SECTION 1.

5 LIMITS 63

Lin1 its
Learning Objectives ----·I-

1. Examine the limit concept and general properties of limits.

2. Compute limits using a variety of techniques.
3. Investigate limits involving infinity.

As you will see in subsequent chapters, calculus is an enormously powerful branch

of mathematics with a wide range of applications, including optimization of functions,
analysis of rates of change, curve sketching, and computation of area and probabil-
ity. What gives calculus its power and distinguishes it from algebra is the concept of
limit, and the purpose of this section is to provide an introduction to this important
concept. Our approach will be intuitive rather than formal. The ideas outlined here
form the basis for a more rigorous development of the laws and procedures of cal-
culus and lie at the heart of much of modem mathematics.

Intuitive Introduct ion Roughly speaking, the limit process involves examining the behavior of a function
to the Limit f(x) as x approaches a number c that may or may not be m the domain off Limiting
behavior occurs in a variety of practical situations. For instance, absolute zero, the
temperature Tc at which all molecular activity ceases, can be approached but never
actually attained in practice. Similarly, economists who speak of profit under ideal
conditions or engineers profiling the ideal specifications of a new engine are really
dealing with limiting behavior.
To illustrate the limit process, suppose the manager of a real estate firm determines
that t years from now, roughly S units in a certain neighborhood will be sold, where
-2t3 + 19t2 - 8t - 9
S(t) =
-t2 + 8t - 7
How many sales should be expected 1 year from now?
Your first instinct may be to simply evaluate S(t) at t = 1, but that computation
results in the meaningless fraction -. However, it is still possible to make the required

computation by evaluating S(t) for values of t that are very close to the 1-year mark,
both slightly before the year is up (t < 1) and just afterward (t > 1). A few such cal-
culations are summarized in the following table:

0.95 I 0.98 0.99 0.999 1.001 I 1.01 1.1 l.2

S(t) I 3.859 I 3.943 I 3.972 I 3.997 I Undefined I 4.003 I 4.028 I

The numbers on the bottom line of this table suggest that S(t) approaches the
number 4 as t gets closer and closer to 1. Thus, it is reasonable to expect 4 sales to
be made in the target neighborhood 1 year from now.
The functional behavior in this example can be described by saying "S(t) has the
limiting value 4 as t approaches l ," or, equivalently, by writing

,_., S(t) = 4
lim
More generally, the limit of f(x) as the number c can be defined informally
as follows:
 '` -·~
CHAPTER 1 Functions, Graphs, and Limits
1-64

-_,. ..

The Limit o f a Functio n 1: 11 ., i ro a number l

r gets closer and closer to c !'w ill 1he11 L is the limit of f (x) as x
approaches c. The behavior is exprc."·"ccJ by writi ng
lim .f(x) =L
x--.,·

Geometrically, the limit statement lim f(x) = l means that the height of the
x- c
graph y = f(x) approaches l as x approaches c, as shown in Figure I.4 I. This
interpretation is illustrated along with the tabular approach to computing limits in
Example 1.5.1.

3'Lxx
)

L
f
'
3
x

FIGURE 1.41 If Iimf(x) = L, the height of the graph off approaches L as x approaches c
x---+c

EXPLORE !
Estimating a Limit with a Table
Graph f(x)
vx - 1 _... EXAMPLE 1.5.1
X - 1
Use a table to estimate the limit
using the modified decimal
viewing window \Ix- 1
[O, 4.7]1 by [- 1.1 , 2.1)1 X - l
Trace values near x = 1. Also
construct a table of values,
Solution
using an initial value of 0.97
for x with an incremental Let
change of 0.01. Describe what 1
J(x) = -
you observe. Now use an X - l
value of 0.997 for x with
an incremental change of f values of x approaching 1 from the left and from
and compute /(x) for a success10n o
0.001. Specifically, what the right:
happens as x approaches
1 from either side? What 1.0001 1.001
0.9999 1.00001
would be the most appropriate x 0.99 0.999
value for t(x) at x = 1 to fill
the hole in tl1e graph? 0.50126 0.50013 0.5000 1 >< 0.499999 0.49999 0.49988

111111111111111
 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 65
1-65

I'he numbers on the bottom line of the table suggest that f(x) approaches 0.5 as x
I ; that is,

1
hm = 0.5
X---+ I X - I

The graph of f(x) is shown in Figure 1.42. The limit computation says that the height
of the graph of y = f(x) approaches L = 0.5 as 1. This corresponds to
the "hole" in the graph of f(x) at (1, 0.5). We will compute this same limit using an
algebraic procedure in Example 1.5.6.

