GENERALIZATION OF

GEOGRAPHICAL DATA
GROUP 1
WHY IS GENERALIZATION
NECESSARY?

If a map is produced from a database at a scale smaller

than intended, the map might become illegible.

The data requires Generalisation

What is generalization?

• The process of reducing the amount of detail in a map (or

database) in a meaningful way.

- Generalization related to the map purpose

- Generalisation is scale related
- Generalization is partly subjective
- Generalization is output related
Map purpose
Generalisation is partly subjective
Generalisation activities are scale related
• On large scale maps the real world can be represented
with large detail. Such maps require only little
generalisation: some simplification, some enlargement or
some displacement of features.

• However, the smaller the scale of the map, the less detail
can be represented, the more important generalisation
becomes.
EXAMPLE

Generalised map
represented
at scale 1:10,000
 Where does generalisation really begin?
• Scales ≥ 1:5,000: the planimetric accuracy of the original survey data are
fairly well maintained.

• Scales 1:10,000 – 1:25,000: some roads and other features (e.g. railways)
are no longer true to scale. Some simplification, enlargement or displacement
of features.

• Scales 1:25,000 – 1:50,000: roads and buildings are no longer true to scale
(roads are represented by lines). Buildings are often simplified and displaced.
In densely built-up areas buildings are already omitted or combined.
• Scales ≤ 1:50.000:

- Selection, reclassification and resymbolisation;

- Strong simplification and displacements;
- Buildings no longer true to scale or not shown as
individual buildings;
- Merging of area features.
EXAMPLE

Topographic Map
1:50 000
after generalisation
Conceptual and graphic generalisation
• Conceptual generalisation:
selection/ omission of categories,(re) classification,(re) symbolisation or the
enhancement of objects.

It mainly effects the semantics (attributes) of the data.The map legend changes.

• Graphic generalisation:
simplification, enlargement, displacement, or the graphic combination or
selection of objects.

It mainly effects the geometry and location of the objects.

Conceptual generalization activities:

Selection (omission) of
categories

Classification

Symbolization

Enhancement
(emphasis)
Graphic generalization activities:
• Selection (omission)

• Merging (combination or
aggregation)

• Simplification

• Enlargement (exaggeration)

• Displacement
Conceptual versus Graphic generalisation
Generalization activities:

symbolisation
Guidelines for Map
Generalisation
 General guidelines (I)
1. Select those features that
are necessary or useful for
the purpose of the map and
in accordance to the scale.
Emphasise the most
important features and omit
or repress the less important
ones;
 
Emphasize the administrative hierarchy
2. Have regard for the displacement priority rules

• Trigonometric points
• Hydrography features
• Railways
• Roads
• Buildings
• Area features, e.g. forests
3. Have regard for the minimum sizes of graphic map
symbols;

4. Within the limitations imposed by the map scale,

planimetric accuracy should be maintained.
 General guidelines (II)
• Retain important and noticeable features. For example
isolated buildings in a rural area will often be retained on
medium scale maps because of their importance in the
area;

• Within the limitations imposed by the map scale, shape of

features and the character of the area should be
maintained. For example if an area is characterised by
numerous small rivers and lakes and forest areas, this
should also be clear at smaller scales;
 General guidelines (III)
• Relationships between features should be taken into
account.
For example there is a close relationship between relief
(e.g. contours) and hydrography. After generalisation the
contours should still fit to the river system. The size of
buildings in built-up areas should be in relation to open
areas and the width of streets.

• Be consistent
Detailed Guidelines
built-up areas
 Change of symbol typification
• at large scales, individual
buildings
• at smaller scales, built-up
area symbol for the larger
urban areas
• at very small scales,
(small) settlements shown
by point symbols
Buildings at 1:200 000
 Generalisation: built-up areas
• points to watch in graphic representation
- Minimum dimension and distances
- Shapes
- Special buildings- Maintain structure: density, size
differences, orientation, characteristic shapes
- Displacement of buildings along roads
- Maintain relative location
Minimum dimension and distances
Shapes
Special buildings
Map Generalisation
Process
Sequence of map generalization activities
• Conceptual generalisation

- Selection of object categories/ Conceptual selection: extraction of

purpose and scale adapted objects or group of objects based on database
attributes.

