Practical 3:

SITE EVALUATION TECHNIQUES

– SITE ASSESSMENT & PLANNING
(Geological Cross-Section)
 Site Evaluation Techniques
– Site Assessment & Planning
• Site assessment and planning is an important part of any
construction project.
• Prior to planning, designing, or laying out a project, it is important
for the plan designer to have knowledge of the project site and
adjacent areas.
• To accomplish this objective it is necessary to collect information
about the proposed project site.
• This information can then be used by the plan designer to make
informative decisions in regard to project planning, design, and
layout.
• In addition, it allows the plan designer to develop a set of
construction plans that will allow for development of the project in
an efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally sensitive manner.
Site Evaluation Techniques
– Site Assessment & Planning
• Key information that should be collected and analyzed in the
beginning of new developments are:
1. Vegetative Cover
2. Soils & Rock Information: Subsurface explorations
3. Topographical Information
4. Hydrological Information
5. Adjacent Areas
6. Utility & Highway Corridors
7. Existing Infrastructure & Potential Problem Areas
8. Natural, Historical & Archeological Features
9. Regulations
Basic Map Information
• 2-D representation usually on a flat surface of the whole or a
part of an area.
• Map contain large amounts of information but unless you can
read that information it won’t do you any good.

Ø Title: clearly describe; ex: KAJANG

Ø Date: date of publication.
Ø Location: Longitude and Latitude.
Ø Directional Orientation: Compass direction.
Ø Legend: info on symbols used.
Ø Scale: Ratio scale = 1: 25000; Bar scale =
Basic Map Information
Basic Map Information (cont..)

• Map location systems:

Ø Global system – Longitude and Latitude
ü Longitude lines
– “Meridians” – “Great Circles”

üLatitude lines -
Basic Map Information (cont..)

• Map location systems (cont…):

Ø Local location system
üPublic Land survey system
§ Township and Range
Basic Map Information (cont..)

• Major Types of Maps:

Ø Physiographic / Geomorphology
ØTopographic
ØGeological
ØEnvironmental: vegetation, Climatic, etc.
ØGeographic Maps: Highway, City, Road, etc.
ØStatistical: Population, Economic.
Physiographic Maps
Physiographic Maps show the location of mountain ranges, valleys,
and other physical features of the Earth's surface in 2-D.
Forestry Map

The state of forests in Malaysian Borneo (Sabah and Sarawak) in 2009

Statistical Maps
Topographic Maps
Topographic maps show contour lines (elevation and landforms),
hydrography (rivers, lakes, marshes), transportation (roads, trails,
railroads, airports), vegetation, boundaries, survey markers, urban
areas, buildings, and a variety of other features.
What is Topographic Maps?

• 2-D represent 3-D

• Main purpose:
ØTo provide info on the elevation of the land.
• Elevation & relief elevation:
ØAltitude or height above mean sea level.
ØMean sea level = 0 ft or 0 m elevation.
ØRelief = vertical distance between elevation.
• Contour lines:
ØLines of equal elevation = anywhere everywhere.
Topographic Maps (cont..)
• Basic Rules of Contour Lines:
Ø Relief is CONSTANT =
contour interval
Ø Contour line never split or
cross.
Ø The spacing of contour line
reflects the steepness of the
slope.
ØFar apart – gentle slope,
Øclose together – steep
slope.
Topographic Maps (cont..)

Basic Rules of Contour Lines:

Ø Contour crossing stream
form a ‘V’ pattern.
Ø Hills and knobs are shown
by closed contours.
Ø The shape of contour
reflects the shape of the
ground.
Topographic Maps (cont..)
Topographic Maps (cont..)

• Practice 1: Topographic Map

What is the contour interval for this map?
= ............
1. Elevation of Point:
Ø A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, J?
2. What is relief between points C and F?
Topographic Maps (cont..)

5760

(5700-5600)/5 = 20
Geological Maps
Geologic maps represent the distribution of different types of rock
and surficial deposits, as well as locations of geologic structures such
as faults and folds.
 Geological Map
• Geologic maps are the primary source of information for various
aspects of land-use planning, including the siting of buildings
and transportation systems:
Ø Geological map will gives the details of the occurrence of
geological formations.
Ø Geological map show outcrops (where the rocks meet the
surface).
Ø For proper evaluation → need to prepare a detailed map.
Ø How? → draw the cross-section.
Ø Cross-sections are drawn at chosen sites to understand the
subsurface geological status (as to how the various
formations continues with depth).
Geological Map

• Rules!!!
Ø Where more than one interpretation is
possible, the simplest is usually correct.

