M. Arch.

Environmental Architecture
GEO INFORMATICS
M21RCPE05
Credits: 03 (L:P:D=3:0:0)
Tuesday – 9.20 – 10.10AM Wednesday – 10.30 – 11.20AM

Assoc. Prof Raghuteja Vemana

School of Architecture
REVA University
Geoinformatics is one of the powerful technologies to support basic scientific inquiry as well
as address the complex social and environmental challenges through data analysis.

It collects and organize the data and then analyze it through computation and geo-
visualization

Geoinformatics Urban Planning, Environment Design,

Disaster Management, Urban Design

• Remote sensing,
• GPS, Scope
• GIS,
• Cartography,
• Hydrology, Realm of Subjects /Branches
• Climatology,
• Aerial photography,
• Photogrammetry

Geoinformatics is the integration of different disciplines dealing with spatial information.

Cartography:
It is a combination of two word ‘carta’ which means map and
‘graphy’ that is something written or represented in the
specified manner, or about a specified subject.
In other words, it is an art, technique, or practice of compiling
or drawing maps or charts.

It is the systematic representation of the Earth or a part of the

Earth with its meridians and parallels upon a flat surface.

Cartographic process is concerned with data manipulation,

data capture, image processing and visual display.

Cartography: MAP CREATION TECHNIQUE

https://www.avenza.com/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/TetonSoft_Clean_FINAL.png
Geodesy: It is that branch of geology which studies the shape of the earth and the determination of the
exact position of geographical points.

Photogrammetry: It refers to the method of surveying or map making by photography and also used in
determining the height and motions of clouds, sea waves. It describes from three words- 'photo-light';
'gram-drawing'; 'metry-measurement'.

Remote Sensing: It is the science of obtaining information about objects or areas from a distance,
typically from aircraft or satellites. It collects data by detecting the reflected energy from the Earth.

It has wide range of application such as monitoring of ocean circulation and current systems;
measuring the temperature and wave height of ocean; track hurricanes, earthquakes, erosion, and
flooding;

monitor land use, map wetlands, and chart wildlife habitats. Hyperspectral imaging, sonar, and
seismograms are common application of the remote sensing.
Spatial Analysis: It is a technique to study in which you model problems geographically, derive results by
computer processing, and then explore and examine those results.

Global Navigation Satellite Systems: It is that branch of geoinformatics that provide precise positioning
of anything on the surface of the planet. It is used in satellites, military defence and telecommunication

Web Mapping: It is the process of using the maps delivered by geographic information systems (GIS) in
World Wide Web.
Application of geoinformatics

1. It is used for urban planning and land use management.

2. It is used for car navigation.

3. It is used for creating virtual globes.

4. It is used for environmental modelling and analysis.

5. It is used in agriculture, meteorology and to study the climate change.

6. It is used for oceanography and atmosphere modelling.

7. It is used in telecommunications, criminology and crime simulation.

8. It is used in aviation, biodiversity conservation and maritime transport.

9. It is used in disaster risk management.

MAP
The science and art of map making comes in the domain of Cartography, which includes all operations
from original survey to final printing of map.

Development Activity URBAN AREAS • Surface land forms

• Sub-surface rocks Sustainable
• Availability of water Development
• Drainage
• Soil & vegetation

By cartographic definition, a map is a selective, symbolized and generalized picture of spatial

distribution of a large area of earth surface as seen from above on a much reduced scale
(orthographic projection)

General Maps
MAPS -
Special Maps
General Maps
Topographical Maps depict the details with
symbols and topography with contours. The
scale varies from 1:5,000 to 1: 250,000.
Toposheet – Andhra Pradesh
Geographical Maps are small scale maps which are
compiled from topographicalmaps. The scale ranges
from 1:500,000 to 1:5,000,000
Atlas Maps are small scale maps representing large regions, countries continents or the whole world in
one sheet. The scale varies from 1:5,000,000 to smaller.
Cadastral Maps are large scale maps showing the distribution of landed property and ownership and are
used for revenue purposes. This type of map normally does not include elevation. The scales are 1:250 to
1:4,000.

https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Peter-Oosterom/publication/254908241/figure/fig5/AS:392837133815858@1470671079990/A-cadastral-map-is-a-social-map-representing-agreements-between-people-source-of-the-map.png

Planimetric Maps are topographical maps without contours.

1. Hydrographic Charts or Admiralty Charts are used for navigation in the sea.

2. Aeronautical Charts are used for navigation in air.

3. Thematic Maps are topical maps showing only one topic in a map qualitatively such as
geology, soil types, forest types, etc.

