ME F340 Introduction to Sports Engineering

BITS Pilani Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pilani Campus
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Introduction to ergonomics,
system design and task analysis
Things to learn

1. Mindset of the competitive athlete, prepared to operate in

extremis, train at the edge of human capabilities, and set
new levels of performance.
2. The downside to a continuous striving for optimal
performance is that overloading may occur, hindering
performance or causing an injury.
3. Predispositions to injury and acceleration of the recovery
process are placed in a clinical context
4. Strategies for offsetting fatigue are presented, whether
transient or attributable to a depletion of energy resources.
Introduction

1. Initial applications began to emerge in the 1980s and these have

grown into a significant body of sports ergonomics research covering
a diverse set of issues across different sports.
2. This body of work can broadly be decomposed into sports physical
ergonomics, sports cognitive ergonomics and sports systems
ergonomics research.
3. Physical ergonomics research has examined issues ranging from
sports equipment and clothing design (Lake 2000; McGhee et al.
2013; Reilly and Lees 1984) to sports injury (Theberge 2012), and
biomechanics (Lees et al. 2000).
4. Cognitive ergonomics research has focused on various cognitive
issues associated with individuals and teams, ranging from decision-
making (Macquet and Fleurance 2007) and cognition (McNeese et al.
2015) to situation awareness (Macquet and Stanton 2014; Neville and
Salmon 2016), teamwork (Salmon, Clacy, and Dallat 2017a) and
coaching (Macquet, Ferrand, and Stanton 2015).
Introduction

1. More recently, systems ergonomics applications have

begun to explore wider sports systems issues such as
performance analysis (Mclean et al., forthcoming), injury
causation and prevention (Clacy et al., forthcoming) and
spectators and crowds (Filingeri et al. 2017; Sun, May, and
Wang 2016).
2. Various ergonomics methods are progressively being
applied to understand and optimize training, tactics, injury
prevention and regulation
3. Carden et al. identify core sociotechnical systems
characteristics such as joint optimisation, vertical
integration, minimal critical specification, flexibility and the
control of problems at their source.
Introduction
And many identifying the following:

1. running related injury and development of more holistic

prevention strategies
2. Systems Theoretic Accident Model and Processes
3. Observational Audit Tool (OAT) that was developed
specifically for the assessment of fitness facilities
4. The relationship between performance in training versus
real-world scenarios has long been an important area of
ergonomics research.
5. Transfer of knowledge on error production derived from
the assessment of low-stakes scenarios to higher-stakes
game play
6. Ergonomists to understand behaviour in safety critical
systems
Topics to be discussed

• Introduction
• Posture and Movement
• Information and Operation
• Environmental Factors
• Work Organization Jobs and Tasks
• The Ergonomic Approach
• Sources of Additional Information
 ERGONOMICS

ERGON --> WORK

NOMOS --> LAW
The Laws to be Observed at
Work
Human Factor Engineering
Human Factors Engineering
Physical and mental work capacity Industrial design
Fatigue Work place design
Body forces, strength and posture Product design
Body sizes Furniture design
Thermal comfort/ heat stress/cold stress Machine design
Vision Ventilation
Hearing Lighting
Perception Acoustics
Information processing Engineering control
Decision making (Chemical & Physical)
Performance and efficiency Building orientation
Adaptation and rehabilitation Maintenance
Behavior & social relations
 Ergonomics

• Ergonomics means literally the study or

measurement of Work
• In addition to work as labor for monetary gain,
work also includes
Sports
Leisure activities
Domestic work
Education and training
Health and social services
Ergonomics considers
human operators variability
• An automobile design has to consider
• Range of physical size and strengths of users
• Seats are comfortable
• Controls readily identifiable and within easy
reach
• Clear visibility front and rear
• Easily read internal instruments
• Ease of entry and egress
AIMS OF ERGONOMICS

• Ensures that human needs for safe and efficient

working are met in the design of work system
• To design
• Appliances
• Technical Systems
• Tasks
In such a way to improve
Human Safety
Health
Comfort and
Performance
Basic aims of ergonomics

• Efficiency in purposeful activity

• To achieve desired result without
• Waste
• Error
• Damage to persons
• Working situation in harmony with
the activities of the worker
Difficulties in achieving the aims of
ergonomics
• Human operator is flexible and adaptable
• Large individual differences
• Obvious differences: --> Physical size, strength
• Not obvious differences --> Culture, style, level of
skill

• Thus a systematic approach and theory are

necessary.
• There should be measurable objectives to be
checked and remedial action taken.
• A detailed study of the science of ergonomics
provides these approaches and theories
DEFINITIONS OF ERGONOMICS
• Ergonomics is a means of improving working
conditions and reducing illness at work
• Ergonomics attempts to ‘Fit the Job to the Man’
rather than ‘Fit the Man to the Job’
• Ergonomics is concerned with the design of
systems in which people carry out work.
• Ergonomics optimizes Efficiency, Health, Safety and
Comfort of people through better designs of
products and work places
Who is a human operator?

