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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2006-01-1641

Engine and Gearbox Modeling and Simulation for

Improving the Shifting Behavior of Powertrains
with Manual or Automated Transmission
Andreas Abel, Uwe Schreiber and Jens Schindler
ITI Gesellschaft für ingenieurtechnische Informationsverarbeitung mbH

Reprinted From: Transmission and Driveline 2006

(SP-2001)

2006 SAE World Congress

Detroit, Michigan
April 3-6, 2006

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 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
Engine and Gearbox Modeling and Simulation
for Improving the Shifting Behavior of Powertrains
with Manual or Automated Transmission
Andreas Abel, Uwe Schreiber and Jens Schindler
ITI Gesellschaft für ingenieurtechnische Informationsverarbeitung mbH
Copyright © 2006 SAE International
ABSTRACT
Automated gear shifting, which combines gearbox
designs resembling those of manual gearboxes with
control mechanisms interacting not just with the
gearboxes but also with clutches or the engine,
becomes increasingly popular in powertrain design,
because it combines the efficiency of the manual
gearbox layout with the comfort of automatic shifting.
Typical examples are dual-clutch transmission systems
for high-performance passenger cars or automated
gearboxes in heavy duty vehicles. This paper addresses
typical simulation and comfort optimization challenges in
this field and illustrates modeling solutions as well as
applications where this technology was applied in order
to increase shifting comfort.
INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION
Manually shifted gearboxes have a long-standing
tradition in automotive powertrains. In many markets
such as Europe they keep a big market share due to
their higher performance and fuel efficiency compared to
automatic gearbox designs. Manual shifting implies the
opening and closing of dog clutches inside the
gearboxes by the driver. Albeit this happens in a
synchronized manner, the direct feedback from the
gearbox to the driver and the vehicle makes the shift
comfort one of the major topics in gearbox design and
optimization.
Nowadays, there is observable a development towards
the automation of the manual shifting process by
actuating the involved components (dog clutches and
synchronizers in the gearbox, the frictional clutch, and
the engine) in an automated fashion. This combines the
comfort of automatic shifting with the efficiency and
performance benefits of the manual gearbox designs.
On the other hand, it keeps alive the shift comfort issues
known from the design of the manually shifted
powertrains. Bad shifts, although not felt directly on a
shift lever by the driver, still may propagate through the
powertrain and thus may be perceived by the driver and
passengers as uncomfortable.
2006-01-1641
When shifting manually, there are just the gearbox and
the following sections of the powertrain to be considered
in the shifting behavior, because the clutch is open and
the engine dynamics are separated from the gearbox
during the shift. In automated shifting this separation
often ceases to exist. E.g., the engine remains coupled
in during the shift process in dual-clutch transmissions
(DCTs) or even actively takes part in the shift and is
used, e.g., for achieving the required speed
synchronization in the gearbox by accelerating or
decelerating the engine in non-synchronized automated
gearboxes. Such processes require a more holistic
approach to shift comfort issues, including not just the
gearbox, but also engine, clutch, and controls in the
analysis. For simulations of such shift processes there
also arises the necessity to model all these components
in a sufficient degree of detail in order to be able to
properly examine the interactions in such a nonlinear
and highly complex system.
Tasks of such complexity of course imply a certain level
of abstraction in system modeling and simulation.
Approaches such as FEM or CFD turn out to be of too
high resolution in detail as well as too much tailored to
one particular analysis target. Instead, for simulating
complete powertrains with their controls, the method of
choice is system simulation on the level of network
models.
The approaches taken by ITI for system modeling and
simulation in shift comfort analysis and optimization are
presented in this paper. The reader is taken on a tour
starting from the underlying modeling philosophy
(section 1), presenting modeling solutions of engines
(section 2) and gearboxes (section 3), and finally
demonstrating the applicability of these methods on real-
world project examples (section 4). Finally, conclusions
are drawn.
All model developments and projects presented in this
paper are based in the system simulation software ITI-
SIM.
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1. MODELING PHILOSOPHY
Developing simulation models for gear shift processes