4. Statistical Maps are topical maps showing distribution of information of the topic in a map,
quantitatively, such as map of temperature, rainfall, population density, etc.

5. Guide Maps are prepared for the purpose of enabling people to find their way around large
towns, hill stations and other places of touristic interest.

6. Engineering Plans are large scale maps, on scale larger than 1:5,000 prepared for engineering
projects, town planning, factory sites, etc.
Scale
Scale is the ratio of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground.

The scale of the map is directly related to the use and size of the map and is dependent on the
planimetric accuracy required.
Representative Fraction (R.F.) or Natural Scale
It is denoted by a ratio of unit e.g. 1:50,000 or 1:10,000.

When we say that scale is 1:10,000, it simply means that every unit of length on the map represents
10,000 units of the same measure on the ground.
Graphic or Bar Scale
The scale is represented by a graduated bar on the map.
MAP PROJECTION
Map projection is the process of transforming earth’s spherical surface to the plane surface of a flat map.
Basic Coordinate Systems
Coordinate system helps in locating the position of a point in two or three dimensional space.

Rene Descartes (1596–1650) introduced a coordinate system, named after him as Cartesian
Coordinate System, based on two axes intersecting at right angles (orthogonal).

Similarly a three dimensional Cartesian Coordinate System can be defined by two

orthogonal planes, intersecting at right angle, thereby giving X, Y and Z axes,
The three dimensional spherical coordinate system to locate any point on the Earth is known as
Geographic Coordinate System.

Based on Network of LATITUDE & LONGITUDE

The two primary reference points on the earth surface are North and South poles, through which the axis
of earth’s rotation (polar axis) passes.

Between the poles, the plane dividing the Earth into two equal halves is called an equatorial plane.
This plane cuts the Earth’s surface through a line called equator.
CLASSIFICATION OF MAP PROJECTIONS
One simple way is to classify map projections according to the type of developable surface on to which
the network of longitudes and latitudes are projected.

1. Cylindrical

Conceptually, cylindrical projections are created by wrapping a cylinder around a globe and
projecting light through the globe onto the cylinder.

Cylindrical projections represent meridians as straight, evenly-spaced, vertical lines and parallels as
straight horizontal lines.

Meridians and parallels intersect at right angles, as they do on the globe. Depending on the
placement of the light source, the parallel spacing is different
2. Conical

A cone is placed such that it touches the globe along a parallel or latitude, and its apex is
exactly above the pole.
The parallel of latitude which is touched by the cone is known as standard parallel, which can be
selected by the cartographer.

Along this standard parallel the scale is correct and distortion is the least. When the cone is cut open
along a meridian and laid flat, a fan shaped map is produced, with meridians as straight lines
radiating from the vertex at equal angles, while parallels are arcs of the circles, all drawn using vertex
as the centre.
3. Planar or Azimuthal.
A plane is placed such that it touches the globe at the North or South Pole.

This is a limiting case of the cone becoming increasingly flattened, the apex angle becoming 180
degrees.

It is circular in shape with meridians projected as straight lines radiating from the centre of the circle
(the tangent point of the plane), which is the pole. The meridians are spaced at their true angles.
The parallels are complete circles centered at the pole.
 MERCATOR PROJECTION
The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by Flemish geographer and
cartographer Gerardus Mercator in 1569.
Mercator is a conformal
cylindrical map projection
that was originally
created to display accurate
compass bearings for sea
travel. An additional feature
of this projection is that all
local shapes are accurate
and correctly defined at
infinitesimal scale. It was
presented by Gerardus
Mercator in 1569.
Transverse Mercator map projection
The Transverse Mercator map projection (TM, TMP) is an adaptation of the standard Mercator
projection. The transverse version is widely used in national and international mapping systems around
the world, including the Universal Transverse Mercator
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) Projection
UTM projections have been used to cover the whole world using 60 standard meridians dividing the
world in zones of 6° wide between the standard meridians.
UTM PROJECTION

It is a cylindrical conformal projection (shapes are preserved)

It Divides the earth into 6degree zones each
Divides the earth surface between 84 degree N and 80 Degree S into 60 zones
Zone 1 being at 180 degree W
Scale Distortion is 0.9996 along the meridian of a zone
Most commonly used projection system across majority of the land mass

Survey of India has adapted a new National Map Policy wherein all the maps on 1:50,000 scale have
been digitized by converting them to WGS 84 ellipsoid and UTM map projection.

In the process a seamless map data is being generated.

The projection is applied repeatedly by using multiple cylinders that touch the globe at 6° intervals,
resulting in 60 projection zones each having a width of 6° longitudes
PHOTOGRAMMETRY
 AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH

Photographs, taken from an aircraft, are commonly termed as aerial photographs.