• Skilled professional using a complex machine in

an artificial environment
• Customer who has purchased a new equipment
• Child sitting in a classroom
• Disabled person in a wheel chair
• Any professional like sports persons
DISCIPLINES IN ERGONOMICS

ECONOMICS LAW MANAGEMENT

ARTIFICIAL
INTELIGENCE MANUFACTURING

PSYCHOLOGY PHYSIOLOGY
-COGNITIVE -ENVIRONMENTAL
-WORK -WORK
-SOCIAL ERGONOMICS
INDUSTRIAL DESIGN
TOXICOLOGY
ANATOMY OPERATIONS
-ANTHROPOMETRY
RESEARCH
ENVRONMENTAL
-BIOMECHANICS
MEDICINE ENGINEERING

WORK
SYSTEMS DESIGN ORGANIZATION
PROFESSIONS HAVING
COMPLEMENTARY ROLES WITH
ERGONOMICS

Safety Civil
Occupational Officer Engineer
Health Officer

Mechanical
Industrial Engineer
Nurse ERGONOMICS

Architect
Physiotherapist

Industrial
Ind. Medical
Social Designer
Officer
Psychologist
 WHAT IS ERGONOMICS?
Ergonomics is:
• “Higher productivity and a better place to
work”
• “The science that saves both lives and
dollars”
• “Human engineering where the goal is to
optimize worker well being and productivity”
• “A way of thinking about and planning work so
that it suits the capabilities and needs of the
people”
WHAT IS ERGONOMICS?
Ergonomics is a solution finding method for questions
like these:
• How can human body dimensions be applied to car seat design?
• What is the proper height for kitchen counters?
• How can traffic lights be programmed for optimal urban traffic flow
throughout the day?
• How can stereo receiver displays and controls be coded to effectively
define their respective functions?
• How can the material and design of swim suits for competition be
improved for minimal water resistance?
• How should computer software and screens work and look best to fit
human cognitive capabilities?
Ergonomic needs in a workplace
• Physical work environment
• Thermal comfort
• Noise and vibration control
• Adequate and proper lighting
• Chemical environment
• Control of pollution
• General and exhaust ventilation
• Work physiology
• Control excessive physical load
• Avoid physical and muscular fatigue
• Adequate rest pauses
• Arrangement of static and dynamic work
Ergonomic needs in a workplace (Contd.)

• Anthropometry (Body sizes)

• Designs to fit body sizes of users
• Appropriate working levels
• Adequate work space
• Avoid overcrowding of machines and workers
• Occupational Biomechanics
• Appropriate work postures (sitting, standing)
• Safe load lifting and carrying techniques
• Adopt proper techniques in manual materials
handling
Ergonomic needs in a workplace (Contd.)

• Psychological aspects
• Avoid perceptual and mental loads and fatigue
• Appropriate design of displays and control
• Appropriate conditions for Vigilance tasks
• Avoid human error and stress
• Job motivation and satisfaction
• Social psychology
• Practice good relationship among employees and between
employer and employee
Ergonomic needs in a workplace
(Contd,)
• Macro ergonomics
• Suitable working hours , intervals, holidays, leave
• Appropriate shift schedules
• Welfare facilities
• Job rotation and incentives schemes
• Fair salary structure, Good administrative structure
• Good work organization schemes
• Fringe benefits (housing, transport, sports)
• Labour union facilities
• Training and education
• Promotional prospects
• Safety and Ergonomics
• Good housekeeping
• Performance feedback
• Systems ergonomics
• Systems groups in problem solving and development work
• Participative ergonomics
• User centered designs
Benefits of ergonomics

• Productivity
• Product quality
• Safety
• Health
• Reliability
• Job satisfaction
• Personal development
TRADITIONAL AND PRESENT DAY TOOLS AND
MACHINES
Traditional
Relatively simple
Made by the user
Small number made
Design error - small
consequences
Product competitive-
ness unimportant
Restricted user- population
population
characteristics
Present Day
Increasingly complex
Made by a manufacturer
Large number made
Design error - profound
consequences
Marketing competitiveness
vital
Wide variation in user
How can ergonomics contribute to technology
development in industrially developing countries
• By adaptation of technology
• By improving working conditions through ergonomics
interventions
• By developing traditional methods
• In acquiring modern technology
• In modifying techniques

• Need Training and Education in Ergonomics

Present trend of occupational
diseases and complaints
Factors % of diseases and complaints
Ergonomics 52.9
Chemicals 22.1
Noise 12.1
Biological 3.2
Other causes 9.5
WHY?
More sedentary work
Fewer distinct work types
Less muscle usage
More static than dynamic work
This chart shows how MSDs compare to other hazards based on percentage of injuries and
illnesses using statistics from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, FY2014.
This chart shows the incident rates of musculoskeletal disorders for selected private sector industries.
Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
Some important ergonomic requirements (From ILO Ergonomic
Checkpoints)

Materials storage and handling

• Clear and mark transport routes
• Provide ramps of 5-8% inclination instead of small
stairs
• Use mechanical devices for lifting, lowering and
moving heavy material
• Instead of carrying heavy weights divide them into
smaller lightweights e.g. 2x10 kg instead of 20 kg.
• Combine heavy lifting with physically lighter tasks
Some important ergonomic requirements (From ILO Ergonomic
Checkpoints)