implies the inclusion of the different physical
components of the powertrain, ranging from mechanics
to hydraulics, pneumatics, or even electronics, but also
the consideration of the involved control systems. For all
of these fields there exist different established modeling
approaches. From the point of view of system
simulation, three core approaches can be distinguished:
Physical Modeling (Network Models)
A structurally motivated partitioning of the overall system
finally leads to a separation into physical elements (such
as springs, dampers, masses, etc. in mechanics;
volumes, valves, throttles, etc. in pneumatics or
hydraulics and so on). The models arising from such a
sub-division are network models. The interconnection
between the objects is non-causal and is defined by the
balance equations for potential and flow quantities of the
respective physics.
This way of modeling preserves the physical
relationships between the elements in the model
structure. Any engineer familiar with the topic will
immediately understand the layout of such a model, and
will know where parameters are applied and where the
physical result quantities are found. This makes network
modeling the method of choice for mapping all physical
parts of a powertrain into a simulation model.
Signal Modeling
In signal modeling the behavior of the system under
study is implemented into a block structure. The blocks
communicate to each other in a strictly causal (directed)
manner and, consequently, there are clearly assigned
inputs and outputs on the blocks.
Signal modeling is the method of choice for mapping
control systems. Apart from this any set of differential
equations, and thus also all physical systems, can be
described in a signal-oriented way too. This, however,
spoils the advantages of network modeling and makes
models much less comprehensible, in particular for all
persons not directly involved in the model development
process.
Equation-Based Modeling
Of course, the function of subsystems and components
in a system can also be described directly by differential
equations. If a simulation environment does not provide
a pre-defined element covering a particular physical
relationship, this approach is the straightforward way to
include its functionality into the simulation model. As for
the signal modeling, the underlying physical topology is
lost.
In summary, all three modeling approaches have their
justification and should be used where most appropriate.
The ITI-SIM software, which was used for the projects
presented in this paper, supports all three approaches
and thus gives the choice to apply the best fitting one to
each of the system components – network modeling for
mechanical or pneumatic components in the
powertrains, signal block models for the controls, and
equation-based modeling for complex physical
interactions, such as the tooth contact in dog clutches or
synchronizers. The result are models, which, albeit
reaching very high complexity, remain easy to handle
and provide a maximum level of comprehensibility.
2. ENGINE MODELING
2.1 OVERVIEW
With automated gear shifting becoming a more and
more popular solution for efficient powertrains, the
engine plays an increasingly important role in the shifting
process. Since the clutch might remain closed in many
of the shift phases, there are more intensive dynamic
interactions between the engine, the gearbox, and the
powertrain, and the engine might even take part actively
in the shifting process. Consequently, engine dynamics
have to be regarded during the examination of shifting
comfort as well as shifting performance.
The mapping of an engine into a simulation model,
which is suitable for shifting simulation, is subject to
certain constraints, which are imposed by the simulation
task and focus, the modeling philosophy, but also the
available knowledge, parameter access and toolset of
the engineer performing the work.
The incorporation of an engine into shifting simulation
requires the consideration of different dynamical issues:
Engine torque: The engine model must deliver the
appropriate torque under all operating conditions
(e.g., full injection or turn-over), in dependency of
the current injection settings, airflow, thermal
conditions, etc.
Engine unevenness: The torque fluctuation of an
engine is a major source for comfort-relevant
vibrations and disturbances.
Engine dynamics: An engine will not respond
immediately to control signals applied externally.
The delayed response of engine components such
as a turbo charger (e.g., the turbo lag) forms a
relevant part of engine controllability and may have
significant influence on performance and quality of
automated shifts.
The modeling and simulation process itself, which is
normally performed by an engineer who is a gearbox
expert, requires further consideration of handling issues
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when implementing an engine model: cylinders or the turbocharger, contain further

