Toponimi dan Generalisasi

Peta
Toponimi
 Toponimi (Toponyms)
• Adalah ilmu yang mempelajari nama-nama
tempat, maknanya, dan asal-usulnya

New York: From the Duke of Lake Ontario =

york Ontario

New Jersey = from

the Isle of Jersey in
Nova Scotia = "New
the English
Scotland"
Channel
 Toponimi
• Toponimi adalah bahasan ilmiah tentang nama tempat,
asal-usul, arti, penggunaan, dan tipologi (kajian dan
klasifikasi bahasa menurut fitur strukturalnya).
• Suatu toponimi adalah nama dari tempat, wilayah, atau
suatu bagian lain dari permukaan bumi, termasuk yang
bersifat alami (seperti sungai) dan yang buatan (seperti
kota).
• Dalam etnologi, suatu toponimi adalah sebuah nama
yang diturunkan dari suatu tempat atau wilayah.
• Dalam anatomi, toponimi adalah nama bagian tubuh,
yang dibedakan dengan nama organ tubuh.
• Dalam biologi, suatu toponimi adalah nama binomial dari
4
suatu tumbuhan.
 Tipe-tipe Toponimi
Descriptive: Rocky Mountains, Chicago (Smelly Onions in the language of the first
inhabitants).
Associative: Mill River (a mill was on the river), Springfield
Incident Names: Battle Creek, Bloody Ridge, Cut and Shoot
Possessive Names: Castro Valley, Pittsburgh
Commemorative (commemorating someone well-known or in honor of a famous
person): St Louis, San Jacinto, Houston, Seattle (named after Chief Seattle), Austin,
Pennsylvania (Penn's Woods), Illinois (after the Illini Indians)
Commendatory (praising): Pleasant Valley, Greenland
Manufactured (made up names): Tesnus (Sunset spelled backwards), Reklaw
(Walker spelled backwards) Iraan (Ira and Ann name the town after each other)
Mistaken (historic errors in identification or translation): West Indies (not west of the
Indies and not the Indies)
Shift Names (relocated names or names from settler's homeland): Athens (Greece
and Texas), Palestine (Middle East and Texas), New Mexico (settlers from Mexico
named their new home after their previous home),New England
 Gazetteer
• The Oxford English Dictionary defines a "gazetteer" as a
"geographical index or dictionary"
• A gazetteer is a geographical dictionary or directory used in
conjunction with a map or atlas. It typically contains
information concerning the geographical makeup, social
statistics and physical features of a country, region, or
continent.
• Content of a gazetteer can include a subject's location,
dimensions of peaks and waterways, population, gross
domestic product and literacy rate.
• This information is generally divided into topics with entries
listed in alphabetical order.
• Contoh: Nova Scotia Gazetter
https://geonova.novascotia.ca/place-names 6
Nova Scotia Gazetter

7
Nova Scotia Gazetter

8
Nova Scotia Gazetter

9
Generalisasi Peta
 Generalization from large into small scale

Scale 1:10,000 Scale 1:25,000 Scale 1:50,000

Decrease of detail
Increase of area

1 cm = 100 meters 1 cm = 250 meters 1 cm = 500 meters

Scale 1:100,000 Scale 1:200,000 Scale 1:500,000

1 cm = 1 kilometer 1 cm = 2 kilometer 1 cm = 5 kilometer

Scale reduction without
generalisation
1:25,000 map

1:25,000 map
reduced to 50%
without generalisation
1:25,000 map
reduced to 25%
without generalisation
 Landscape, versus Cartographic Model

Digital Landscape Model (DLM) Digital Cartographic Model (DCM)

Polygon (x,y)
Line (x,y)

PT
1289

Line (x,y,z) Point (x,y)

- Objects, (point, line and area) Scale 1:25,000

- X,Y,Z, Coordinates
- Attributes
- Without scale
 Why is generalisation
necessary?
– Increased density of the map contents
due to scale reduction.

– Features become too small to be seen

clearly, or to be represented at true size
(to scale) on a monitor or on paper.
 What is generalization?
The process of reducing the amount
of detail in a map (or database) in a
meaningful way

•Generalization related to the map purpose

- Generalisation is scale related
- Generalization is partly subjective
- Generalization is output related
Generalisation is partly subjective
 Generalisation activities are scale related
• On large scale maps the real world can
be represented with large detail.
• Such maps require only little
generalisation: some simplification,
some enlargement or some displacement
of features.
•
• However, the smaller the scale of the
map, the less detail can be represented,
the more important generalisation
becomes.
Generalisation (example)

Generalised map represented

at scale 1:10,000
Generalisation activities are scale related
 Generalising activities are scale related
• Where does generalisation really begin?

• Scales ≥ 1:5,000: the planimetric accuracy of the

original survey data are fairly well maintained.

• Scales 1:10,000 – 1:25,000: some roads and other

features (e.g. railways) are no longer true to scale.
Some simplification, enlargement or displacement
of features.