Hand Tools
• Use hanging tools for operations repeated in the same place
• Provide hand support when using precision tools
• Provide hand tools with a grip of the proper thickness (hand
diameter 30-40 mm, handle length 125 mm and size to fit
male hands)
• Provide a home for each tool (Enables good housekeeping)
Production machine safety
• Locate controls in sequence of operations
• Make displays and signals easy to distinguish and easy to
read
• Use properly fixed guards and interlock devices
Work Organization
• Involve worker in planning
• Inform the worker the results of their work
• Job enrichment (combine tasks)
Some important ergonomic requirements (From ILO Ergonomic
Checkpoints)

Improving workstation design

• Adjust the working height around elbow level
• Light work: at elbow level
• Precision work: above elbow level
• Hard work: below elbow level
Lighting
• Increased use of daylight
• Light up the work area evenly
• Sufficient lighting for working
• Local lighting for precision work
• Removing shiny surfaces
• Avoid glare
Premises
• Prevent the exposure to excessive heat
• Install effective local exhaust systems
• Increase the use of natural ventilation
Welfare facilities
• Provide effective and acceptable personal protective devices
 ME F340 Introduction to Sports Engineering
Lect 2
BITS Pilani Rajesh P Mishra
Pilani Campus Department of Mechanical Engineering
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Introduction to ergonomics,
system design and task analysis
Use full information

Bad ergonomics designs

http://www.baddesigns.com
Board of Certification in Professional Ergonomics (BCPE)
http://www.bcpe.org/
Centre for Registration of European Ergonomists (CREE)
http://www.eurerg.org
Ergonomics Abstracts database
http://www.tandf.co.uk/ergo-abs/
Ergonomics for schools
www.ergonomics4schools.com
Use full information

Ergonomics Society, UK
http://www.ergonomics.org.uk
Sources of Additional Information 125 Ergoweb
http://www.ergoweb.com
Federation of European Ergonomics Societies (FEES)
http://www.fees-network.org
Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, USA
http://www.hfes.org
International Ergonomics Association (IEA)
http://www.iea.cc
Usernomics
http://www.usernomics.com
Posture and Movement
• Posture and movement play a central role in ergonomics
• The body’s muscles, ligaments and joints are involved in
adopting a posture, carrying out a movement and applying
a force.
• Poor posture and movement can lead to local mechanical
stress on the muscles, ligaments and joints, resulting in
complaints of the neck, back, shoulder, wrist and other
parts of the musculoskeletal system.
• Some movements not only produce a local mechanical
stress on the muscles and joints but also require an
expenditure of energy on the part of the muscles, heart and
lungs.
Foot posture influences movement
Thereafter, possibilities for optimizing tasks and the
workplace are presented for commonplace postures and
movements such as sitting, standing, lifting, pulling and
pushing.
.
Biomechanical Background

1. Joints must be in a neutral position : In the neutral

position the muscles and ligaments that span the joints are
stretched to the least possible extent and are thus subject
to less stress.
2. In addition, the muscles are able to deliver their greatest
force when the joints are in the neutral position.
3. Raised arms, bent wrists, bent neck and turned head, and
bent and twisted trunk are examples of poor postures
where the joints are not in a neutral position.
Keep the work close to the body
Avoid bending forward
The upper part of the body of an adult weighs about 40 kg on
average. The further the trunk is bent forwards, the harder it is for
the muscles and ligaments of the back to maintain the upper body in
balance.

A twisted trunk strains the back: Twisted postures of

the trunk cause undesirable stress to the spine.

Sudden movements and forces produce peak stresses :Sudden

movements and forces can produce large, short-duration stresses.
These peak stresses are a consequence of the acceleration in the
movement.
Alternate postures as well as movements :No posture
or movements should be maintained for a long period of time.
Prolonged postures and repetitive movements are tiring and,
in the long run, can lead to injuries to the muscles and joints.

More frequent short breaks are better than a single long

one: Muscular fatigue can be reduced by distributing the resting
time over the task duration or working day. It is not sensible to
accumulate break times until the end of the task or working day
Limit the duration of any continuous
muscular effort
Prevent muscular exhaustion
Physiological Background

In exercise physiology, estimates are made of the energy

demands on the heart and lungs resulting from muscular effort
during movements.
• Limit the energy expenditure in a task : The majority of the
population can carry out a prolonged task without
experiencing any general fatigue provided the energy
demand of the task (expressed as the energy consumed by
the person per unit of time) does not exceed 250 W (1 W =
0.06 kj/min = 0.0143 kcal/min).
• Rest is necessary after heavy tasks :If the energy demand
during a task exceeds 250 W, then additional rest is
necessary to recover. Rest can be in the form of breaks or
less demanding tasks.
Physiological Background