L = 0.5

X
=1
C
_J
Vx - 1
FIGURE 1.42 The function
· f ()
x = tends toward L = 0.5 as x approaches c = 1.
X - I

It is important to remember that limits describe the behavior of a function near

a particular point, not necessarily at the point itself. This is illustrated in Figure 1.43.
For all three functions graphed, Lhe limit of f(x) as x approaches 3 is equal to 4. Yet
the functions behave quite differently at x = 3 itself. In Figure 1.43a,f(3) is equal to
the limit 4; in Figure 1.43b, /(3) is different from 4; and in Figure 1.43c, /(3) is not
defined at all.

y y y

x x x
3~x
(a) (b) (c)

FIGURE 1 .43 Three functions for which Jim f(x)

x -+3
= 4.
,,.
1-66
66 CHAPTER 1 Funct ions, Graphs, and Limits
that do not have a
Figur e the graph of two functions
J.44a because f(x) tends toward
x approaches 2. The limit does not exist in Figure different value, 3, as
from the right and tends toWaf d a
5 as x appro aches 2 1.44b has no finite limit as
x approaches 2 from the left. The functi on in Figur e x tends toward
increase without bound as
2 becau se the values of J(x) lled infinite limits will be dis-
2 and hence tend to no finite number L. Such so-ca
cussed later in this section.

y
EXPLORE! y

GrawmTraOf
"wt
h0
pd e- Ofdlsf
h2a
xjpeg
c to3thUneha
eWIO f Of
thewh
e
2yOnth2Vamto=thac
5
sr
c-
-) 3
f'_x
,

txValPex x
x
2f--X
alapas 2f---x
(b)
(a)

FIGURE 1.44 Two functions for which Jim f(x) does not exist.

ify computations. These

Prop ertie s of Limi ts Liinits obey certain algebraic rules that can be used to simpl
nal definition of limit,
rules, which should seem plausible on the basis of our infon
are proved formally in more theoretical courses.

If lim f(x) and exist, then

EXPLORE! Alge braic Prop ertie s of Limits
Jim [f(x) + g(x)] = 1im f(x) + Jim g(x)
Graph the function X->C .r->C

f(X)= {3 X:52 Jim [f(x) ·-· g(x)] = Jim f(x) - Jim g(x)
5 X >2
using the dot graphing style Jim [kf(x)] = k Iimf(x) for any constant k
and writing
Jim U'(x)g(x)] = [Jim f(x)][lim g(x)]
Y1 = 3(X :s 2) + 5(X > 2)
in the equation editor of your lim f(x)
. J(x)
graphing calculator. Use your
g(x) Jim g(x)
if Jim g(x)
x--+c
*0
TRACE key to determine the
values of y when xis near 2.
Jim [f(x)]" = [Jim f(x)Y if [lim f(x)]P exists
Does it make a difference X--'>C

from which side x = 2 is

approached? Also evaluate f(2).
ct, a quotient, or a
That is, the limit of a sum, a difference, a multiple, a produ
nt, or power of
power exists and is the sum, difference, multiple, product, quotie
defined.
the individual limits , as long as all expressions involved are

Here are two elementary limits that we will use along with the limit rules to com-
pute limits involving more complex expressions.
1-67 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 67

'··-
Limits of Two Linear For any constant k,
Jim k =k and limx =c
That is, the limit of a constant is the constant itself, and the limit = x as
x approaches c is c.

These statements are illustrated in Figure 1.45. Note that in geometric terms, the
limit statement Jim x = c says that the height of the linear function/(x) = x approaches
c as x approaches c.

y y

y =k k c-
|III|
'

'
4 x
_ X
x c x I
c~x
(a) lim k =k (b) lim X= C
.t->C

FIGURE 1.45 l .i:11:s

`` :,,• tw(, linear functions.

Computation Examples 1.5 ..l l how the properties of limits can be used to
of Limits calculate limits of algebraic functions. In Example 1.5.2, you will see how to find the
limit of a polynomial.

I EXAMPLE 1.5.2 Finding the Limit of a Polynomial

Find lim (3x3 - 4x + 8).

Solution
Apply the properties of limits to obtain

x--
lim (3x3 - 4x + 8)
I x--
= 3(-
I
1)3 - 4( -1)
x--
= 3( lim x)3 - 4(lim x) + lim 8
+ =
x--
8
I
9
I

In Example 1.5.3, you will see how to find the limit of a rational function whose
denominator does zero.
` 5
c
16 8 1
EXPLORE!
EXAMf LE 1.5.3 Finding the Lim it o
f a Rat ional Fu n ction
.
`
Graph f(x) 3\"-1 - 8
X - 1 using Find lim __: -
X---t l X - 2
the viewing window [O, 210_5
by [O, 5)0.5. TRACE to x = 1 Solutio n
and notice there is no for limits to get
corresponding Y value. Create Since Jim (x - 2) 1= O, you can use the quotient rule
a table with an initial value 3
of 0.5 for x, increasing in Jim (3x3 - 8) 3 Jim x - hm 8 3- 8
. 3x3 - 8 ==
increments of 0.1. Notice that hm -
x---+ 1 x - 2
—= Jim (x - 2) Jim x - hm 2
1- 2
an error is displayed for x = 1,
confim,ing that f(x) is undefined
at x = 1. What would be the
appropriate y value if this gap . of limits to obtain the following formulas,
In general, you can use the properties
were filled? Change the initial ·ractical problems.
which can then be used to evaluate many limits that occur 10 P
value of x to 0.9 and the
increment size to 0.01 to get a
better approximation. Finally, Limits of Polynomials and Rational Functions If p(x) and q(x) are
zoom in on the graph about polynomials, then
x = 1 to conjecture a limiting
value for the function at x = 1. lim p(x) = p(c)
and
p(x) p(c)
lim —-
x---+c q(x)
=-
q(c)
if q(c) *0