substructures, which are illustrated in the subsequent
Comprehensibility: The engineer working with the sections.
model must be able to set it up properly. I.e., he
must understand the structure of the model and the 2.2 COMPONENT MODELS
meaning of the respective parameters without being
an expert on engine modeling details. Cylinders
Parameter availability: Model parameters must be
gained from engine design and test departments, so The cylinder models are the biggest sub-structures in
the model should be based on well measurable and the engine model. The view of one cylinder with the
commonly acquired parameter collections, which different model parts highlighted is shown in Fig. 2.
also form the base for model validation.
Model flexibility and expandability: The model must
be open for structural changes required, e.g., for
considering additional components taking part in the
gearshift process. This could be engine brakes for
instance.

Above considerations almost inherently favor a physical

and network-oriented modeling approach. The model
can be structured in the same way as the real system,
the component functions are defined by physical entities,
such as masses, spring-dampers, frictions, volumes,
flow resistances, etc. Thus, the component interaction is
obvious from the structure and the location of each
model parameter is clearly defined.

Fig. 2: Internal structure of a cylinder model

Apparently, the cylinder is composed of model objects

from different physical domains – mechanics for the
crank and piston mass; pneumatics for the air flow
through the valves, the variable volumes inside the
cylinder, and the coupling to the mechanical parts of the
model; and signal level models for describing the
combustion process. All these operate seamlessly
together to model the total cylinder functionality.