ØMap interpretation is therefore logical

and straight forward if approached
systematically.
Geological Map (cont…)
• Terminology:
Ø Strike:
§ Direction of its continuity on the surface.
§ Expressed with refer to North on 360o scale
ØDip:
§ Angle which the formation makes
horizontal plane.
§ Measured in direction at right angles to the
strike.
Geological Map (cont…)
 Geological Map (cont…)
• Terminology:
Ø Folds:
§ Formation in wavy pattern with up and
down trends.
§ Compressive force.
Dip toward = Syncline

Dip away = Anticline

Fold
Geological Map (cont…)
• Terminology:
Ø Faults:
§ Are the openings on the surface along
which displacements of the formations
take place.
§ Can be vertical or inclined → straight or
curved
Faults
• Terminology:
Ø Faults: 2 types = Normal / Reverse Fault.
Throw of Fault = amount of displacement

Downthrown side =
Side that goes down
Faults
Geological Map (cont…)
• Terminology:
Ø Unconformity:
§ Surface separation between 2 groups of
geological formations.
§ Each group has its own dip and the
unconformity signifies a time gap between
the deposition of one group and the
others.
§ Either surface of erosion or non-deposition.
Unconformity
• Terminology:
Ø Unconformity (cont….):
§ In field, an unconformity can be recognized
in a geological map from the fact that the
formations of one groups abruptly end
against the boundary of a formation in the
other group.
 Geological Map (cont…)

The foto below shows an angular unconformity at Vallys Vale, eastern Mendips, southwest
England (Foto by Ian Somerville, UCD). Jurassic Oolites (ca. 170 Ma) with horizontal bedding
overlie tilted Lower Carboniferous limestones (ca. 345 Ma). The time gap (hiatus) between
sedimantation of the two sequences is therefore ca. 175 million years!
Geological Map (cont…)
• Stages of map interpretation:
ØIdentify faults and unconformities (structural
breaks).
ØIdentify dips by V in Valley Rule.
ØDetermine succession (unless already given).
ØIdentify fold axes (from dips and outcrop
bends).
ØDraw stratum contours (if detail is needed).
ØDraw cross-section to show sub-surface
structure.
 Geological Map
(cont…)

Shows relationships between a

geological map, geological cross
sections and the 3-D structure.
The north-south section is drawn
along the strike, and therefore
does not demonstrate the
dipping geological structure.
Geological Map (cont…)

• Outcrops patterns and recognition of structures:

ØHorizontal beds: have outcrops which follow the
contours because they are at constant altitude.

A
B
C
D
E
F
Geological Map (cont…)

Berea Sandstone outcrop on Ky. Highway 10, south of Garrison, Kentucky (Lewis
County) Photo by Cortland Eble
Geological Map (cont…)

• Outcrops patterns and recognition of structures:

ØVertical beds: have straight outcrops which ignore
the contour.
A B C D E
Geological Map (cont…)

NW Sabah. Photo by Abdullah Zakaria

Geological Map (cont…)

• Outcrops patterns and recognition of structures:

ØDipping beds :have curved outcrops which cut
across and respond to the contour because outcrops
shift down dip as erosion lowers the surface.
Geological Map (cont…)

• Outcrops patterns and recognition of structures:

ØSuccession: is recognized by youngest rocks
coming to outcrop in the direction of dip.
Conversely, if the succession is known, the dip
is indicated. (Width of outcrop is greater on
thicker beds and at lower dips).
Geological Map (cont…)

• Recognition of structures:
ØUnconformity: recognized where one
outcrop (of a younger bed) cuts across the
ends of outcrops of older beds.
Geological Map (cont…)

• Recognition of structures:
ØFaults:
§ are usually marked and keyed on maps.
§ May cut out, offset or repeat outcrops of
beds.
§ Downthrown side of a fault is the side with
younger outcrop because the older rocks
have been downthrown to beneath surface
level.
Geological Map (cont…)

• Recognition of structures:
ØFolds:
§ Recognized by changes in dip direction, and
also by outliers and inliers not due to
topography.
§ Most important, folds are recognized by
bends in outcrop: any outcrop bend must
be due to either a fold or a topographic
ridge or valley.
To be continued…..
Geological Map (cont…)

• Stratum Contours:
ØThese are lines drawn on a map joining points
of equal height on a bed (or stratum).
ØThey are like topographic contours, except
that they show the shape of buried geological
structures.