These formulas are very significant because they give us a simple way to compute
limits for all polynomials and most rational functions: just evaluate the function for
the value that the variable is approaching. If the result is a real number, that number
is the limit.
In Example 1.5.4, the denominator of the given rational fu nc~ion approaches zero,
while the numerator does not. The absolute value of such a q~1otient increases with-
out bound and hence does not apprvach any finite number. \\-hen this happens, you
can conclude that the lin~it does not exist.
~--~'-~
EXAM P LE 1.5.4 Showing That a Lim it Does N o t Exist

___:j~ 2
x
Find lim

Solut ion
X

X -
+1
2
.

The quotient rule for limits does this case since the limit of the denom-
inator is
lim (x - 2) = 0
x-2
FIGURE 1.46 The graph of
X + 1 Since the limit of the numerator 1s lim (x + 1) = 3,
f(x) = -. which·1s not equal to zero, you
x- 2 x-2
can conclude that the limit of the quotient does not exist.
1-69 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 69

EXPLO~r! a
U',
Graph y = —
X + 1
using an
x- 2
enlarged decimal window
[-9.4, 9.4]1 by (- 6.2, 6.2]1.
Use the TRACE key to
approach x = 2 from the left
side and the right side. Also
create a table of values, using
an initial value of 1.97 for x
and increasing in increments
of 0.01. Describe what you
observe.
The graph of the function J(x) X +1
in Figure l .46 gives you a better idea
x-2
of what is actually happening in th·1s example. Note thatf(x) increases without bound
as x approaches 2 from the right and decreases without bound as x approaches 2 from
the left.
In Example 1.5.5, the numerator and denominator of the given rational
function both approach zero. When this h appens, you should try to simplify the
f .
unction algebraically and then use the fact that if/()x = g(x) for x =I= c, then
lim/(x) = lim g(x). This is another way of saying that the limit as x approaches c
is about what happens close to c but not at c.

D EXAMPLE 1 .5 .5 Finding a Limit Using Algebra

x2 - 1
Find
x---+ 1x - 3x +2
Solution
As x approaches 1, both the numerator and the denominator approach zero, and you
can draw no conclusion about the size of the quotient. To proceed, observe that the
given function is not defined when x = l but that for all other values of x, you can
y
divide out the common factor x - 1 to obtain

\
2
X - I (x + 1) x +l
X =I= I
X - 3x +2 (X - 2) X - 2
2 X (Since x =t- 1, you are not dividing by zero.) Now take the limit as x approaches (but
is not equal to) l 1.0 get
2
I ltm (x + l)
x---+I
X - 2
lim —-
2 = =—= -2
x - 3x + 2 Jim (x - 2) -1
x---+I
2
FIGURE 1.47 The graph of X - 1
x1 - I The graph of the function f(x) =1s shown in Figure 1.47. Note that it
f(x) = 2
x2 - 3x + 2
X - 3x + 2. is like the graph in Figure 1.46 with a hole at the point (1, -2).

In general, when both the numerator and denominator of a quotient approach zero
as x approaches c, your strategy will be to simplify the quotient algebraically (as in
Example 1.5.5 by dividing out x - 1). In most cases, the simplified form of the quo-
tient will give the same values as the original form except for x = c. Since you are
interested in the behavior of the quotient near x = c and not at x = c, you may use
the simplified form of the quotient to evaluate the limit. In Example 1.5.6, we use
this strategy to obtain the limit we estimated using a table in Example 1.5.1.

EXAMPLE 1 .5 .6 Finding a Limit Using Algeb ra

Vx - 1
Find Jim
x---+1 X - 1
70 CHAPTER 1 11i1
Functions, Graph s, ;,r,J 1,

. fy the
o simpli
Just-In-Ti me REVIEW Solu tion h Oas x app
the nu merator and
Both the 11u111cra1or and is. ,nultf ply
In Example 1.5.6 , we perform (that
quotient. we rationalize the numerator

---
the multiplication
1)(Vx + 1) = X - 1 nator by \Ix + I) to
using the identity \Ix - I (\Ix - I) x-1 = -VX + I xtJ
(a - b)(a + b) = a2 _ b2 = I)
(x - I)(Vx + I) (x -
to a

-
and 1 correspondin g to b. and then take the limit to obtain
1 1
=-
lim -
X - 1
= lim vx + 1 2
`
· business and econom1cs or the
matter o f intere st m
Limi ts Invo lving "Long-term" behavior is often a wish to know the population
le, a biologist may
physical and life scienc es. For examp indefinite period of time,
Infin ity
o f fruit flies after an
of a bacterial colony or a population the average cost of producing a par-
or a business manag er may wish to know how · increases indefinitely.
ticular commodity is affected as the level of produ ction
·use d to represent either unbounded
In mathematic s, the infinity symbo l 00 1s f limits rnvolvmg infinity
growth or the result of such growth. Here are definitions 0
that we will use to study long-term behavior.