This figure includes the amount of energy, approximately

80W, which the body needs when at rest
Anthropometric Background

• Anthropometrics is concerned with the size

and proportions of the human body.
• Take account of differences in body size
• Use the anthropometric tables appropriate
for specific populations
• The average height of a British man is 174.0 cm, and of a
British woman 161.0 cm;
• the height of a short British man is 162.5 cm or less, and
of a short British woman 150.5 cm or less;
• and the height of a tall British man is over 185.5 cm, and
of a tall British woman is over 171.0 cm.
• The average height of a U.S. man is 175.5 cm, and of a
U.S. woman 162.5 cm;
• the height of a short U.S. man is 164.0 cm or less, and of
a short U.S. woman 152.0 cm or less;
• and the height of a tall U.S. man is over 187.0 cm, and of
a tall U.S. woman over 173.0 cm.
• The correlation between body dimensions in Table 2.2 is
limited.
• For certain applications in designing products or workplaces, it may be
needed to add or subtract dimensions.
• Under the following conditions two dimensions in Table 2.2. can be
added or subtracted:
• The two dimensions must be in line within the studied • body posture.
For example, the popliteal height (dimension 16) and the sitting elbow
height (dimension 11) can be added for getting the sitting elbow height
from the floor.
where r is the correlation between the two dimensions.
For two length dimensions and two width dimensions the
estimated value of r = 0.65, and for two depth dimensions r =
0.20, for a depth and a length dimension r = 0.20, for a width
and a length dimension r = 0.30, and for a depth and a width
dimension r = 0.40 (Source: www.DINED.nl).
• For example, when the two length dimensions popliteal height
(dimension 16) and sitting elbow height (dimension 11) must be
added for getting the sitting elbow height from the floor,
• for the average British male (P50) this new dimension is 44.0 +
24.5 = 68.5 cm.
• Because SD for the new dimension of British males is the
square root of (2.9) 2 + (3.1)2 + 2(0.65) (2.9)(3.1) = 5.45 cm, the
new dimension for short British males is 68.5 – 1.65(5.45) = 59.5
cm.
• This result is different from just adding dimensions
• 16 and 11 for short British males (39.5 + 19.5 = 59.0 cm).
• The new dimension for tall British males is 68.5 + 1.65(5.45) =
77.5 cm.
• Adding the dimensions for tall British males would give 49.0 +
29.5 = 78.5.
Posture
Posture is often imposed by the task or the workplace
Select a basic posture that fits the job
Posture-Sitting

• Alternate sitting with standing and walking

• The heights of the seat and backrest of the chair must be
adjustable
• Limit the number of adjustment possibilities
• Provide proper seating instructions
• Specific chair characteristics are determined by the task
• The work height depends on the task
• The heights of the work surface, seat and feet must be
compatible
• Use a footrest if the work height is fixed
• Avoid excessive reaches
• Select a sloping work surface for reading tasks
• Allow sufficient legroom
Standing

• Alternate standing with sitting and walking

• The work height depends on the task
• The height of the work table must be adjustable
• Do not use platforms
• Provide sufficient room for the legs and feet
• Avoid excessive reaches
• Select a sloping work surface for reading tasks
Change of Posture

• Offer variation in tasks and activities

• Introduce sit–stand work stations
• Alternate sitting postures
• Make occasional use of a pedestal stool in
standing work
Hand and Arm Postures

• Select the right tool model

• Do not bend the wrist, use
curved tools instead
• Handheld tools must not be
too heavy
• Maintain your tools
• Pay attention to the shape of
handgrips
• Avoid carrying out tasks above
shoulder level
• Avoid working with the hands
behind the body
Movement- Lifting
• Restrict the number of tasks that require displacing loads
manually
• Create optimum circumstances for lifting
• Ensure that people always lift less, and preferably much
less, than 23 kg
• Use the NIOSH method to assess lifting situations
• Recommended weight limit = 23 kg × HM × VM × DM × FM
× AM × CM
• horizontal load distance (horizontal multiplier, HM), the
vertical load distance (vertical multiplier, VM), the vertical
displacement of the load (displacement multiplier, DM), the
frequency (frequency multiplier, FM), the asymmetric factor
(asymmetric multiplier, AM), and the coupling factor
(coupling multiplier, CM).
Create optimum circumstances for
lifting
• If manual lifting of heavy loads (up to 23 kg) is necessary, then
lifting conditions have to be optimized:
• It must be possible to hold the load close to the body (horizontal
distance from hand to ankles about 25 cm).
• The initial height of the load before it is lifted should be about 75
cm.
• The vertical displacement of the load should not exceed 25 cm.
• It must be possible to pick up the load with both hands.
• The load must be fitted with handles or hand-hold cut-outs.
• It must be possible to choose the lifting posture freely.
• The trunk should not be twisted when lifting.
• The lifting frequency should be less than one lift per five
minutes.
• The lifting task should not last more than one hour, • and should
be followed by a resting time (or light activity) of 120 per cent of
the duration of the lifting task.
Movement- Lifting
Movement- Lifting

• Individual loads should not be too light

• Make the workplace suitable for lifting activities
• Loads should be fitted with handgrips
• Ensure that the load is of the correct shape
• Use correct lifting techniques
• Heavy lifting should be done by several people
• Use lifting accessories
Carrying

