BITS Pilani

Pilani Campus

MATH F213
Relations and Digraphs
Learning Objectives

• To understand an important structure of a relation on a set.

• The representation of a relation on a set with directed graphs.
• To study important classes of relation like equivalence relations and
ordering relations defined by their important properties.

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What is a relation?

We recall definition and certain properties of a relation form section 1.3 of the
text.
Definition : For sets 𝐴, 𝐵, a (binary) relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵.
(Thus its elements are some ordered pairs 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵.)
If 𝐵 = 𝐴, then we say 𝑅 is a binary relation on 𝐴.
An 𝑛-ary relation 𝑅 on 𝐴 is a subset of 𝐴𝑛 . If 𝑛 = 1, then 𝑅 is called a unary
relation on 𝐴.
Ex. Let 𝐴 = the set of all real numbers. Then
𝑅 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥, 𝑦 are real numbers with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 1}
Is a binary relation on 𝐴.

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Definition : For a relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵, the domain of 𝑅 is
the set dom 𝑅 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 for some 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵}.
The range of 𝑅 is the set
ran 𝑅 = {𝑦 ∈ 𝐵: ∶ (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝑅 for some 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴}.
Definition : Let 𝑅 be a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵.
• For any 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, We define
𝑅 𝑎 = 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵: 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 .
• The relation 𝑅−1 from 𝐵 to 𝐴 is defined by
𝑅−1 = { 𝑏, 𝑎 : (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}.
Note : As a consequence, for any b ∈ 𝐵,
𝑅−1 𝑏 = 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅 .

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Another notation : If 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, we write 𝑎𝑅𝑏.
Ex : For the relation on the set A of real numbers,
𝑅 = { 𝑥, 𝑦 : 𝑥, 𝑦 are real numbers with 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 < 1}
dom 𝑅 = 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ∶ −1 < 𝑥 < 1 = Ran 𝑅.
𝑅−1 = R.
1 3 3
𝑅 = 𝑥∈𝐴∶− <𝑥< .
2 2 2
𝑅 0 = −1,1
𝑅 1 = ∅.

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Functions
Definition : A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is called a function (or a
map) from A to B if
(i) dom 𝑅 = 𝐴, and (ii) If 𝑥, 𝑦 , (𝑥, 𝑧) ∈ 𝑅 then 𝑦 = 𝑧.
Equivalently A relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a function from A to
B iff for every 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 there exists a unique 𝑦 ∈ 𝐵 such that
𝑥𝑅𝑦.
This happens if and only if 𝑅 𝑎 = 1 for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴.
The function 𝑅 is called one-to-one (or injective) if
𝑥, 𝑧 , 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑥 = 𝑦. Thus 𝑅 is one-to-one if
and only if for all 𝑏 ∈ Ran 𝑅, |𝑅−1 𝑏 | = 1.
𝑅 is called onto if ran 𝑅 = 𝐵. 𝑅 is called a one-to-one
correspondence from A to B if 𝑅 is one-to-one as well as
onto.
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Note : If 𝑅 is a one-to-one correspondence from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then
𝑅−1 is a one-to-one correspondence form 𝐵 to 𝐴, in
particular, 𝑅−1 is a function from 𝐵 to 𝐴.
Definition : If 𝑅 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 and 𝑆 is a relation
from 𝐵 to 𝐶, then the composition of R and S is defined
by a relation 𝑅 ∙ 𝑆 (𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑆) from 𝐴 to 𝐶 such that
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐶, 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑅𝑆 if and only if there exists 𝑧 ∈ 𝐵
such that 𝑥, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅, 𝑧, 𝑦 ∈ 𝑆.
Ex. : Let 𝐴 = 1,2,3 , 𝐵 = 4,5 , 𝐶 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 , 𝑅 =
1,4 , 1,5 , 2,5 , 𝑆 = 4, 𝑎 , 5, 𝑐 . Then
𝑅𝑆 = 1, 𝑎 , 1, 𝑐 , 2, 𝑐 .

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Notes :
• If 𝑅 is a one-to-one correspondence from 𝐴 to 𝐵 then
𝑅𝑅−1 = 𝑎, 𝑎 : 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴 , 𝑅−1 𝑅 = 𝑏, 𝑏 : 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 , the diagonals of 𝐴 and 𝐵
respectively.
• If 𝐴 = 1,2 , 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏} then 𝑅 = 𝐴 × 𝐵 is a relation from 𝐴 to 𝐵 but 𝑅𝑅−1 = 𝐴 ×
𝐴.