If the values of the function the number

Limits at
L as x increases without bound, we write
Jim f(x) = L
+oo

Similarly, we write
Jim f(x) = M
ses without bound.
when the functional values/(x) approach the number Mas x decrea

the input x of the

NOTE The statement "x decreases without bound" means that r
negative.
function becomes larger and larger in absolute value while remaining
as x increases
Geometrically, the hmrt statement Jim f(x) = L means that
without bound, the graph of the horizontal line y = L, while
= Mas x decreases
lim f(x) = M means that the graph off(x) approaches the line y
without bound . The lines y = L and y = M that appear in this context are called
horizontal asymptotes of the graph off(x). There are many different ways for a graph
· shown in Figure 1.48. We will have
to have horizontal asymptotes, one of which 1s
more to say about asymptotes in Chapter 3 as part of a general discussion of graph-
ing with calculus.

.......
1-71 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 71

Y Y =f(x)
_________
y =L
- - - - - - - _L_,_ -

limf(x)
-co
=M M y =M

FIGURE 1.48 A graph illustrating limits at infinity and horizontal asymptotes.

The algebraic properties of limits listed earlier in this section also apply to limits
1
at infinity. In addition, since any reciprocal k > 0 becomes smaller
J'
and smaller in absolute value as x either increases or decreases without bound, we
have these useful rules:

Reciprocal Limit If A and k are constants with k > 0 and J'is

defined for all x, then

A A
lim - = 0 and lim~= 0
x- + oo :/ x--+-oo j

The use of rbr:1.;::: mks is illustrated in Example 1.5.7.

u-EXAM P~E 1 .5: 7 Finding a Limit at Infinity

2
X
Find lim
x---+ + 1 + x + 2x2·
00

Solution
To get a feeling for what happens with this limit, we evaluate the function
2
X
f(x) =
l+x+2.x2
at x = 100, 1,000, 10,000, and 100,000 and display the results in the table:
+oo
X 100 1,000 10,000 100,000
f(x) 0.49749 0.49975 0.49997 0.49999

The functional values on the bottom line in the table suggest thatf(x) tends toward
0.5 as x grows larger and larger. To confirm this observation analytically, we divide
each term in f(x) by the highest power that appears in the denominator I + x + 2x2,
l ...,
72
CHAPTE R 1 1-72
Functions, Graphs, and Limits

EXPLO RE!., iii that is, by x2. This enables us to find lim f(x) by applying
follows : x----++~
reciprocal power rules
as

'. Graph f(x) = _

1+x+2x2
using the viewing window
lim ;
2
= Jim
x-.. +oo I + X + 2x2 x->+ oo l/x2 + x/ x2 + 2.x2/ x2
several algebraic
properties of limits

[-20, 20)5 by [O, 1)1. Now

TRACE the graph to the right lim 1
x-> +oo reciprocal lin1it 11.1le
for large values of x, past = . 2
Jim l/x2 + lim 1/x + ltm
x = 30, 40, and beyond. What X-> +oo x-> +oo x-> +oo
do you notice about the l 1
corresponding y values and ==-
0+0+2 2
the behavior of the graph? I
What would you as The graph off(x) is shown in Figure 1.49. For practice, verify that x-lim f (x) = - also
-00 2
the value of f(x) as x-+ oo?

FIGURE 1.49 The graph off(x) = X

l +X + 2x2 ·

Here is a general description of the procedure for evaluating a limit of a rational

function at infinity.

ure for Evaluatin g a Limit at Infinity of f(x } p(x)/q(x ) =

Divide each term in f(x) by the highest power xk that appears
denominator polynomia l q(x).
Compute lim f (x) or lim f (x) using algebraic properties of limits
x --+ +co x -..+ - co
and the reciprocal power rules.

Examples 1.5.8 and 1.5.9 illustrate how to compute and use a limit at infinity.

EX AMPLE 1 .5 .8 Find in g a Li mit at Infi n it y

2x2 + 3x + 1
Find Jim
x- + 00 3x2 - Sx + 2

Solutio n
The highest power in the denomina tor is ,?. Divide the
by x2 to get numerato r and denominator

2x2 + 3x + I . 2 + 3/x + 1/x2

Jim = 2 +0 + 0 = 2-
x-+00 3x2 - Sx + 2 x- +00 3 - 5/x + 2/x2 = -
3-0 + 0 3
-•
1-73 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 73

EXAMP LE 1.5.9 Applying a Limit at Infinity

If a crop is planted in soil where the nitrogen level is N, then the crop yield Y can be
modeled by the Michaelis-Menten function
AN
Y(N)
B+N
where A and B are positive constants. What happens to crop yield as the nitrogen level
is increased indefinitely?

Solution
We wish to compute
AN divide numerator and
lim Y(N) = lim denominator by N
AN/N
= hm
+ N/N
. A A
= hm =
+ 1 0+ 1
=A
Thus, the crop yield tends toward the constant value A as the nitrogen level N increases
indefinitely. For this reason, A is called the maximum attainable yield.