• Limit the weight of the load

• Hold the load as close to the body as possible
• Provide well-designed handgrips
• Avoid carrying tall loads
• Avoid carrying loads with one hand
• Use transport accessories
Pulling and Pushing

• Limit the pulling and pushing force

• Use the body weight when pulling or pushing
• A trolley should have two swivel wheels
• Ensure that the floors are hard and even
Information and
Operation
• Increasing numbers
of people are making
use of complex
products and systems
• The boundary
between man and
machine is called the
user interface
https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article/87/1/7/339265
The performances of athletes are the product of genetic
endowment, hard work and, increasingly, the contribution of
science.
Future limits to athletic performance will be determined less
and less by the innate physiology of the athlete, and more
and more by scientific and technological advances and by the
still evolving judgment on where to draw the line between
what is ‘natural’ and what is artificially enhanced
The User

• Users have to absorb more and more information at higher speeds and
complexity
• Determine the user groups as accurately as possible
When determining the user groups, the following aspects may be important:
• Age
• Nationality (language and culture)
• Ability to read the language (e.g., children)
• Occurrence of special needs within the group (e.g., visually handicapped
people)
• Level of education
• Experience with similar tasks and systems
• Frequency with which tasks are performed
• Motivation to perform the tasks
• Physical environment in which the tasks are performed
• Possibilities for education and training
• Existence of other user groups that use only part of the system
The User

• Take cultural differences into account

• Symbols that are acceptable in one culture may be offensive
in another (e.g., symbols of pigs that are considered
acceptable in one culture but unclean in others).
• Symbols that are well known in one country may be
unrecognizable in another (e.g., symbols for mailboxes that
have different shapes and colors in many countries).
• Colors may have different emotional content: red is a happy
color in for example China whereas in some other countries
it is associated with “danger” or “stop.”
 Visual Information

• Do not use text consisting entirely of capitals

• Use a familiar typeface (type of fonts)
• Avoid confusion between characters
• Make sure that the characters are properly sized
• The longer the line, the greater the required line spacing
• Good contrast contributes to legibility
• Produce diagrams that are easy to understand
Hearing

• Sound should be reserved for warning signals

• Select the correct pitch
• Synthesized speech must have adjustable features

Other Senses
• Restrict the use of taste, smell and temperature to warning
signals
• Use the sense of touch for feedback from controls
• Use different senses for simultaneous information
Controls For Operation

Fixed Controls
• Use familiar keyboard layouts (QWERTYU)
• Restrict the number of function keys
• Match the type of cursor control to the task
• Touch screens are suitable for inexperienced users
• Use pedals only if the use of the hands is inconvenient
• Avoid unintentional operation
• Think carefully before using labels and symbols
• Limit the use of color
• Ensure compatibility in the direction of movement
• The objective of a control must be obvious from its location
Wireless, Remote and Hands-Free
Controls
• Use wireless, remote and hands-free controls when the
user needs more freedom
• Do not use hands-free controls for precise data
• Use speech recognition in quiet environments
 Dialogues

• Make the dialogue suitable for the user’s task and skill level
• Make clear in the dialogue what the user should do next
• Give the user control over the pace and sequence of the
interaction
• Make the dialogue consistent
• Make the dialogue customized to suit the user
• Make the dialogue suitable for learning
• Use menus for users with limited knowledge or experience
• Recognize the limitations of an input form
• Restrict the use of command language to experienced users
• Direct manipulation must be consistent
• Recognize the advantages and disadvantages of natural
language
Help, Website Design, Mobile
Interaction, Virtual Reality
• Match the type of help to the experience of the user
• Predict the behavior of the user on the site
• Make websites accessible by means of different types of
hardware and software
• Make content understandable and navigable
• Use mobile interaction for simple content
• Adapt screen layout and navigation to the needs of the
users
• Choose an appropriate way of manipulating objects
• Ensure the playability of a game by enlarging the user
experience
Environmental Factors

• Physical and chemical environmental factors such as

noise, vibration, lighting, climate and chemical substances
can affect people’s safety, health, comfort and
performance.
• In general three types of measure can be applied to reduce
or eliminate the adverse effects of environmental factors:
• At source ( eliminate or reduce source)
• In the transmission between source and man (isolate
source and/or man)
• At the individual level (reduction of exposure duration,
personal protective equipment)
Guidelines on Noise

Keep the noise level below 80 decibels

 Guidelines on Noise
• Avoid annoyance
• Rooms should not be too quiet
• Choose a low-noise working method
• Use quiet machines
• Maintain machines regularly
• Enclose noisy machines
• Separate noisy work from quiet work
• Keep an adequate distance from the source of noise
• Use the ceiling to absorb noise
• Use acoustic screens
 Guidelines on Light Intensity

• The light intensity for orientation tasks in the range of 20–200 lux
• The light intensity for normal activities in the range of 250–750 lux
• The light intensity for special applications in the range of 750–5000 lux
• Large brightness differences in the visual field avoided
• The brightness differences between task area, close surroundings and
wider surroundings limited
• Too cold and too warm colors for indoor lighting avoided
Daylight is white light and has a color temperature of 5000–6500 K. Light with
low color temperature (<5000 K) has more yellow and red and is perceived as
warm (similar to the glow of metal or fire). Light with high color temperature
(>6500 K) has more blue and is perceived as cold.
Improved Lighting

