of view, but
it could lead the engineer to take unnecessary measures to prevent an
unlikely failure.
• The criterion choice depends on the type of design and personal
understanding of the designer.
Figure: Comparison of Von-Mises
and Tresca Yield criteria in 3D
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FAILURE THEORIES FOR DUCTILE MATERIAL
(c) Strain Energy Density or Total Strain Energy Criteria
• The strain energy density criteria proposed by Beltrami states that
yielding occurs when the strain energy density at a point equals the
strain energy density at yield in uniaxial tension or compression.
• Total strain energy is given by:
1 2
𝑈𝑇 = 𝜎1 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜈 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3
2𝐸
• For a uniaxial state of stress at yield principal stresses can be given
by: 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦 , 𝜎2 = 0, 𝜎3 = 0
1
⇒ 𝑈𝑇 = 𝜎𝑦 2
2𝐸
• By comparing both expressions for 𝑈𝑇 , we get the following
relationship: 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 + 𝜎32 − 2𝜈 𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑦 2
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STRAIN ENERGY DENSITY OR TOTAL STRAIN ENERGY
CRITERIA
• For plane stress condition 𝜎3 = 0 , above equation simplified and
gives following relation:
𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 2𝜈𝜎1 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦 2
• Shape of yield surface for strain energy density criteria is an ellipse
in principal stress space that depends on the Poisson’s ratio.
• Assume a special case where Poisson’s ratio is zero above equation
represents the circle equation 𝜎12 + 𝜎22 = 𝜎𝑦 2 and yield surface
will be a circular region.
Note: Amongst these three failure theories for ductile materials Tresca
and Von-Mises are mostly used to investigate the failure and stresses
induced.
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FAILURE THEORIES FOR BRITTLE MATERIAL
As discussed earlier for brittle materials, failure is initiated when
material reaches the ultimate tensile strength point. Failure criteria for
brittle materials are discussed below.
(a) Maximum Principal Stress Criteria
• This criteria is proposed by Rankine states that yielding occurs at a
point when the maximum principal stress reaches the value equals to
maximum principal stress at yield in uniaxial tension or
compression.
• According to this theory failure occurs when
𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 , 𝜎3 = 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
• For plane stress condition 𝜎3 = 0 , Rankine theory can be written
as σ1 = ±𝜎UTS or σ2 = ±𝜎UTS
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• Maximum principal stress criteria for plane stress condition gives
failure surface that represents a square.
Figure: Yield Surface for Rankine criteria (𝑌 = 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 )
• Criterion has good experimental verification, even though it
assumes ultimate strength is same in compression and tension
• For Brittle materials many other failure theories are present, but
maximum principal stress criteria is mostly used.
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(b) Maximum Principal Strain Criteria
• It is also known as St. Venant’s criteria states that yielding occurs
when maximum principal strain equals to the maximum principal
strain at yield under uniaxial tension or compression.
• Principal strains 𝜀1 > 𝜀2 > 𝜀3 in terms of principal stresses are
given by:
𝜎1 𝜈 𝜎2 𝜈 𝜎3 𝜈
𝜀1 = − 𝜎2 + 𝜎3 , 𝜀2 = − 𝜎1 + 𝜎3 , 𝜀3 = − 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
• For uniaxial tension case at yield gives the following relation:
𝜎1 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
𝜀1 = =
𝐸 𝐸
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• For plane stress condition 𝜎3 = 0 , above equations for 𝜀1
becomes,
⇒ 𝜎1 − 𝜈𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
Also, ⇒ 𝜎2 − 𝜈𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
Figure: Yield Surface for St. Venant’s criteria (𝑌 = 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 )
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(c) Mohr’s Failure Criteria
• The Mohr Theory of Failure, also known as the Coulomb-Mohr
criterion or internal-friction theory, is based on the famous Mohr’s
Circle. Mohr's theory is often used in predicting the failure of brittle
materials.
• Mohr's theory suggests that failure occurs when Mohr's Circle at a
point in the body exceeds the envelope created by the two Mohr's
circles for uniaxial tensile strength and uniaxial compression
strength. This envelope is shown in the figure below,
Figure: Yield Surface (shaded) for
Mohr’s criteria
39
• The left circle is for uniaxial compression at the limiting
compression stress of the material. Likewise, the right circle is for
uniaxial tension at the limiting tension stress.