If the functional values f(x) increase or decrease without bound as x approaches c,

then technically lim f(x) does not exist. However, the behavior of the function in
x -+c
such a case may be more precisely described by using the following notation, which
is illustrated in Example 1.5 .10.

. if f(x) increases or
x 1s an infinite limit
say that Jim f ()·
X---+C

decreases without bound as c. We write

lim f(x) = +oo
X ---+C

increases without bound as c, or

lim f(x) = - oo

if f(x) decreases without bound as C.

NOTE Saying''f(x) decreases without bound as c" means that the output
J(x) of the function becomes negative and grows larger and larger in absolute
L value as x approaches the number c.

EXAMPLE 1.5.10 Using an Infinite Limit to Study Average Profit

A manufacturer determines that when x hundred units of a particular product are pro-
duced and sold, the profit will be P(x) = 4x - Vx thousand dollars. What happens
to the average profit when the production level is very small?
 ,
-~~- . -- -....
: j<,, .> <,'• E 'S :_,.
-··

74
CHAPTER 1 1-)4
Functions, Graphs, and Limits

Solution
y The average profit is
1
4x- VX .-.
AP(x) vx
at a very low level of
Pro.
thousand dollai·s per hundred units. To find what happens
duction, we examine the limit of AP(x) as x ~o:
4 - negati ve and
4x - VX l arows large in abso lute value
lim AP(x) =
x-->0 x-->0 X
lim
x-->0
"'
= -00
and fewer umts are produced, the
We interpret this limit as saying that as fewer. actually a huge loss. This
makes
average profit derived from producing each unit 1s fixed start-up costs
dominate any
sense because when only a few units are produced,
revenue that may be derived from sales.
~"
.,.,,,..._.._
,r

EXERC ISES l!i 1.5 ...... "-

In Exercises I through 6, find lim f(x) if it exists.

x-+a
1. 2. 3.
~ ""'"

y y

C -I- ,

·r A
b
'
H /
I /
x
I aI
,.. x
a
X
Cl

5. 6.
4.
y y
y

t
ct
/ b
b

\ X
a
X x
a a
I
\

I
\\

a_
 1-75
SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 75
In Exercises 7 through 26, find the indicated Limit
(f 11 exists. In Exercises 37 and 38, the graph of a function f(x) is
given. Use the graph to determine Jim f(x) and
7. lim + 2) Jim f(x).
x-2 x---+ +00
X---+ - 00
8. lim (x3 - 2x2 + x - 3)
.,·- - ! 37.
9. lim (x5 - 6x4 + 7) y
x-o
10. lim (1 -
11. lim (x - 1)2(x + 1)
x-3
12. lim (x2 + 1)(1 - 2x)2
x-- 1
X + I 2x + 3
13. lim 14. lim
x---. 1/3 X + 2 X-+ I X + I

x+3 2x + 3
15. lim 16. lim 38.
x-5 5 - X x-3 y
x2 - 1 9 - x2
17. lim 18. lim
x-+I X - I x-3 X - 3
x2 - 3x - 10 x2+x- 6
19. lim 20. lim X
x---+5 x-5 x-2 x-2
(x + l)(x - 4) x(x2 - 1)
21. lim 22. lim
x-4 (x - l)(x - 4) x-o X2
I
x2-x- 6 x2 + 4x - 5
23. lim 24. lim
x--2 x2 + 3x + 2 X---? I x2 - 1 In Exercises 39 through 42, complete the table by
evaluating f(x) at the specified values of x. Then use
Yx-2 Vx- 3
25. lim 26. the table to estimate the indicated limit or show it
X - 4 x-+9 X -·9 does not exist.

For Exercises 27 through 36, find lim f(x) and 39. f(x) = x2 - x; lim f(x)
x-+ cc,
lim f(x) . If the limiting value is infinite, indicate
- 00
whether it is + oo or -oo.
I~I
27. f(x) = x3 - 4x2 - 4 1
40. f(x) =x - -; lim f(x)
28. f(x) = 1 - x + 2x2 - 3x3
I I
X

29. f(x) = (1 - 2x)(x + 5) ;(x) 0.0009 0.009 0.09

30. f(x) = (1 + x2)3
x1--2x +3 1 - 3x3 x3 +1
31. f(x) = 32. f(x) = 41. f(x) = ; lim f(x)
2x2 + 5x + 1 + 2
X - 1

2x +1 x2+x- 5
33. f(x) = 34. f(x) = l.l
3x2 + 2x - 7 l-2x-x 3
+ 2 x3 +1
35. f(x) = 36. f(x) = 42. f(x) = ; lim f(x)
2x - 9 X + 1

