Arba Minch University

Arba Minch Institute of Technology

Civil Engineering faculty
Surveying Engineering program
Course Introduction to Cartography
Target group: G 3 Surveying Engineering
Chapter 4: Cartographic generalization
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Contents

• Cartographic generalization

• Purpose of generalization

• Elements of generalization

• Controls of Generalization

• Classification Manipulations

• Simplification Manipulations

• Symbolizing geographical features

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Cartographic generalization
• Generalization is the process of reducing the information content
of map due to scale change, map purpose, intended audience,
and/or technical constraints.
• Map generalization is the simplification of observable spatial
variation to allow its representation on a map.
• Map generalization is an information-oriented process intended
to universalize the content of a spatial database for what is of
interest.
• Generalization is “the reduction of detail or simplification of
reality”.
• Reduction of complexity of map to ensure its fitness for use.
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Cartographic generalization
• Cartographic generalization or map generalization: is a
method for developing a smaller-scale map from a larger
scale map or map data.
• Generalization needs to abstract spatial information at a
high level of detail to information that can be rendered
(reduced) on a map at a lower level of detail.
• Map cannot retain all detail and if they could, It would be
too complex to understand.

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Cartographic generalization
• Because of maps cannot shows everything, mapmaker must
select which features to show and which to omit.
• Is an umbrella term for several processes, all intended to
remove unnecessary detail.
• Features need to be simplified to be legible at smaller scale.
• Data need to be classified, divided into smaller groups
similar values.
• Finally symbol must be chosen to represent features on map.

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Cartographic generalization
• Map generalization:
• Reduces complexity
• Retains spatial and attribute accuracy
• Accounts for map purpose and scale
• Provides more ‘information’ or more efficient communication

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Purpose of generalization

• The reduction in scope, amount, type and cartographic

portrayal of mapped or encoded data.

• Maintenance of graphical clarity at the target scale.

• Basic principle of map generalization is to emphasis on

relevant objects and omit less important ones.

• Ensure readability and preserve geographical meaning of the

map as faithfully as possible.

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Elements of generalization
• Selection
• Classification
five major (interdependent)
• Simplification steps:
• Exaggeration
• Symbolization
• Displacement

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Elements of generalization
• Selection
• To limit our concern to those classes of information that will
serve the map’s purpose.
• Which elements remain depends on the purpose of the map:
topographic, thematic etc.
• How many elements remain depends mostly on map scale:
if map scale is reduced by half, then the total map area size
is reduced by 4, and the number of elements: points, lines
and areas are reduced accordingly.
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Elements of generalization
• Classification: - order, scale and
group features by their attributes.
• Is a way of reducing the
information to a form that can be
easily presented on map.
• Classification of a point pattern.
• After clustering the points, the
cartographer selects a position
within each cluster and places a dot
to “typify” the cluster.
• The “typical” position need not
coincide with the position of any of
the original data points.
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Elements of generalization
• Simplification: - determine important
characteristics of feature attributes
and eliminate unwanted detail.
• Involves omitting details that will
clutter the map and confuse the
reader.
• The degree of simplification depends
on the purpose and scale of map.
• Simplification by point elimination.
• In the illustrated clusters of points,
one original point is selected to
represent each cluster of original
points on the generalized map.
• Reducing map scales leads to the
consequent
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simplifications. 11
Elements of generalization
• Exaggeration: enhance
or emphasize important
characteristics of the
attributes.
• Exaggeration is used to
improve the characteristic
feature representation on
the map
• The representation leads
to space inaccuracy
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Elements of generalization
• Symbolization: information depends on largely on the nature of
the original data.
• Information can be nominal (showing difference in kind, such as
land versus water, grassland versus forest); or ordinal (showing
relative differences in quantities as well as kind, such as major
versus minor ore deposits); or interval.
• Cartographers use various shapes, colors, or patterns to
symbolize these categories of data, and the particular nature of
the information being communicated often determines how it is
symbolized.
• The color, size and style used for different elements on map to
symbolization.
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Elements of generalization
• Displacement (locational shift)
• Against coalescence: needed if the objects
are too close
• Buildings near building
• Buildings near roads
• De-clustering too crowded regions at the
cost of empty regions.
• Apply moderately to keep map
impression, i.e., relatively crowdedness
• Objects with lower priority are shifted
(lost exact location but readiness of the
map is improved)
• E.g. road or rail way or river crowded in to
each other, need shifting (not all features are
shown at their exact location).
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Elements of generalization