• The middle Mohr's Circle (dash line) represents the maximum
allowable stress for an intermediate stress state
• Equation for Mohr’s-Coulomb failure criteria for plane stress
𝜎1 𝜎2
condition is given by, − =1
𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑡 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑐
• Graphically, Mohr's theory requires that the two principal stresses
lie within the shaded zone depicted in Figure below:
Figure: Yield Surface (shaded)
for Mohr’s criteria
40
Problem-1
When the loads that act on the hub of a flywheel reach their working
values, the nonzero stress components at the critical point in the hub
where yield is initiated are 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = 100 𝑀𝑃𝑎, 𝜎𝑦𝑦 = −14 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and
𝜏𝑥𝑦 = 50 𝑀𝑃𝑎. The load stress-strain are linear so that the factor of
safety can be applied to either the loads or stress components. The
flywheel material has a yield stress equals 300 𝑀𝑃𝑎.
a) Assuming material follows Tresca yield criteria, determine factor of
safety against yield.
b) Assuming material follows Von-Mises yield criteria, determine
factor of safety against yield.
c) Determine which criteria is more conservative
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Solution
Principal stresses are determined using equation of two-dimensional
Mohr’s circle,
𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 − 𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 = 118.8, −32.8
2 2
a) Tresca Criteria: 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑦
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑦 300
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = = = = 1.98
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 151.6
1 2 2 2
b) Von-Mises Criteria: 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎1 = 𝜎𝑦
2
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝜎𝑦 300
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = =
1
= = 2.17
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎2 2 + 𝜎1 2 138.15
2
c) Tresca criteria is more conservative as it predicts yielding at smaller loads.
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Problem-2
A thin-wall tube with closed ends is subjected to a maximum internal
pressure of 35 MPa in service. The mean radius of the tube is 30 cm. If
the tensile yield strength is 700 MPa, what minimum thickness must
be specified to prevent yielding? Consider failure based on Tresca
criteria.
Solution:
𝑃𝑟
Hoop stresses, 𝜎1 = = 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑡
𝑃𝑟
Longitudinal stresses, 𝜎2 =
2𝑡
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Radial stresses, 𝜎3 = 0 = 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛
Tresca Criteria: 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜎𝑦
𝑃𝑟
− 0 = 𝜎𝑦
𝑡
Yielding occurs when 𝜎1 = 700 𝑀𝑃𝑎,
35 × 30
700 =
𝑡
⇒ 𝑡 = 1.5𝑐𝑚 Answer
44
Problem-3
A circular shaft of tensile strength 350 MPa is subjected to a combined
state of loading defined by bending moment (M=8 kN.m) and torque
(T=24kN.m). Calculate the required shaft diameter (d) in order to
achieve a factor of safety of 2. Use Tresca criteria.
Solution:
32𝑀 16𝑇
Since 𝜎𝑥𝑥 = & 𝜏𝑥𝑦 = (Bending and Torsion equations)
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
𝜎𝑥𝑥 +𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜎𝑥𝑥 −𝜎𝑦𝑦 2
From Mohr’s circle equation, 𝜎1,2 = ± + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2
2 2
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2 2
32𝑀 32𝑀 16𝑇 16
𝜎1,2 = 3
± + = 𝑀 ± 𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
2𝜋𝑑 2𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
32
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 = 𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
𝜋𝑑3
𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦 𝜋𝑑 3
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = =
𝜎1 − 𝜎2 32 𝑀2 + 𝑇 2
Putting all the values into the above relation, we get
𝑑 = 0.113𝑚
Note: If Von-Mises failure criteria is used we have following relationship,
1 2 2 2
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎1 − 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 + 𝜎1
2
𝜎𝑦 𝜋𝑑 3
𝐹𝑂𝑆 =
16 4𝑀2 + 3𝑇 2
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Problem-4
A foundation of a machine is made by gray cast iron. The most critical
stress condition at a point in the part is shown below. Find the factor of
safety in the foundation, such that 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑡 = 25 𝑘𝑠𝑖 , 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝑐 =
100 𝑘𝑠𝑖.
Solution:
The gray cost iron is brittle material. For solution we apply maximum
principal stress theory. σ1 = ±𝜎UTS
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Maximum compressive stress in the part = 20 ksi
So from compressive stress point of view, σ1 = −𝜎UTS
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
100
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = = =5
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 20
Maximum tensile stress in the part = 10 ksi
So from compressive stress point of view, σ1 = 𝜎UTS
𝑌𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
25
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = = = 2.5
𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 10
Thus the factor of safety of the part will be smaller value i.e. 𝐹𝑂𝑆 = 2.5
Answer
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