; (x) rl.T r
X + 1 x--1

1.01 1.001 ro
 1.76

76 CHAPTER 1 Functions, Graphs, and Limits the organ i1.er of a sports

y0,nas. ·r the eve nt 1s annou nced x
54. REVENUE that 1
In Erercises 43 thm11g!, 50, . the indicated limit or obwmed will
event, estimates the revenue
show that it does not exist ming 1dvan ce,
days in , where
abo/11 limits involving the fimctinm f(x) and g(x) d dollars, 2
thousan J20X - X
limcf(x) = 5 and lim /(.r) = - 3 R(x) === 400 +
. the event for x days is
.,·- X--->OO

lim g(.r) = 4 f advertisl!lg

Jim g(x) = -2 and The cost o d dollars, where
X-+C
C(x) thousa n 2 + 300
43. Jim [2/(x) - 3g(x) J 44. lim f(x) g(x) C(x) === 2.x
X--+C x ---+c P(x) = R(x) - C(x), and
rofit function
45. Jim VJ(x) + g(x) 46. limf(x)[g(x) - 3] a. find the P
sketch its graph. in advance should Tomas
X-+C .r->c

2/(x) - g(x) days

47. Jimf(x-)
X-4C g(X)
— 48. Jim
x -+c 5g(x) + 2/(x)
b. How many
annou nce the event
to maximize profit ? What
profit?
2J(x) + g(x) is the max imum . of revenue to cost
49. Jim 50. limV, c. What is the ratio
x ---+oo X + j(X) R(x)

•
Q(x)
C(x)
nc emen t time found in
at the optimal annou as 0?
51. PER CAPITA EARNINGS Studies indicate that (b) ? What happens to this ratio
part
t years from now, the population of a certain Interpret these results.
country will be p = 0.2t + 1,500 thousand GEMENT Alicia, the manager
people, and that the gross earnings of the country 55. PLANT MANA that when x% of the plant's
of a plant, determrnes
will be E million doIJars, where the total cost of operation
capacity is being used,
E(t) = + 179 is C hundred dollars, where
a. Express the per capita earnings of the country 8x2 - 636x - 320
C(x) -
E x2 - 68x - 960
P = - as a function of time t. (Take care with
p
The company has a policy of rotating marntenance
the units.) 80%
in an attempt to ensure
b. What happens to the per capita earnings in the
oo)? of capacity is always in use. What cost should
long run (as
Alicia expect when the plant is operating at this
52. PRODUCTION A business manager determines ideal capacity?
that t months after production begins on a new
product, the numb er of units produced will be 56. PRODUCTIVITY When starting a new job at a
production facility, employees can be expected to
P thousand, where
assemble n items per hour after t weeks of work
P(t) experience, where
(t + 1)2 150
to production in the long run
n(t) = 70 -— t +4
(as 00)? Empl oyees are paid 20 cents for each item
they assem ble.
53. AVERAGE COST A business manager
determines that the total cost of producing x units a. Find an expression for the amount of money
of a particular commodity may be modeled by A(t) earned per hour by an employee with
t weeks of experience .
the function
b. How much money per hour should an employee
C(x) = 7.5x + 120,000
expect to eru·n in the long run (as co)?
C(x)
Find 57. ~ON TINUOUS COM POU NDIN G If $1 ,000
(dollars). The average cost is A(x) X
1s invested at So/0 compounded n times per year,
Iim A(x), and interpret your result. the balance after 1 year will be 1,000(1 + o.osx/ \
where x ==
l/ n is the length of the compounding

4
1-77 SECTION 1.5 LIMITS 77

,r
period. F0r example, 11 = 4, the compounding minutes. What happens to the time of traverse as
period is I/4 year long. When the length of the the number of trials n increases indefinitely?
compounding period approaches zero, we say that Interpret your result.
interest is co111pou11ded continuously, and the
61. EXPLOSION AND EXTINCTION Two species
balance after I year is given by the limit.
coexist in the same ecosystem. Species I has
B = Jim 1,000(1 + 0.05x)1;., population P(t) in t years, while Species II has
.r-o
population Q(t), both in thousands, where P and
Estimate the value of this limit by filling in the
Q are modeled by the functions
second line of the following table:
30 64
x
11 I 0.1 I 0.01 I 0.001 I 0.0001
P(t) = — and Q(t) =-
3 +t 4 - t
1,000(1 + 0.05x)11x for all times t 2: 0 for which the respective
populations are nonnegative.
a. What is the initial pqpulation of each species?

'
b. to P(t) as t increases? What
58. POPULATION Scott, an urban planner, models to Q(t)?
the population P(t) (in thousands) of his c. Sketch the graphs of P(t) and Q(t).
community t years from now by the function d. Species I is said to face extinction in the long
40t 50 run, while the population of Species II explodes.
P(t) = -—+ 70 Write a paragraph on what kind of circumstances
t2 + 10 t+ l
ah5 might result in either explosion or extinction of
What is the current population of the community? a species.
By how much does the population change during
the 3rd year? Is the population increasing or 62. BACTERIAL GROWTH The accompanying
decreasing over this time period? graph shows how the growth rate R(T) of a
c. What population should Scott plan for in the bacterial colony changes with temperature T. *
long run (as oo)? a. Over what range of values of T does the growth
rate R(T) double?
59. CONCENTRATION OF DRUG The b
What can be said about the growth rate for
concentration of drug in a patient's bloodstream 25 < T< 45?
t hours after an injection is C(t) milligrams per c. What happens when the temperature reaches
milliliter where roughly 45°C? Does it make sense to compute
0.4 lim R(T)?
C(t) = + 0.013 I T- so
tl.2 + 1 d. Write a paragraph describing how temperature
a. What is the concentration of drug immediately affects the growth rate of a species.
after the injection (when t = 0)?
bo R
By how much does the concentration change
during the 5th hour? Does it increase or
(l
lf/
S
l5O5
lO
decrease over this time period? UOlllU;;)