These play an important role in the execution of cartographic mapping on various scales and in the
evaluation of natural resources of a region.

NATURAL FEATURES, MAN MADE FEATURES

TERRAIN
QUALITATIVE EXAMINATION
The conventional methods involve
detailed study of the terrain
QUANTITATIVE EXAMINATION
The quantitative analysis, which
involves measurement of linear
distances, angles and height
differences between terrain objects
as well as preparation of base map,
will only be possible if the geometry
of the aerial photograph and
techniques.

Photogrammetry forming the base of photo-interpretation in various disciplines viz. geology,

forestry, soil sciences, land use, urban planning, etc.
TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHS

(1)Vertical photograph

•the axis of the camera is in a vertical position. This results in little to no relief visible in the image
and a smaller amount of area covered. Experts most often use vertical photographs like a map.
 2) Oblique photograph

unlike with vertical photographs, to take low oblique photographs you tilt the camera axis more than
3 degrees in a manner that the horizon–the area where the earth and sky meet–is not visible in the
image.
the camera axis has a higher degree of tilt–approximately 60 degrees–which covers a larger area, and
the horizon is visible in the photograph. In contrast with vertical photographs, this level of tilt produces a
great deal of relief. That allows you to better identify natural or manmade features.
3) Convergent photographs (4) Trimetrogon photographs
 (5) Horizontal or terrestrial photograph

Terrestrial photographs are taken with photo-theodolite from camera stations on the ground with
horizontal camera axis

Terrestrial photographs have found immense use in glaciological studies and mapping inaccessible
terrain.

Photo-theodolite is the main instrument used in terrestrial photogrammetric work. The instrument
consists of a standard theodolite on which is fitted a special camera having 10 × 15 cm plate. The
focal lengths for different cameras range between 100 and 165 mm.
The projecting rays pass through O, called perspective
center.

The photographic images projected by a lens system are

treated as central projection and fall under the category of
central perspective.

An aerial photograph is a central perspective. In an ideal case

of an absolutely vertical photograph of a completely flat
terrain, the aerial photograph will be geometrically the same
as the corresponding map of the area.
A map shows an abstract representation of the surface, with a selection from the nearly infinite
number of features of the photograph.

An air photograph shows the real structure of the earth’s surface.

Maps often represent both quantitative and qualitative non-visible features (contours, spot
height, lithology, etc.).
Text on map is indispensable for its interpretation; while the same on aerial photographs
(geographical names) reduces the value of the photo for interpretation.

A map is a geometrically correct representation of the terrain, while an air photo is

generally not so
 ARIEAL PHOTOGRAPHY

The scale of photography used for studies of natural resources varies from1:5,000 to 1:50,000,
depending on the purpose of study.

Aerial photography is flown in strips to cover the designated area. For convenience in
handling, it is advisable to keep the number of strips to the minimum.

This direction, which may be east-west, north-south or any other direction, along any particular
natural feature, should be clearly stated.

Aerial photography should be taken during those periods when the sun’s elevation above the
horizon is more than 30°,

Aerial photography should be taken during period 3 hours before noon to 3 hours after mid-
day

Aerial photography should be taken between 08:00 and 10:00 hrs in the morning and
between 14:00 and 16:00 hrs in the afternoon.
 STERIOSCOPIC VISION
Aerial photographs are studied under stereoscopic fusion, for deriving maximum information. A pair of
photographs, taken from two camera stations, covering some common area, constitutes a stereoscopic
pair.
The scale of the two photographs should be approximately the same. Differences up to 15% may,
however, be successfully fused.

Vertical aerial photography is most commonly used in aerial survey for stereoscopic studies. The
terrain is covered with strips of photographs. Overlap between two successive photographs, in
the same strip.
The brightness of both the photographs should be similar.

stereoscopic photography or 3D photography is the art of capturing and

displaying two slightly offset photographs to create three dimensional
images
PARALLAX
The term parallax is applied to the apparent change in the position of an object caused by
change in position of the observer.

The displacement of a object caused by change in the point of observation is

called Parallax

In photogrammetry, we are generally concerned with stereoscopic parallax.

Stereoscopic parallax Is caused by taking photograph of same object but from different point of
observation
Lets consider P which is vertically below the principal point P' would appear at P″ after some time.

This shift in its position P'P“ is the parallax.

For any other point Q, it will similarly be Q'Q” and is equal to the algebraic difference of its projection
on the base line, of intercepts joining the principal point on any one of the two photographs forming a
stereoscopic pair.