Valve Models

Fig. 1: Engine model The valves form significant flow resistances in the air
flow from the outside air into the cylinder and vice versa.
When modeling, a decision about the required degree of In addition, they are dynamically controlled devices,
detail has to be made. From the engine mechanics side which change their physical properties with the amount
a rigid crankshaft model with auxiliary components and of opening adjusted by the cam shaft. For the valve
PTOs attached is preferred, because dynamics resulting modeling two different situations have to be regarded –
from mechanical vibrations inside the engine are not one for sub-critical flows, one for supercritical flows. The
relevant for shifting. For the airflow and combustion sub-critical case is governed by the following mass flow
modeling the major air volumes and flow resistances equation [1]
along the intake and exhaust lines have to be
considered, because these significantly influence the γ −1
engine response and power output.
1
⎛ ⎞
A p ⎛ p ⎞γ 2γ ⎜ ⎛ p2 γ ⎟
⎞
m& = eff 1 ⎜⎜ 2 ⎟⎟ 1− ⎜ ⎟ (1)
The resulting engine model is seen in Fig. 1. RT1 ⎝ p1 ⎠ γ − 1 ⎜⎜ ⎜⎝ p1 ⎟⎠ ⎟⎟
⎝ ⎠
This engine model represents the upper hierarchical
level in the engine. All components, such as the
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with the inlet pressure p1 (which is the intake manifold
pressure for the intake valve and the in-cylinder
pressure for the exhaust valve respectively), the
pressure on the opposite side p2 , the inlet gas
temperature T1, the effective opening surface Aeff
(obtainable from flow measurements on the valves), the
gas constant R and the adiabatic coefficient γ. In the
supercritical case the mass flow can be described by [1]
γ +1
Aeff p1 ⎛ 2 ⎞ 2 (γ −1)
m& = γ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ . (2)
RT1 ⎝ γ +1⎠
Validations showed these relationships to reflect the real
valve behavior very accurately in the simulation.
Combustion Process
The combustion process modeling is probably the most
important part of the engine model. In the chosen
approach for network models, where the cylinder is
represented by one variable volume, the combustion
model will be a one-zone model, where the energy freed
in the process is injected into this volume and
dynamically modifies the heat energy content of the
enclosed gas. There exist different combustion process
models; here the choice was made to implement a Vibe
combustion function (see e.g. [2])
mV ⎛ ϕ ⎞
mV +1
dQ Qtot ⎛ ϕ ⎞ − a ⎜⎜⎝ ϕCD ⎟⎟⎠
= ⋅ a ⋅ (mV + 1) ⋅ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ e
dϕ ϕ CD ⎝ ϕ CD ⎠ As well as the engine model, the turbocharger model is
where Q is the injected heat energy, Qtot is the total heat
energy generated in the combustion (depending on the
currently injected amount of fuel), ϕ is the current crank
angle (TDC at 0°), ϕCD is the duration of the combustion
cycle measured in terms of crank angle, mV is a shape
factor, and a is a measure for the completeness of fuel
combustion.
This function has the advantage, that it is well adjustable
with physically motivated parameters and thus can be
parameterized to reflect a real combustion process as
recorded, e.g., in measurements. In the engine model
validations shown below the combustion duration
became a function over speed.
The combustion function (3) reflects a single-injection
setup. For multiple injections a superposition of such
combustion functions would take place.
Turbocharger
The turbocharger is a component, whose dynamic be-
havior significantly influences the engine power output. If
the engine takes part in the gear shift process, it makes
a big difference, whether the charger runs at low speeds
and the engine response is subject to a turbo lag, or
whether it is at full speed and the engine can deliver
power immediately. In the latter case the shift will
complete well in time, whereas in the turbo lag the shift
may stretch unacceptably long.
In order to model a turbocharger in the degree of detail
required for such simulations, one must consider the
rotary mass inertia, as well as the temperature- and
speed-dependent mass flows and efficiency figures of
the turbocharger. These together will define the dynamic
interaction of the charger with the engine in steady-state
as well as dynamic operating conditions.
The shaft inertia of the charger is a well measurable
quantity. The required mass flow and efficiency data is
available from the turbocharger suppliers and is
commonly based on test rig measurements. Such
measurements provide scattered data, which does often
not allow an interpolation of the data in critical ranges of
the characteristics. For the models presented here a
three-step procedure was chosen in order to
approximate a fully analytic description to the measured
data. This procedure was in particular required for the
mass flow characteristics of the charger (function of
pressure ratio and speed). The steps were as follows:
1. Approximation of lines of constant charger speeds
by reasonably selected analytical curves
2. Approximation of the curve parameters in 1. as
functions over speed
3. Construction of a fully analytic formula from the
results of 1. and 3.
(3)
subject to a validation before it can be applied in the
simulation.
2.3 MODEL TUNING AND VALIDATION
With increasing complexity the number of uncertain
parameters in a model grows significantly. This implies
not only an intensive validation procedure, but this
process should also start as early as possible, which
means on the level of small components like the
turbocharger or valve models.
For the particular case of an engine model the core
geometric and mechanical parameters are quite easily
obtained. Engine parameters, which are not easily
derived from the design and which have to be tuned
based on measurement data during the validation
process, are the shape of the combustion function and
the losses inside the engine, incorporating for instance
the mechanical efficiency of the cylinders, thermal
losses from the combustion space via the cylinder walls,
or frictions.
The most commonly available input data for a validation
are measured engine characteristics like engine map
over speed and injection, in-cylinder pressures, and
combustion functions.
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The figures 3 and 4 show validation results in terms of a
comparison of engine power output curves (full injection
and injection cut-off) and in-cylinder pressures. These
were obtained for a heavy-duty diesel truck engine.
Apparently, the coincidence between measurement and