c. What is the residual concentration of drug, that

is, the concentration that remains in the long run goo)
(as oo)? ;;>JUJ

60. EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY To study the ljl

M
rate at which animals learn, a psychology student 29 T
performed an experiment in which a rat was sent 10 20 30 40 50
repeatedly through a laboratory maze. Suppose the Temperature (°C)
time required for the rat to traverse the maze on
the nth trial was approximately EXERCISE 62
Sn+ 17 *Source: Michael D. La Grega, Phillip L. Buckingham, and Jeffrey C.
T(n) =-
n Evans, Hazardous Waste Management. NewYork: McGraw-Hill,
1994, pp. 565- 566. Reprinted by permission
L r
_
—
78 CHAPTER 1 Functions, Graphs, and Limits
1·78

h represents a function f (x)

ing grap
__

63· ANIMAL BEHAVIOR In some animal species, 66. The accompany 1 and - 1 more and more
the intake of food is affected by the amount of between
roaches o from either the right
that oscillates
frequently as x app
vigilance maintained by the animal while feeding.
In essence, it·1s hai·d to eat heartily while Jirn J(x) exist? If so, what is its
1 or the left. Does x~O
watching for predators that may eat you. In one students with expenence in
value? [Note: For l
model, t if the animal is foraging on plants that the function f(x) = behaves

-~·----
a bite of size S, the intake rate of food, /(S), trigonometry,
is given bY a funct10n of the form in this way.] . ,._,,.

aS y
/(S) = —
S+c
where a and c are pos1t1ve constants.
a. What happens to the intake /(S) as bite size x
S increases indefinitely? Interpret your result.
/ b. Read an article on various ways that the food
intake rate may be affected by scanning for
predators. Then write a paragraph on how
mathematical models may be used to study such
behavior in zoology. The reference cited in this EXERCISE 66
problem offers a good starting point.
67. A wire is stretched horizontally, as shown in the
I MISCELLANEOUS PROBLEMS J accompanying figure. An experiment is conducted
in which different weights are attached at the center
Solve Exercises 17 through 26 by using the TRACE and the corresponding vertical displacements are
feature of your calculator to make a table of x and measured. When too much weight is added, the
f(x) values near the number x is approaching. wire snaps. Based on the data in the following
65. Evaluate the limit table, what do you think is the. maximum possible
a,,x'+ + . .. + a1x + displacement for this kind of wil·e?
lim
X-4 +00 + · · ·+ b1x + Weight 115 I 16 I 17 I 18 i 17.5 1 17.9 117.99
W (lb)
for constants a0, a 1, . . . , an and b1 , ... 'bm
in each of the following cases: Displacement 11.7 11.75 11.78 Snaps 1.79 1.795 Snaps
J J J J

y (in.)
a. n<m
b. n =m
c. n > m [Note: There are two possible answers,
depending on the signs of an and bm.]

tA. W. Willius and C. Fitzgibbon, "Costs of Vigilance in Foraging

Ungulates," Animal Behavior, Vol. 47, Pt. 2 (Feb. I994) EXERCISE 67

""'"" a

SECTION 1.6 One-Sided Limits and Continuity

Learning Objectives
1 _ Compute and use one-sided limits.
2. Explore the concept of continuity and examine the continuity of several
functions.
3. Investigate the intermediate value property.

.....
1-79 SECTIO N 1.6 ONE-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 79

The dictionary defines continuity as an "unbroken or uninterrupted succession."

Con-
tinuous behavior is certainly an important part of our lives. For instance, the
growth
of a tree is continuous, as are the motion of a rocket and the volume of water
flow-
ing into a bathtub. In t h i·
s section, we shall discuss what it means for a function to be
continuous and shall examine a few·important
properties of such functions.
One-S ided Limits Informally, a continuous function is one whose graph can be drawn without the pen
leav-
ing the paper (Figure 1.50a). Not all functions have this property, but those that
do play
a special role in calculus. A function is not continuous where its graph has a hole
or gap
(Figure 1.50b), but what do we really mean by holes and gaps in a graph? To describe
such features mathematically, we require the concept of a one-sided limit of a function
;
that is, a limit in which the approach is either from the right or from the left, rather
than
from both sides as required for the two-sided limit introduced in Section 1.5.

y y

x x
b
(a) A continuous graph (b) A graph with holes or gaps
is not continuous

FIGUR E 1 .50 Continuity and discontinuity.