- Reclassification of objects: reclassify objects into another category to

enable aggregation with objects having the same class.

- Resymbolisation of objects: geometry type change (includes collapses a

polygon either to a line or to a point)
Sequence of map generalization activities
→ Assign symbols to the object geometry (this includes object
enhancement)
• Graphic generalisation
- Object aggregation: combine objects of the same or a similar class to a new
object
- Object exaggeration (be aware of minimum sizes): enlarges objects
- Object displacement (be aware of displacement order): displace objects in
conflict situations
- Object selection/omission: removes an objects
- Object simplification: form of the lines and area outlines

→ Name placement: optimize the placement of names

Interrelation of generalization activities
• You can subdivide generalization into a several sets of
processes. However the processes usually interrelate.
One process is often required as a result of another
process.

For example:
→ Houses along a road need to be displaced when a road
has to be enlarged in order to remain visible after scale
reduction.
Map generalization in practice
Map production line of TDKadaster
(Dutch Topographic Survey)
TOP10vector Topographic map 1:25.000
Production of TOP50vector
TOP50vector Topographic map 1:50.000
Production line (cont…)
Topographic map 1:100.000 Topographic map 1:250.000
Automatic generalisation
Generalisation workflow

Combined approach
Customer defined output 1:250 000 output 1:1 000 000 output

Master
database 1:50 000

1:10 000 output

1:50 000 output

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Real world

Object Model (database)

DLM DLM
generalisation generalisation
1:10 000 1:50 000

Cartographic
generalisation

DCM
1:50 000

Map (analog model)

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 From DLM to DCM

DLM DCM
“GIS database” “Map database”
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 Model generalisation
• Reduces the amount of data to the level suitable for
the target scale.

(a) selection of objects by class and by attribute value and/or

context
(b) reclassification
(c) geometry-type changes (incl. collapsing)
(d) aggregation
(e) typification (optional)
(f) deletion
(g) geometric simplification (as long as it does not create
conflicts among features due to significant
displacement of features)
• None of the above operations displace objects (or a set of
objects) and hence the objects remains in its correct location.

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 Cartographic generalisation
• How to make best use of map space to optimize legibility at a
given scale and for a particular purpose of the map.

• Involved operations:

• Applying map-specific representations

• Displacement of objects in conflict situations
• Name placement

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 Sequential processing for model generalisation
1. Selection: Extraction of purpose and scale adapted objects or group
of objects based on database attributes.

2. Reclassification: Reclassify objects into another category to enable

aggregation with objects having the same class.

3. Collapsing: Collapses a polygon either to a line or to a point

4. Aggregation: Combines an objects with other objects of the same or

a similar class to a new object.

5. Typification: Transformation of an initial set of objects into a subset,

while maintaining and preserving the characteristics of distribution and
pattern of the original data set.

6. Deletion: removes an object from the data set

7. Simplification: reduces the granularity of an outline of an object.

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Generalisation operators (I)

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Generalisation operators (II)

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 Application of Generalization operators

Aggregate
Simplify buildings avoiding Displace
buildings streets buildings from
roads
Collapse double- Aggregate
line roads to polygons Displace linear
centerlines features

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Grouping of generalisation operators
• Independent - This kind of operator is applied to
individual objects or groups of objects independent
of their spatial context (no spatial relationships with
other features; e.g. simplification and smoothing).

• Contextual - Context dependent operators like

selection, aggregation, displacement or typification
can only be triggered and controlled by analysis of
the context. For instance, relation between
surrounding objects is needed to keep spatial
integrity when objects are displaced.

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