30 20
10
Geological Map (cont…)
• Cross section: Steps / stages:
ØDraw line cross – section.
ØDraw strike line – stratum cross contour
§ Parallel or slightly parallel.
ØTransfer the points of intersection of contour
line.
ØDraw the profile.
ØTransfer the point of intersections of contact
surface for geological formation along x-y.
Geological Map (cont…)
• Example 1:
How to Make a Topographic
Profile

300

400
200
100

This represents a very simple topographic map of a hill. The hill is steep on the left side
(the contour lines are very close together) and has a gentle slope on the right side. The
numbers represent the elevation of the contour lines. (*)

What would the hill look like if you were to slice it from left to right? (*)
How to Make a Topographic
Profile

300

400
200
100

Again, think of the cardboard analogy. Every layer of cardboard would represent 100
feet of elevation (the same as a contour line). You would have 4 layers of cardboard.
Viewed from the side it would look like this (*)
500 feet

400 feet

300 feet

200 feet

100 feet
Thus, you have a somewhat blocky profile of what the hill looks like. (*)
Each layer of the hill has a different piece of cardboard. To determine the size, draw
lines from the hill down to the appropriate layer of cardboard. (*)
 How to Make a Topographic
Profile

300

400
200
100

Thus you have a topographic profile. This is what the hill would look like if you were to cut it
along the profile line and look at it from the side. (*)

500 feet

400 feet

300 feet

200 feet

100 feet

Normally, the Earth’s surface is not this blocky. In a topographic profile a line is drawn from
these points (red dots) producing a smooth transition. (*)
Geological Map
(cont…)

• Example 2:
ØStage 1
Geological Map
(cont…)

• Example 2:
ØStage 2
Geological Map (cont…)

• Example 2:
Ø Last Stage:
 1st strike
EXERCISE 1:
DIPPING BED
Geological Map (cont…)
• Cross section: Steps / stages:
1. Draw line cross – section (A – B).
2. Find the 2 point on the same contour and
same stratum line → Draw 1st strike line.
3. Draw x-y axis for cross section A – B on
graph paper (Highest & lowest elevation)
4. Transfer the points of intersection of
contour line from the maps to the graph.
5. Draw the profile.
 Geological Map (cont…)
• Cross section: Steps / stages:
6) Mark ALL the intersection point which contour
line cross stratum line.
7) Draw strike line – stratum cross contour
Parallel or slightly parallel to the 1st strike line.
8) Transfer the point of intersections of contact
surface for geological formation along A-B.
9) Connect ALL the point.
10) Name the stratum.
Important Note!!!
• Strike line
• Numbering of strike line.
• Axis and legend axis
• Scale
• Showing the constructing of topography.
• Title of topography.
• Layer…. Including fault
• Showing legend for types of rock.
• Showing fault line arrow
• Answer.
 1st Strike

EXERCISE 2: FOLDING BED

Geological Map (cont…)
• Cross section: Steps / stages:
1. Draw line cross – section (X – Y).
2. Find the 2 point on the same contour and
same stratum line → Draw 1st strike line.
3. Draw x-y axis for cross section X – Y on
graph paper (Highest & lowest elevation)
4. Transfer the points of intersection of
contour line from the maps to the graph.
5. Draw the profile.
 Geological Map (cont…)
• Cross section: Steps / stages:
6. Mark ALL the intersection point which contour
line cross stratum line.
7. Draw strike line – stratum cross contour
§ Parallel or slightly parallel to the 1st strike
line.
8. Transfer the point of intersections of contact
surface for geological formation along X – Y.
9. Connect ALL the point.
10.Name the stratum.
EXERCISE 3:
UNCONFORMITY
EXERCISE 4: DAM SITE LOCATION
 Thank you

Rasyikin binti Roslan | Lecturer/Researcher/Registered Practitioner Geologist|

Head of Unit (Business Development & Endowment) |
Institute for Energy Infrastructure (IEI) | Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN): The National Energy University
T: + 6 03 8921 2020 ext. 6801 | M: + 6 019 5749159 | F: + 6 03 8921 2116 | W: www.uniten.edu.my | E: Rasyikin@uniten.edu.my
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