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Relations and digraphs

We define a new concept called a directed graph (or digraph) and show its
connection with a binary relation on a finite set V.
We will show that these two concepts are different ways of viewing the same
object, each having its own advantages.

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Digraphs
Definition : A pair of sets 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is called a directed
graph ( or digraph) if 𝐸 ⊆ 𝑉 × 𝑉. 𝑉 is a finite set whose
elements are called the vertices of 𝐺 and elements of 𝐸
are called the edges of 𝐺.
Thus if 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) is a digraph then 𝐸 is a relation on 𝑉. On
the other hand if R is a relation on A then 𝐺 = (𝐴, 𝑅) is a
digraph.
An edge e = (𝑥, 𝑦) of G is said to be incident from 𝑥 and
incident to 𝑦. We also say 𝑒 is incident on both 𝑥 and 𝑦.
If (𝑥, 𝑦) ∈ 𝐸 then we say 𝑥 is adjacent to 𝑦.
An edge of 𝐺 from a vertex to itself is called a loop (or a
self-loop) of 𝐺.
A digraph G is called simple if it has no loops.

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Relations from 𝐴 to 𝐵

A binary relation 𝑅 from 𝐴 to 𝐵 is a subset of 𝐴 × 𝐵. This can be viewed as a

subset of 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 × 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 , and hence a relation on 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 . Thus it
corresponds to the digraph 𝐺 = 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 , 𝑅 .

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Geometric representation of digraphs

A digraph can be drawn geometrically thus :

Any vertex is represented by a point. An edge from 𝑥 to 𝑦 is represented by an
arrow from the point representing 𝑥 to the point representing 𝑦.
Ex : Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a digraph with

V = {a,c,m,w}
E= { (a,a),(m,m) (w,w), (c,a), (c,w),(c,m),
(a,m), (m,w) }

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 Geometric representation of G

(a,a)

G: a
(c,a) (a,m) (m,m)
(c,m)
c m
(c,w)
(m,w)
w

(w,w)

MATH ZC222 Discrete Structures for

Computer Science 13
22-8-2013
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P 335 #1 (b)

Draw the digraph for the relation ⊂ on all the nonempty

subsets of {0, 1, 2}.

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P 335 #1 (b)

Draw the digraph for the relation ⊂ on all the nonempty

subsets of {0, 1, 2}.
Solution : 𝑉 = {𝑣1 , … , 𝑣7 } where
𝑣1 = 0 , 𝑣2 = 1 , 𝑣3 = 2 , 𝑣4 = 0,1 , 𝑣5 = 0,2 ,
𝑣6 = 1,2 , 𝑣7 = 0, 1, 2 .
The digraph is drawn below.

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in-degree and out-degree

For a digraph 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸), in-degree of a vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is the number of vertices

𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 adjacent to 𝑣.
in-deg(𝑣) = 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 ∶ 𝑤, 𝑣 ∈ 𝐸 .
The out-degree of a vertex 𝑣 ∈ 𝑉 is the number of edges incident from 𝑣.
out-deg(𝑣) = 𝑤 ∈ 𝑉 ∶ 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐸 .
If 𝑅 = 𝐸 is thought as a relation on 𝑉, then
in-deg(𝑣)) = |𝑅−1 𝑣 |, out-deg(𝑣) = |R 𝑣 |.
For the previous example 𝐺,
in-deg(m)=3, out-deg(m)=2.

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Directed multigraph, graph
If more than one edge is allowed to be incident from a vertex 𝑣 to
a vertex 𝑤, we get a directed multigraph.
Directed graph is a special case of a directed multigraph.
If more than one edge occurs from a vertex 𝑣 to a vertex 𝑤, we
say it is a multiple edge.
If we disregard the direction of edges in a digraph(directed
multigraph), we get a nondirected graph(a nondirected
multigraph).
Precise formulation of directed multigraph: In stead of considering
𝐸 as a subset of 𝑉 × 𝑉, we consider a directed multigraph as a
map 𝜑: 𝐸 → 𝑉 × 𝑉. A multiple edge occurs from a vertex 𝑣 to a
vertex 𝑤 if more than one element of E is mapped to 𝑣, 𝑤 . If 𝜑
is the inclusion map, then we get the directed graph definition.
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Remark on terminology

A term graph can be applied to any of directed or nondirected graph or

multigraph. Results or concepts that hold for all these cases will be stated for
graphs.
Caution : Many a times same terminology used in different contexts have a
different meaning. One must carefully check its meaning before following it
and specify the kind of graph for which it holds.