simulation is good. In this particular case the amount of
agreement was sufficient for the envisaged task of
shifting simulation. There is still room for achieving a
better fit via more complex parameter settings (speed-
dependent parameters for instance).
Fig. 3: Validation results for in-cylinder pressures in
different operating conditions (variable speed and fuel
injection) – Continuous lines are measurements, lines
with markers are simulation results
Fig. 4: Comparison between measured and simulated
engine power output. Upper lines are for full injection,
lower lines for injection cut-off
3. GEARBOX MODELING
3.1 SYNCHRONIZERS AND DOG CLUTCHES – THE
POTENTIAL COMFORT PROBLEMS
In manual gearboxes, each gear stage contains at least
one pair of gears with different transmission ratios. One
of the gear wheels is an idler gear, which usually runs
freely on its shaft. When the gear is engaged, a dog
clutch rigidly connects the idler gear with the shaft. This
gear shift principle also applies to many automated
gearboxes (It is, however, different from the classical
automatic gearbox, which is based on planetary gear
sets). The closing of the dog clutches requires a speed
synchronization between the idler gear and the shaft,
which is achieved by synchronizers in manual
gearboxes as well as many automated gearboxes (for
instance in DCT powertrains). Modern heavy-duty
vehicle powertrains however often avoid the use of
synchronizers and achieve synchronization by using
auxiliary devices, like gearbox brakes for decelerations
or the engine itself for accelerations of one side of the
dog clutch to be closed.
Apparently, the opening and closing of the dog clutches
is the most important part of the shift process and the
quality of these operations is the most relevant influence
factor for shift quality on a powertrain. The following
effects have to be observed and tuned for a good shift:
Speed Equality during Dog Engagement
Using synchronizers this is almost automatically
achieved and the dog clutch cannot be engaged before
(locking of the sliding sleeve). However, when the sleeve
is allowed to pass, the time until the dog teeth meet can
lead already to desynchronization due to drag torques.
This will lead to a clashing of the teeth, which is audible,
can excite vibrations on the powertrain, increases wear,
and in manual shifting also produces a force feedback
on the shifting lever. Similar problems can occur in the
unsynchronized dog clutches, if the external
synchronization does not reach the required quality.
All the described effects are perceived as uncomfortable
and thus have to be avoided. This might require design
changes, which are easier and more flexibly evaluated in
simulation compared to expensive prototype studies.
Response Forces during Dog Clutch Engagement
The way, how the dog teeth meet during a shift, is also
relevant for shifting comfort. Even if the speeds are
perfectly synchronized, the teeth will meet in different
relative positions and the contact will produce counter
forces on the actuation. In particular for manual
gearboxes these counter forces (amplitudes, duration,
number of subsequent peaks) significantly determine,
how a shift is perceived by the driver.
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Fig. 6: Simulation model for a 6-speed manual/automated gearbox. The shown synchronizer elements contain
submodels according to fig. 5.
Load Torques during Dog Clutch Disengagement
If a dog clutch is opened under load, the sudden
separation will excite vibrations on the now open
branches of the powertrain. Although these might not be
directly perceivable by the driver, they complicate the
speed synchronization for engaging the new gear later
on and thus this initial effect can grow into a significant
influence factor for shifting comfort.
3.2 DOG CLUTCH AND SYNCHRONIZER MODELS
The dog engagement and disengagement is primarily
determined by the contact situation on the tooth surfaces
(stiffness, damping, friction) as well as the tooth
geometries (tooth top and flank dimensions, angles, and
backlashes). At least two geometric degrees of freedom
(translation along the shifting direction and rotations of
the shaft and wheel) must be present in a simulation
model and must interact according to the varying contact
scenarios during a shift. In the software ITI-SIM a
special model element describes the contact behavior
based on the above mentioned parameters.
Fig. 5: Model structure for one side of a synchronizer
(Borg-Warner Type)
Fig. 5 shows the model structure of a synchronizer
module, incorporating the functionally relevant tooth
contacts (synchro ring and clutch body ring), as well as
the multi-cone friction and the preload force of the thrust
pieces required in the presynchronization phase. This
model represents the function of one dog clutch, in a
typical synchronizer this function is doubled and paired
for two gears in one synchronizer. In unsynchronized
dog clutches the contact scenario is modeled by the
tooth contact element only.
3.3 FULLY SHIFTABLE GEARBOX MODELS
The synchronizer models shown above now can be
integrated into the complete gearbox model. In such a
model the gearbox shafts are represented by spring-
mass chains. This segmentation into masses and
springs is based on the torque flow through the gearbox
in the different gears. The different shafts in the model
are interconnected by dog clutch or synchronizer models
as described above, but also by models of the gear
wheel contacts, which can range from linear spring-
damper backlashes up to sophisticated tooth contact
models considering geometries, contact angles, and the
resulting stiffness fluctuations. Fig. 6 shows an inside-
view of such a gearbox model. The underlying gearbox
is used for manually shifted cars as well as for cars with
automated shifting. With all gear stages and
synchronizers present in the model, any driving and
shifting scenario can be observed by means of
simulation.
3.4 MODEL TUNING AND VALIDATION
The validation of dog clutch, synchronizer, and gearbox
models incorporates a variety of tunable parameters, in
particular contact stiffnesses, dampings, and frictions.
For a complete gearbox this results in a high degree of
freedom, so that the model validation must start at an
earlier stage. Typically, the validation follows an inside-
out strategy and parallels the model development from
the tooth contact, via synchronizers, to the complete
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gearbox [3]. This ensures that the validation effort is