• Scales 1:25,000 – 1:50,000: roads and buildings

are no longer true to scale (roads are represented
by lines). Buildings are often simplified and
displaced. In densely built-up areas buildings are
already omitted or combined.
 Generalising activities are scale related

•Scales ≤ 1:50.000:

– Selection, reclassification and

resymbolisation;
– Strong simplification and displacements;
– Buildings no longer true to scale or not
shown as individual buildings;
– Merging of area features.
Generalisation (example)

Result after a Topographic Map

scale reduction 1:50 000
after generalisation

Topographic Map1:10 000

 Conceptual and graphic generalisation

Conceptual generalisation: selection/omission of

categories,(re)classification,(re)symbolisation
or the enhancement of objects.
It mainly effects the semantics (attributes) of the data.The
map legend changes.

Graphic generalisation: simplification, enlargement,

displacement, or the graphic combination or selection
of objects.
It mainly effects the geometry and location of the objects.
Conceptual generalization activities:

Selection (omission)
of categories

Classification

Symbolization

Enhancement (emphasis)
Graphic generalization activities:

Selection (omission)

Merging (combination or
aggregation)

Simplification

Enlargement (exaggeration)

Displacement
 Conceptual versus graphic generalisation

forests geology
(b )
conc ept ual
gene ral izat ion

forests geology

Holocene
Pleistocene
other

(a)
graphic Quaternary
other
generalizat ion
 Generalization activities:

graphic selection

symbolisation
conceptual selection
displacement

classification
merging
simplification

enhancement
Guidelines for map generalisation
 General guidelines (I)
⚫ select those features that are necessary or
useful for the purpose of the map and in
accordance to the scale. Emphasise the most
important features and omit or repress the less
important ones;
⚫ have regard for the displacement priority rules;
⚫ have regard for the minimum sizes of graphic
map symbols;
⚫ within the limitations imposed by the map scale,
planimetric accuracy should be maintained.
Important and less important features

 ☺
 Emphasise important and repress less
important features
 ☺
Emphasize the administrative hierarchy

☺
 Priority rules for the displacement*

• Trigonometric points
• Hydrography features
• Railways
• Roads
• Buildings
• Area features, e.g. forests
 General guidelines (II)

⚫ retain important and noticeable features. For example

isolated buildings in a rural area will often be retained on
medium scale maps because of their importance in the
area;
⚫ within the limitations imposed by the map scale, shape of
features and the character of the area should be
maintained. For example if an area is characterised by
numerous small rivers and lakes and forest areas, this should
also be clear at smaller scales;


☺
 General guidelines (III)

⚫relationships between features should be

taken into account. For example there is a close
relationship between relief (e.g. contours) and
hydrography. After generalisation the contours
should still fit to the river system. The size of
buildings in built-up areas should be in relation to
open areas and the width of streets.
⚫be consistent
Contours should fit to streams
Detailed Guidelines

built-up areas
Change of symbol typification
• at large scales, individual buildings
• at smaller scales, built-up area symbol for the
larger urban areas
• at very small scales, (small) settlements shown
by point symbols
Buildings at 1:200 000
 Generalisation: built-up areas
• points to watch in graphic representation
– Minimum dimension and distances
– Shapes
– Special buildings
– Maintain structure: density, size differences,
orientation, characteristic shapes
– Displacement of buildings along roads
– Maintain relative location
Shapes
Special buildings
Special buildings / other constructions
Structure: density
Structure: size differences
Structure: orientation
Structure: characteristic shapes
Example
Generalisation exercise
Generalisation exercise
Map generalisation process
 Sequence of map generalization activities
Conceptual generalisation
– Selection of object categories
– Reclassification of objects
– Resymbolisation of objects

•  Assign symbols to the object geometry (this

includes object enhancement)
Graphic generalisation
– Object aggregation
– Object exaggeration (be aware of minimum sizes)
– Object displacement (be aware of displacement order)
– Object selection/omission
– Object simplification

•  Name placement
Automatic generalisation
Line simplification exercise
Generalise this map of the England & Wales
- reduce the existing 66 points to maximum 33
- only use existing points
- only use straight lines
Line simplification exercise
Generalisation workflow

Combined approach
Customer defined output 1:250 000 output 1:1 000 000 output

Master
database 1:50 000

1:10 000 output

1:50 000 output
 Sequential processing for model generalisation
1. Selection: Extraction of purpose and scale adapted objects or group
of objects based on database attributes.

2. Reclassification: Reclassify objects into another category to enable

aggregation with objects having the same class.

3. Collapsing: Collapses a polygon either to a line or to a point

4. Aggregation: Combines an objects with other objects of the same or

a similar class to a new object.

5. Typification: Transformation of an initial set of objects into a subset,

while maintaining and preserving the characteristics of distribution and
pattern of the original data set.

6. Deletion: removes an object from the data set

7. Simplification: reduces the granularity of an outline of an object.

Generalisation operators (I)
Generalisation operators (II)
Example of building aggregation
Automatic generalization
using ArcGIS
Vector generalisation tools in ArcGIS 9.2
Aggregate polygons
Create Centrelines
Dissolve polygons
Eliminate polygons
Finding building conflicts
Simplify buildings
Simplify lines
 Line simplification
Douglas - Peucker algorithm

before simplifying tolerance

linear objects

after simplifying
linear objects
Smooth lines