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Subgraphs

Definition : A graph 𝐺 1 = 𝑉 1 , 𝐸1 is called a subgraph of a

graph 𝐺 = 𝑉, 𝐸 if 𝑉 1 ⊆ 𝑉 and 𝐸1 ⊆ 𝐸 ∩ 𝑉 1 × 𝑉 1 .
Moreover 𝐺 1 is a proper subgraph of 𝐺 if 𝐺 1 ≠ 𝐺.
Ex. : The digraph on left is a subgraph of the one on right.
(a,a)
a (a,a)
(a,m) (m,m) a
(c,a) (a,m) (m,m)
m (c,m)
c m
(m,w) (c,w)
(m,w)
w
w
(w,w)
(w,w)
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Graph isomorphism

Sometimes we are not interested in naming of vertices. If graphs can be

identified after renaming of vertices, then we call them isomorphic. More
formally, we have :
Definition : Two graphs 𝐺1 = 𝑉1 , 𝐸1 and 𝐺2 = 𝑉2 , 𝐸2 are called isomorphic if
there is a one-to-one and onto map 𝑓: 𝑉1 → 𝑉2 which preserves adjacency of
vertices; for digraphs this means 𝑣, 𝑤 ∈ 𝐸1 if and only if 𝑓(𝑣), 𝑓(𝑤) ∈ 𝐸2 .
If the above condition holds then 𝑓 is called an (directed graph) isomorphism
from 𝐺1 to 𝐺2 .

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Invariants of graphs

A function 𝑔 on graphs is called invariant of graphs (under isomorphism) if

graphs 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 are isomorphic implies 𝑔(𝐺1 ) = 𝑔(𝐺2 ).
Examples :
1) 𝑉 is a graph invariant as if graphs 𝐺1 , 𝐺2 are isomorphic then 𝑉1 = 𝑉2 ,as
the isomorphism 𝑔 is one-to-one and onto function from 𝑉1 to 𝑉2 . It is called
the order of 𝐺.
2) 𝐸 is a graph invariant as if 𝑔 is an isomorphism from 𝐺1 to 𝐺2 then
𝑣, 𝑤 ⟼ 𝑔 𝑣 , 𝑔(𝑤) gives a one-to-one and onto map from 𝐸1 to 𝐸2 . It is
called the size of G.

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Degree spectrum.

For a digraph 𝐺, the degree spectrum of 𝐺 is the collection of all pairs 𝑖, 𝑗 ,

where 𝑖 = 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑣 , 𝑗 = 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑣), as 𝑣 varies over the vertices of 𝐺.
Ex : Let 𝐺 = (𝑉, 𝐸) be a digraph with

V = {a,c,m,w}
E= { (a,a),(m,m) (w,w), (c,a), (c,w),(c,m),
(a,m), (m,w) }.

The degree spectrum of G is

{(2, 2), (0,3),(3, 2), (3,1)}.
It can also be seen from the geometric
representation of G on the right.

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Another invariant

Theorem : The degree spectrum is an invariant of the digraph.

Proof : Let 𝑔: 𝐺1 → 𝐺2 be an isomorphism of digraphs. For any vertex 𝑣 of 𝐺1 , if
{𝑣1 , … , 𝑣𝑘 } is the set of all vertices of 𝐺1 adjacent from 𝑣, then
{𝑔(𝑣1 ), … , 𝑔(𝑣𝑘 )} is the set of all vertices of 𝐺2 adjacent from g(𝑣). Thus
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(𝑣)=𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑔(g(𝑣)).
Similarly 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑛-deg 𝑔 𝑣 .
Since the pair for every vertex is same as pair for the corresponding vertices,
the result follows.

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p. 333 #3(b)

For the digraphs in (a) and (b) in the following figure, give a specific
isomorphism from (a) to (b) as a set of ordered pairs [vertex in (a), vertex in
(b)].

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Solution

Since corresponding vertices in the isomorphism in both

digraph must have same indegree and outdegree, the
vertex 𝑐 in digraph (a) must be mapped to the vertex 𝑎 in
digraph (b). Therefore [𝑐, 𝑎].
Where can the vertex 𝑎 in digraph (a) be mapped? Since
all other vertices in both digraphs have same indegrees
and outdegrees, we are unable to decide based on this.
Let us try [𝑎, 𝑏] and see if it works.
As in (a), 𝑏 is adjacent from 𝑎, same must happen to the
corresponding vertices in (b). But only vertex adjacent
from 𝑏 in digraph (b) is 𝑐. Hence it forces 𝑏, 𝑐 .
Continuing in similar manner, we are forced 𝑒, 𝑑 , 𝑑, 𝑒 .

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