minimized.

Typically, the validation uses well reproducible results,

such as measurements from a test rig. Because a test
rig setup always interacts dynamically with the device
under test, a test rig model must become part of the
validation model.

Fig. 7: Sliding sleeve movement in a test rig

measurement compared to simulation.

Fig. 8: Speed changes of shafts on the synchronizer test

rig; measurement compared with simulations (the
intermittent speed drops are measurement artifacts).

In parallel to a validation of the components a model

reduction takes place, which shrinks the model to a
minimum complexity, but keeps present the effects
under examination. This will result in models of
manageable complexity and maximum simulation
speeds.

As an example, figures 7 and 8 show the result of a

synchronizer validation based on test rig measurements
[3]. The quantities under observation were the
synchronization times (depending on the friction in the
synchronizer cones), and the contact behavior in the
tooth contacts of synchro ring and clutch body ring (for
adjustment of contact stiffness and damping).
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Left External Shifting

Wheel

Vehicle Gearbox + Diff.

Propeller Shaft Engine + Clutch

Right
Wheel

Fig. 9: Complete vehicle powertrain model including the gearbox model shown in fig. 6.

4. APPLICATION EXAMPLES
In this section we will highlight application examples,
where the described model base is successfully applied
for shifting simulation and shift comfort and performance
examination as well as optimization.
4.1 MANUALLY SHIFTED GEARBOX
This example considers the shifting in a manual
gearbox. The aim of this simulation project [3] was the
optimization of the shift-through, in particular for the
lower gears. Potential comfort problems such as grating
under low-temperature conditions were of particular
interest.
same way, as the shifting behavior observed on the real
vehicle.
The model structure is shown in fig. 9. The model
includes the gearbox model seen in fig. 6, introducing
several sub-levels into the model hierarchy. The engine
model in these simulations is less sophisticated than the
model presented in section 2, because in manual
shifting the open clutch separates engine and
powertrain, so that there is no dynamic interaction with
the engine during the shift itself.

The project followed a three-stage outline, which in the

last stage lead to simulation models for the complete
vehicle:

1. Synchronizer Modeling and Validation

2. Gearbox Modeling and Validation
3. Complete Powertrain Modeling and Validation
Fig. 10: Clashing in a cold gearbox with low shift forces.
The final stage of model development led to a reproduc-
tion of the gearshift behavior as observed on the real
vehicle. Once validated, on this model base there is a Fig. 10 shows a particularly bad shift from the
high certainty that a change of system parameters in the perspective of the moving sliding sleeve. The effect seen
model will affect the simulated shifting behavior in the here is clashing, which appears for very low oil
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Schiebe-
Zahnradstufe_1 muffe_t1
Synchro1
J_Z1_2

Schiebemuffe_r1
Zahnradstufe_3 Synchro3
DruckK1 AnperesskraftK1 J_Z3_2
Zahnradstufe
J_AW_K1_2 J_AbW1 AbW1
J_Z1R_1 J_SK13 Diff
K1 J_K1_sekundär J_Z3_1 Zahnradstufe_5 J_SK24
J_AW_K1_2 J_Z5_1
J_Z5_2 Schiebe-
muffe_t3 J_Diff1+
AW_K1 Hohlw.+
Synchro5 Kegelrad+
Signal43 HardySeibe+
Schiebemuffe_r3 0.5Welle
J_K_primär DruckK2
J_ZMS_sekundär J_AbW2
J_W_Pumpe_2 J_SK5
J_SK6R
AnpresskraftK2 J_P
Zahnradstufe_2 Zahnradstufe
Synchro2 AbW2
J_Z2_2 Diff
J_AW_K2_2
J_K2_sekundär J_Z2_1 Schiebe-
K2
J_AW_K2_2 J_Z46_1 muffe_t2