• The information easily legible

• Ambient lighting combined with localized lighting
• Daylight also used for ambient lighting
• Direct light sources properly screened
• Reflections and shadows avoided
• Diffuse light used
• Flicker from fluorescent tubes avoided
Guidelines on Thermal Comfort
• People able to control the climate themselves
• The air temperature suited to the physical demands of the
task
• The air prevented from becoming either too dry or too humid
• Radiating surfaces avoided
• The exposure to extreme hot or cold environments avoided
• Materials that have to be touched neither too cold nor too
hot
• Equally heavy tasks grouped in the same room
• the physical demands of the task adjusted to the external
climate
• the air velocity optimized
• undesirable radiation prevented
• the time spent in hot or cold environments limited
• special clothing used when spending long periods in hot or
cold environments
Guidelines on Chemical Substances

• The concentration of chemical substances in air subject to

limits (TLVs (threshold limit values) or other)
• Peak exposures prevented
• Exposure to mixtures of substances avoided
• The concentration of chemical substances as far below the
TLVs as possible
• Packages of chemicals appropriately labeled
Measures at Source

• The source be removed

• Releases from the source be reduced
• The source be isolated
• Chemical substances extracted directly at the source
• The air exhaust system efficient
• Attention been paid to climate at workplaces where
exhaust and ventilation are used
• Sufficient air changes provided
• Organizational measures possible
• Personal protective equipment available
• Dust masks used only as protection against coarse dust
• Protective clothing and gloves available
• Attention paid to personal hygiene
Work Organization Jobs and Tasks

Activities of human beings usually take place in a wider

organizational context.
The activities of one person are related to the activities of
others. Usually an organization is divided into units.
Tasks

• tasks described in a neutral way

• conscious decision been made about allocating tasks to a
person or to a machine
• the job consist of more than one task
• those involved contribute to problem solving
• the cycle time longer than one and a half minutes
• there alternating between easy and difficult tasks
• those involved decide independently on how the tasks are
carried out
• there adequate possibilities for contact with others
• the information provided sufficient to control the task
• hierarchical work organizations replaced by more flexible
structures
• housing conditions flexible
The Difference between Boss and Coach

• The Boss
• The boss does not tell everything, he keeps some
information back.
• The boss knows everything; you can ask him everything
• The boss knows everything better and clearly shows this to
be so
• The boss solves the problems
• The boss is always busy with his own work
• The communication between boss and employee is
restricted to work instructions
• If you work well you hear nothing; when something goes
wrong you are in trouble
• When things go wrong, it is always a mistake of the
employee.
The Coach

• The coach presents information to those involved as soon

as possible.
• The coach does not need to know everything.
• The coach and the employee depend on each other.
• The coach facilitates employees to solve their own
problems.
• The coach supports the work of the employees.
• The communication between coach and employee is two-
way.
• The coach is interested in the employee; he asks questions
and listens.
• When things go wrong, the coach asks himself what to do
to prevent mistakes.
Tasks

• hierarchical work organizations replaced by more flexible

structures
• housing conditions flexible
• working times flexible
• the assignment to the group clear
• the group consist of 7–12 members
• the role of the manager more coach than boss
The Ergonomic Approach

• An ergonomic approach can be adopted in virtually any

kind of design or purchasing project.
• General methodology which might be applicable to the
following types of projects:
1. Selecting a commercially available product for purchase
2. Improving an existing product or system
3. Designing a new product or system
4. Adapting an individual workplace
5. Refurbishing a business or workplace, for instance, after
automation
6. Designing a complete plant
The Ergonomic Approach

• Involve users in the project

• Ergonomic requirements introduced as early as possible in
the project
• Conventional methods used for project management
• Make sure that the planning is flexible
• Realize that cooperation implies joint responsibility
• Initiative: making a detailed survey of the project,
formulating the questions and planning the rest of the
project
• Problem identification: gathering the required data, which
usually leads to a multitude of alternative solutions
• Selection of solutions: selecting from the alternatives and
further developing the selected option
• Implementation: implementing the selected option
• Evaluation: evaluating the option and the project
Initiative Phase

• Define who is involved in the project

• Clients (e.g., company managers)
• Members of the project team
• Help brought into the project, for example, subcontractors
and experts
• Users and their environment
• Make sure that those involved support the project
• team members agree on the code of conduct
• false expectations on the part of the user avoided
• the limits of the project stated
• the course of the project described at the onset
The Ergonomic Approach

• Problem Identification Phase

• the data processing established at the start
• more than one analysis technique selected
• existing documents surveyed at the start
• it assured that the analysis does not influence the result

• Selection of Solutions Phase

• it understood that textbooks, software and other tools do
not provide the complete answer
• users allowed to work with a prototype
• indirect users taken into account
The Ergonomic Approach