For instai1ce, Figure 1.51 shows the graph of inventory I as a function of time
t
for a immediately restocks to level L1 whenever the inventory falls to
a level Li (this is called just-in-time inventory). Suppose the first
fr·h:: occurs at t = t 1. Then as t tends toward t1 from the left, the limiting
value of IU) is. Li, while if the approach is from the right, the limiting value
is L1.

/ (units in inventory)

Li

r-r1- t 12 13

FIGUR E 1.51 One-sided limits in a just-in-time inventory example.

Here is the notation we will use to describe one-sid ed limiting behavior.

One-S ided approaches L as x tends toward c from the left

(x < c), we write lim f(x) = L. Likewise, if f(x) approaches Mas x tends toward
c from the right (c < x), then lim f(x) = M.
r- 1-ao
80 CHAPTER 1 Functions, Graphs, and Limits
we would wnte
example,
inventory
If this notation is use d in our Jim J(t) == L,
Jim l(t) == bJ. and ,_.,'
,
one-sided limits.
·__- to evaluate
Examples 1.6.1 and 1.6.2 show how

y
One-Sided Limits
EXAMPLE 1.6.1 Evaluating
/ For the function
5
{'-x'ifQ5x<2
f(x) = 2x +1 if x 2: 2

evaluate the one-sided limits Jim_f(x) and , lim+f(x).

03 X

Solution ;- for O :s x < 2,

The graph is shown in Figure 1.52. Since f(x) =1-
we have
FIGURE 1.52 The graph of
lim_f(x) = Jim_ = -3
f(x) = {1-x2
2x + I ifx~2
Similarly, f(x) = 2x + 1 if x~2, so
lim f(x) = lirn (2x + 1) =5
2+

EXPLORE! i
Refer to Example 1.6.2. Graph EXAMPLE 1.6.2 Evaluating Infinite One-Sided li m its
x-2
f(x) = using the window
x-4
[O, 9.4]1 by (-4, 4]1 to Find the limit of —
x-2
x-4
as x approaches 4 from the left and from the right.
verify the limit results as x
approaches 4 from the left Solution
and the right. Now TRACE
f(x) for large positive or First, note that for 2 < x < 4 the quantity
negative values of x. What do x-2
you observe? f(x) =———
x-4
is negative, so as x approaches 4 from the left, the denominator approaches zero, and
f(x) decreases without bound. We denote this fact by writing
. x -2
hm ——== - oo
X - 4

Likewise, as x approaches 4 from the right (with x >

and we write 4), f(x) increases without bound

. x-2
hm -—-
X - 4
== +oo

The graph off is shown in Figure 1.53

----
,-81 SECTION 1.6 ONE-SIDED LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 81

y x=4

I
I
I
I
I
I
_ __ _ I
- - - - -1- - - - - - - - - - - -
x
\4
I
I
I
I
I Jim f(x) = -oo
I x->4-

EXPLORE!
Re-create the piecewise linear
function f(x) defined in
Example 1.6.1 . Verify
graphically that
lim f(x) = -3 and lim f(x) = 5.
x-2
FIGURE 1.53 The graph of f(x) =
x-4
Notice that the two-sided limit limf(x) does not exist for the function in Exam-
ple 1.6.1 since the functional values f(x) do not approach a single value L as x tends
toward 2 from each side. In general, we have the following useful criterion for the
existence of a limit.

Exist e nc-::: two-sided limit limf(x) exists if and only if the

x-+c
two one-sided !i! 1im f (x) and lim f(x) both exist and are equal, and then
\·---,.c x-+c

lim f(x) = lim f(x) = lim f(x)

X->C

LE 1.6.3 Using One-Sided Limits to Find

a Two-Sided Limit
Determine whether limf(x) exists, where
x---+ 1
X +1 if X < I
f(x) = {-x2 + 4x - l if X 2: 1
Solution
Computing the one-sided limits at x = I, we find
lim_f(x) = lim (x + 1) =(I)+ 1 = 2 since.f(x) = x + I when x < I
x---+1 x---+ I
and
lim f(x) = lim (-x2 + 4x - f(x) = - :? + when x ?: I
x----+1 + x----+I +

+ 4(I) - 1 = 2
82
CHAPTER 1 1-82
Functions, Graphs, and Limits

that the two-sided limit of

Since the two one-sided limits are equal, it follows
x = I exists, and we have
== 2
Jim f(x) = Jim_J(x) == Lim+f(x)

The graph of f(x) is shown in Figure 1.54.

y
- ----
y = -x2+ 4x - I

FIGURE 1.54 The graph off(x) = {~:2~4x _ 1~:: ~-

Continuity At the beginning of this section, we observed that a continuous fu nction is one whose
graph has no holes or gaps. A hole at x = c can arise in several w:iys. three of which
are shown in Figure 1.55.

y y

x x x
x =c
is not defined (b) (c) Jim f()
x = Jim J (x) = too

--

FIGURE 1.55 Three ways the graph of a function can have a hole at x == C.
-

The graph will have a gap at x = c if the one-sided Iimits lim J(x) and
lim+J(x) are not equal. Three ways this can happen are shown in Figure 1.56.