Output
Zahnradstufe_4
Synchro4
J_Z4_2
AW_K2 Schiebemuffe_r2

Clutches Zahnradstufe_6
J_Z6_2 Synchro6

Zahnrad-
stufe_R1 Schiebe-
J_W_R_2 W_R SynchroR muffe_t4
J_Z_R_2 J_Z_R_3

Schiebemuffe_r4
J_W_Pumpe_2 Pumpenmoment Zahnradstufe_R2
Pumpenwelle J_W_R_2
J_Pumpe =f(n,p) E1 J_Z_R_2

Gear Stages Synchronizers

Fig. 11: Gearbox and clutches in a dual clutch transmission powertrain.

temperatures and small shift forces. The increased drag
torque leads to the formation of a speed difference
during the short time interval between the locking teeth
giving way and the sleeve reaching the selector teeth.
Due to the speed difference the sleeve is pushed back
several times before the teeth engage, which is felt as a
scratching effect by the driver.
Based on this simulation model different geometries of
the dog clutches in the gearbox were examined with
respect to their impact on shift quality and thus the
simulation models allowed optimizing the shifting
behavior very effectively.
shifting, a gear on one of the countershafts is engaged
and the respective clutch is closed. On the other
countershaft (with the corresponding clutch open), the
next gear can be engaged during normal drive. Once the
dog clutch for the new gear became engaged, the torque
flow is handed over from one countershaft to the other
by opening one and closing the other clutch
simultaneously. The comfort of the shift is mainly
determined by the way how smoothly the transition
between the two gears takes place.

4.2 DUAL-CLUTCH TRANSMISSIONS

Dual clutch concepts in powertrain design combine a

synchronized gearbox with automated shifting and
provide the additional benefit of uninterrupted traction,
resulting in a symbiosis of efficiency, comfort, and
performance.