• Implementation Phase
• an implementation strategy selected beforehand
• tests realistic all users trained
• the implementation supported by the provision of good
manuals
• users have a role in organizational changes
• users convinced of the improvements
• Evaluation Phase
• the same techniques of data collection maintained
• teething problems sort themselves out
• there awareness for the possibility of habit formation
Examples of ergonomical designed
sports equipment
1. you are getting resistance on the way down and
up with every rep on sit up benches. With dual
resistance, you're getting double the workout in
half the time!
2. it provides a full 180 degree range of motion. That
means you can isolate and train your lower,
middle, and upper abs more range of motion
means a much tighter ab core!
3. It is totally adjustable to your fitness level! You'll
get the ideal amount of resistance on the way
down and have the right amount of support
customized to your exact fitness level coming up.
That means everybody can do it!
4. You can blast away your love handles with the
built in equipment twisting featured for a total core
workout!
5. you're nestled in an ultra-comfortable seated
position with your head and neck fully supported
through the full range of motion.
6. pass the Safety Regulation, comes with the best
quality.
Seated Fitness / Strength Gym Equipment & Machine

• Intelligent ergonomic design with unique linear

motion path for correct exercise movement and
forward angled seat back gives a safe, efficient
workout.
• Converging axis design to replicate the body natural
movement.
• Ergonomics neoprene handle designed for maximum
control and efficiency.
• All adjustments are identified with yellow knobs for
easy recognition.
• 5/16” diameter weight selector pin magnetically locks
in place and includes a lanyard to prevent loss.
• Placards, placed in the most visible position, provide
step-by-step instructions, as well as pictures to
illustrate proper use and muscles trained.
• Hand grips secured in place with aluminum collars,
comprised of an extruded rubber compound that is
non absorbing and wear resistant.
 ME F340 Introduction to Sports Engineering

BITS Pilani Rajesh P Mishra

Pilani Campus Department of Mechanical Engineering
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Case Study Shoes

Factors Determining Athletic Footwear Design:
A Case of Product Appearance and Functionality
Introduction

• Footwear has currently been developed and tested by

designers.
• Using athletic footwear as a case study, the present study
aims to investigate the pattern of footwear designs—
• shape, material, and type of shoe-base ergonomics and
functionality.
• It is also bound to examine young purchasers’ perceptions
towards aesthetics
• The study finally recommends a set of design guidelines
towards footwear design basing on purchesers’ cognitive and
affective perception on footwear appearance.
Introduction

• People’ daily activities have currently been changed

towards energy-saving approach.
• Exercise activities, such as playing sports have gained
more popularity, especially among young people.
• Choosing the right footwear suitable for each sport or
activity is crucial but usually neglected.
• Young users do not realize the products’ functionality until
actual utilizations have occurred.
• Appearance is among the most important factors in making
decision to purchase, athletic shoes,
• Footwear design must create comfort features and
consider the functionality as one of the main elements of its
physical design
Components of Shoes

• The upper covers the feet and protects them from external
hazards.
• The midsole gives impact strength and maintains posture
balance.
• The outsole provides grip for the shoes to the ground.
Properties of Sport Shoe Material
• Upper
• Mesh: Mesh is lightweight, has good ventilation
and high flexibility.
• Full grain leather. This is highly durable and easy
to maintain. It is also soft and fits firmly over the
feet.
• Synthetic leather: This type of leather is
lightweight and durable. However, it is less
flexible than full grain leather.
• Midsole
• Ethylene Vinyl Acetate (EVA): EVA is lightweight
and has high impact strength.
Properties of Sport Shoe Material
• Phylon. Phylon is lighter than EVA and highly durable. It
also has high impact strength.
• Polyurethane (PU). This lightweight material has higher
impact strength than EVA and thus will not subside
• Outsole
• Carbon rubber. Carbon rubber is the most durable among
all types of rubber. However, it is heavy.
• Duralon. Though less durable than carbon rubber, duralon
has a lighter weight and higher impact strength.
• Solid rubber. This is made from 60% synthetic rubber and
40% natural rubber. It is durable on any type of surface.
 Shoe Patterns

• Waffle
• This pattern has large bulges on the outsole forming waffle-
like shapes (hence its name) for impact strength, surface
attachment, and forward movement. It is used in several
types of running shoes.

• Waffle Fill
• The waffle fill pattern also has bulges on the outsole
forming waffle-like shapes. The inside of each square is
filled with BRS 1000 (Blue Ribbion Sports) soft carbon
rubber.
• Promoting smooth movement, this type of fill is used in
running shoes.
Shoe Patterns