Parallax difference = sum of relief displacements in left

and right photographs.
 MEASUREMENTS OF HEIGHT FROM PHOTOGRAPHS

Measurement of height differences of objects with the help of a stereoscopic pair of photographs is
the most important activity of photo-interpretation.
 REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing may be defined as acquisition of data about an object from a distance without
having a physical contact with it.
• The formation of image on the retina of a human eye is a common example of Remote
Sensing.

• The eye senses only visible part of electromagnetic radiation reflected from the object.

• The radiation collected on the retina is transmitted to the mind, which physiologically
processes these signals to form a picture.

• In modern remote sensing, the information given out by the object over a wide range of the
Electro Magnetic spectrum is captured by the sensors.

• Subsequently, this information is read and interpreted to know about the objects of interest
in various fields of human activity.

• Electromagnetic waves can be described in terms of their velocity, wavelength and frequency.

• electromagnetic waves travel at the same speed C. In vacuum, C = 299,793 km/sec

(1,86,000 miles/sec).

• The wavelength (λ) of electromagnetic waves is the distance from any position in a cycle to
the same position in the next cycle
• Frequency (f) is the number of wave crests passing a given point in a specifi ed unit of time. It
was formerly expressed as cycle per second.

The relationship of velocity (C), wavelength (λ) and frequency (ƒ) is shown by the expression C = λ . f
While an ordinary camera captures light across three
wavelength bands in the visible spectrum, red,
green, and blue (RGB), spectral imaging
encompasses a wide variety of techniques that go
beyond RGB.

Spectral imaging may use the infrared, the visible

spectrum, the ultraviolet, x-rays, or some
combination of the above. It may include the
acquisition of image data in visible and non-visible
bands simultaneously, illumination from outside the
visible range
 The sun emits radiation whose temperature is about 6000°K. Sun is the strongest source of radiant
energy.
Earth intercepts about 1/50 million of the total output of solar energy. About 46% of the solar energy
reaching the earth falls in the visible band of the spectrum (0.4–0.7 μm) and the maximum irradiance
occurs at 0.47 μm wavelength.

The band of electromagnetic radiation that human eyes can detect. This ranges from wavelengths of
approximately 400 to approximately 700 nanometers (nm).
DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM
In remote sensing, the data about an object is acquired by sensor; a device which detects radiation
received from the object and transforms the same into recordable information.

non-imaging sensor systems. Includes sounders and altimeters for measuring heights
and topographic profiles.
SENSORS
imaging sensor systems. (1) Photographic system, and

(2) Scanner (non-photographic) system.

 Essentially three types of platforms are used for mounting
the sensors for data collection. These are:
• Ground observation platform
• Airborne observation platform,(Altitude of 50 km)
and
• Space-borne observation platform –
• SPACE SHUTTLE, (250-300KM) SPACE STATION(300-700KM),
LOW LEVEL SATELLITES (700-1500KM), HIGH LEVEL-3600KM

Space-borne Observation Platform Essentially, these

are satellite platforms, which are of two types:
manned and unmanned satellite platforms.

Manned satellite platforms are used as the last step,

for rigorous testing of the sensors on board so that
they can be finally incorporated in the unmanned
satellites.
Manned
NASA include Mercury (1962-63), Gemini (1964-65),
Apollo (1968-72), Skylab (1973-74),
Unmanned
Landsat series (NASA), Spot series (France) and IRS
Multispectral sensing
series (ISRO) and others.
In a Landsat image, spectral reflectance for each
pixel is recorded in four different spectral bands. A
pixel may be characterized by its spectral signature,
which is determined by relative reflectance in
different wavelength bands.

Multispectral classification is an information

extraction process that analyzes the spectral
signatures and then assigns pixels to categories
based on similar signatures.
LANDSAT
The Landsat Program is a series of Earth-observing satellite missions jointly managed by NASA and
the U.S. Geological Survey.
On July 23, 1972, in cooperation with NASA, the Earth Resources Technology Satellite (ERTS-1) was
launched. It was later renamed Landsat 1.

Landsat satellites provide high-quality, multi-spectral imagery of the surface of the Earth. These
moderate-resolution, remotely sensed images are not just pictures, but contain many layers of
data collected at different points along the visible and invisible light spectrum.
Landsat-1 was followed by Landsat-2 and 3, which were launched in 1975 and 1978 respectively,
having identical parameters.

The resolution of Landsat-1 was 79 × 79 m, which was improved to 30 × 30 m in Landsat-TM.

https://d9-wret.s3.us-west-2.amazonaws.com/assets/palladium/production/s3fs-public/styles/full_width/public/thumbnails/image/5262-Landsat-timeline-FNL-2.jpg?itok=gf-v-Ugf