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Elements of generalization

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Elements of generalization

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Controls of Generalization
• Map purpose and conditions of use
• Map scale
• Quality and quantity of data
• Graphic limits
• Physical limits
• Physiological and psychological limits

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Classification Manipulations
• Point feature methods
• Collapsing
• Typification

• Line feature classification

• Aggregation of areas
• Aggregation of volumes - e.g. Classification for choropleth
maps

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Classification Manipulations
• Collapsing: Illustrations
of the collapsing process
in cartographic
generalization.
• Each feature represented
in the left diagrams has
lost at least one
dimension in its portrayal
in the right diagram.

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Classification Manipulations
• Typification:
Representations illustrating
typification by
classification of point, line
and area features.

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Classification Manipulations
• Aggregation of Areas:
The original data area
mapped at a scale of
1:X. (A) represents a
smaller-scale
accumulation of the
original data. (B)
represents the further
aggregation of areas for
an even smaller-scale
representation.
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Simplification Manipulations
• Elimination
• Point elimination
• Line simplification
• Area elimination

• Smoothing
• Filtering

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Simplification Manipulations
• Elimination
• Simplification applied at a constant scale.
• The four maps (A through D) represent increasing
simplifications of the coastline and hydrography.

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Simplification Manipulations
• Point elimination:
• Simplification of the outline
by point elimination.
• The points indicated on the
map to the left were retained
on the map to the right where
they were connected with
straight-line segments.
• All points not selected on the
map to the left were eliminated
in producing the map on the
right.
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Simplification Manipulations
• Line Simplification Process:
• Successive stages in line simplification process: (1) The initial
line. (2) Point C, having the greatest perpendicular distance to
line AB in (1) is selected for retention.
• Lines AC and CB are drawn. (3) The elimination of points
between points A and C, because no perpendicular exceeds the
threshold, and retention of point D, because its perpendicular
distance to line CB does exceed the threshold.

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Simplification Manipulations
• Area Elimination:
• Simplification by feature elimination.
• Areas on the left map are either shown in their entirety or
completely eliminated in the feature-simplified map on the
right.

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Symbolizing geographical features
• Point symbolisation
• Qualitative
• Quantitative

• Line symbolisation
• Qualitative
• Quantitative

• Area symbolisation
• Qualitative
• Quantitative

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Symbolizing geographical features
• Qualitative point symbolization:
• Nominally scaled symbols are used to indicate four classes
of climatic stations. Left: the use of orientation of symbols.
Right: the use of the visual variable, shape.

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Symbolizing geographical features
• Quantitative point symbolization:
• Symbols are proportionally scaled so that areas of the
symbols are in the same ratio as the population numbers
they represent.
• Three legends whose symbols are identical. The added
information in the form of text puts one legend on an
ordinal scale, one on a range-graded scale, and one on a
ratio scale.

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Symbolizing geographical features
• Qualitative line
symbolization:
• Examples of lines of
differing character (the
visual variable shape)
which are useful for
the symbolization of
nominal linear data.

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Symbolizing geographical features
• Quantitative line
symbolization:
• Range-graded line
symbols. On this map
of immigrants from
Europe in 1900, lines
of standardized width
are used to represent a
specified range of
numbers of
immigrants.
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Symbolizing geographical features
• Qualitative area
symbolization:
• Some standardized
symbols for indicating
lithologic data as
suggested by the
International
Geographical Union
Commission on Applied
Geomorphology
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Symbolizing geographical features
• Quantitative area
symbolization:
• Map illustrating the
range-graded
classification of Florida
counties. The use of the
visual variable value
(colour) creates a
stepped surface.

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Appropriate uses of the
visual variables

• Appropriate uses of the

visual variables for
symbolization. The visual
variable in italics are of
secondary importance.

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Principles of graphical excellence
a) show the data
b) induce the reader to think about the substance rather than the methodology,
graphic design, gee-whiz technology
c) avoid distorting what the data have to say
d) present many numbers in a small space
e) make large datasets coherent
f) encourage the eye to compare different pieces of data
g) reveal the data at several levels of detail, from broad overview to the fine
structure
h) serve a reasonably clear purpose: description, exploration, tabulation or
decoration
i) be closely integrated with the statistical and verbal descriptions of a dataset

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 THANKS
If any question

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