Dual clutch transmissions have gearboxes with two input

shafts, each having its own clutch, two separate Fig. 12: Gearbox input shaft speeds in simulation and
countershafts being engaged for even or odd gears measurement.
respectively, and one common output shaft. When
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Fig. 13: Simulation model for a complete truck powertrain with automated shifting.
The example models and results presented here are
discussed in detail in [4]. Fig. 11 shows the respective
simulation model for the gearbox including the clutches.
The final model used in the project includes the
complete 4WD powertrain of the vehicle.
A major analysis issue for shifting comfort in DCTs is the
transition between the two branches in the transmission
when shifting from one gear to the other, because it
requires a sophisticated clutch control mechanism. The
simulation model was used in order to test the clutch
actuation off-line and to evaluate the resulting quality of
the gearshift at an early phase of the development cycle.
In addition, the dimensioning of powertrain components,
such as the dual-mass flywheel and the load distribution
in the 4WD powertrain were subjects of the simulation-
based analysis.
Fig. 12 shows a comparison of measured and simulated
input shaft speeds of the gearbox. The gear change
takes place in the time interval from 10.5 to 12 s. The
shown speeds belong to the input shaft, which is
disengaged during the shift. The drops in the end of the
graphs result from the pre-selection of the next gear and
the resulting speed synchronization of the shaft. The
model is excited by actuation signals (pressures, pedal
positions) acquired from measurements. The focus of
this analysis was on the gearbox vibrations excited
during the gear change (marked by a black circle in the
diagram).
4.3 AUTOMATED SHIFTING
The third application example presented here concerns
the simulation of shift processes in automated
gearboxes of heavy-duty trucks. Nowadays, on this field
there can be observed throughout the manufacturers a
change from manual synchronized gearboxes towards
automated gearboxes, which still use synchronized split
and range sets, but implement unsynchronized dog
clutches in the main stage of the gearboxes. The
absence of synchronization requires synchronization by
external means, which implies a growing amount of
control systems taking part in the whole shift process.
Preventing abusive manual use, this is beneficial for the
component lifetime and driving efficiency. On the other
hand, a high degree of complexity is required in the
design of the control units involved in the shifting
process in order to ensure determined and controllable
behavior in regular as well as irregular driving
conditions.
Adjusting shift quality and shift comfort requires the
consideration of modifications in the controls as well as
in the mechanical components of the powertrain.
Performing this on prototypes is costly as well as time-
consuming, and, in addition, irregular driving scenarios
are hard to reproduce for tests on real vehicles.
Here simulation provides means to effectively examine
the consequences of changes in designs and control
strategies, to test the interaction of the modified
components, and to assess the impact and benefit of the
applied changes. So, concepts can be tried out and can
be subject to an early-phase assessment, before they
are tested on a prototype vehicle.
A simulation model reflecting the described scenario is
shown in fig. 13. The figure displays the top-level view of
the model. The model objects marked as Engine and
Gearbox contain substructures with a high degree of
complexity, such as described in sections 2 and 3.
Compared to the other application examples this model
requires a considerably bigger amount of controls (also
macro models with underlying substructures) in order to
reflect the interaction of the powertrain with its control
units. The presence of almost 2,000 base model
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elements in the simulation model illustrates
complexity faced in such a task.
The simulation model is able to exercise different shift
scenarios, including the clutch operation and the shifting
of split, main gear set, and range if required. Driving
resistances model different load and environment
situations.
The figures 14 and 15 show some simulation results
obtained from the model, in particular the engine torque
and speed during a shift and the movement of the
different involved sleeves in the gearbox during a shift
sequence.
Both result charts also illustrate some effects which can
be studied by simulation using such a model. In fig. 14 a
fluctuation of the engine speed during the torque
changes can be observed. Fig. 15 shows a hang of the
sleeve in the gear to be disengaged, which is a
consequence of load fluctuations on the dog clutches
and which extends the time required to complete the
shift.
Fig. 14: Engine speed and delivered torque during a
gearshift sequence.
Fig. 15: Movement of sleeves inside the gearbox during
the shift sequence.
CONCLUSIONS
The presented material shows, that simulation projects,
where complete vehicle powertrains are modeled with a
high degree of detail and where complete shifting
processes are simulated, can be implemented
the successfully and produce results, which are in
agreement with the measurements.
In addition, the validated simulation models do not just
mirror the reality, but provide a multitude of additional
benefits:
Knowledge about Non-Measurable Parameters
In the model validation the unknown parameters in the
model are adjusted such, that the model reflects the
behavior of the real reference system. Thus, knowledge
is gained about typical parameter ranges for future
models, where the real system might even not yet exist.
Knowledge about Non-Measurable Quantities
The simulation models provide access to almost any
physical quantity in the system. In the real powertrain
only very few of them are accessible to measurements,
so the insight into the system gets much deeper using
simulation.
Fast and Cost-Efficient Assessment of New or Modified
Designs
Based on validated models, changes in the component
designs can be easily evaluated, even in early design
phases and without having to use a prototype. This
allows an efficient pre-selection among different
alternatives.
Base for Efficient Design Optimization
Using a complete model of the powertrain, optimizations
for any of the parameters and under different objectives
can be performed in simulation. Thereby the complex
interactions among the components are taken into
account.
Of course, simulation cannot replace the testing on the
real object. But, its benefits are substantial: The impact
of design changes can be observed on a simulation
model very quickly, helping to speed up the
development cycles and to select an optimum solution
as early as possible. More design variants can be
considered and the required amount of prototype testing
is reduced.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors would like to thank their project partners for
the kind permission to publish the presented model
views and simulation results.
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