Herringbone
It is used mostly in tennis, basketball, and cross-training
shoes because of its surface attachment property suitable for
start of movement, multidirectional movement, immediate
stop, and spin.
Hybrid
This pattern has a high degree of surface attachment suitable
for multi-directional movement. The hybrid pattern is widely
used in cross-training shoes.
Texturized Outsole
It bears impact well, is soft and durable, and has a high
degree of surface attachment. This pattern is used mostly in
mid-cut shoes for several types of exercise such as aerobic
dance, step, kickboxing, body pump, etc.
Types of Sport Shoes
• Running Shoes
• Running shoes must have shock absorbers that effectively
reduce impact and transfer the weight from the back, the
legs, and the feet to the ground.
• They must also have thick heels and heel counters of the
right size to prevent tendinitis, and fractures.
• Walking Shoes
• Walking shoes must be lightweight and have shock
absorbers along the heels and the soles to reduce
pternalgia and pedionalgia.
• The shoe soles should have an obtuse shape to transfer
weight from the heels to the toes and to reduce force on the
soles. Walking shoes have relatively harder uppers than
running shoes.
• Shoes for Aerobic Dance, Weight Training, and Floor
Exercise
• These shoes must be lightweight to prevent stiffness.
• They must also have soft shock absorbers along the soles
due to the highest impact on such areas resulting from
these types of exercise.
Types of Athletic Shoes
• Based on the physical designs and functionality, the
following four major categories of athletic shoes can be
drawn, including motion control, cushion trainers, stability,
and lightweight shoes

• Motion control shoes

• Motion control shoes are the most rigid shoes. They are
designed to limit overpronation.
• These shoes serve mainly to running and walking
purposes. Many designs aim to increase stability and
maximize medial support by having a straight last
construction.
• Cushion trainers shoes
• Cushion trainers shoes are considered the most flexible,
having the softest midsole, and the least medial support.
• The designs typically include some shock-absorbing
• The design of this type of shoes aims to attenuate the
extreme loading, which is elevated in high arched
individuals
• These shoes are designed for running purposes and
appropriate for people with light-to-mid weights, as well as
for people who have difficulty in pronating and have high
arches.
• Stability shoes
• Good features from both cushion trainer shoes and motion
control shoes are integrated to make stability shoes in
terms of their cushioning features, medial support, and
durability.
• These shoes support rear foot stability and fore foot
flexibility.
• Providing a degree of pronation control, these shoes are
designed to have a medial post or multi-density midsole.
• They aim to serve mid-weight runners with relatively
normal arch structure and mechanics, people with neutral
pronation, and medium-to-low arches.
• Lightweight shoes
• Lightweight shoes are designed for speed, fast-paced
training or racing.
• They are constructed for basic cushioning and support.
• These shoes aim to support a high-performance and
biomechanically neutral runners.
• Due to their light weight, they may offer a kinematic
advantage for training and competition.
Components of sports shoes
Study Framework
Methodology

• Indicators conveying the perceptual responses include

comfort, softness, firmness, anti-skid, relaxation, support,
and endurance.
• Variables measuring aesthetic perceptions include taste,
attractiveness, beauty, arousal, personality, and harmony.
• Respondents’ scores towards each type of visual stimuli
are explored by means of statistical analysis to reach a set
of final design recommendations.
Results and Discussions

The study utilizes athletic footwear as a case study to

investigate the pattern of footwear designs.
Selecting Running Shoes

Injury Prevention and Performance

Enhancement
Shoe Anatomy

Sole: bottom of shoe

insole: interior bottom of a shoe
some models have removable insoles
outsole: material in direct contact with ground (tread)
midsole: material between insole and outsole [made of EVA
(Ethylene-vinyl acetate) or PU (polyurethane )]
Upper: top of shoe that holds shoe to foot
Low-cut, mid-cut and high-cut uppers
toe box: area that holds toes and heads of metatarsals
vamp: material over the instep
heel counter: specialized area at heel that is relatively rigid in
running shoes
Last: form for shaping shoe (straight, semicurved,
curved) and footprint
Forces during Walking vs. Running
walking:
long duration Vertical ground reaction forces
double “active” peaks
+/-20% body weight
3xBW running
running/sprinting/jumping:
brief durations
single “active” peak active peaks
3 times BW
2xBW
heel-toe landing walking
landings:
brief duration 1xBW
up to 10+ times BW
forefoot landing
0
Time (s)
Why Does Running Cause Injuries?
• ground reaction forces are high (3x body weight)
• impact is brief therefore little time for muscles to dissipate
forces
• some people’s anatomy may predispose injury (leg length
discrepancy, excessively pronated/supinated feet or
varus/valgus knees)
• running surfaces are rigid (roads, sidewalks, frozen earth)
• people tend to over-train (amount per day, no recovery
days)
• warm-up and stretching are often neglected
Running Injuries

• plantar fasciitis
• anatomical, excessive heel impacts, poor running
mechanics
• heel spur, hammer toes, bunions
• poor shoe fit
• ankle and foot sprains
• mechanically caused by landing off balance or on an
obstacle
• tibial stress syndrome/fracture
• overuse injury, training on hard surfaces, old or poor
footwear
• knee/back pain
• anatomical differences (leg length, abnormal Q-angle)
• shin splints
• mechanically caused by rapid changes in training surfaces
and overuse
Purposes of Shoes

• protection from:
• sprains (high cut shoes may help but reduce flexibility)
• cuts and abrasions (strong uppers may increase weight and
decrease mobility)
• punctures from nails, rocks, slivers etc. especially for road
running (thick soles help but reduce efficiency)
• traction or prevent slippage
• tread helps especially on wet surfaces
• spikes and studs (check rule books)
• cushioning
• in midsoles (reduces efficiency)
• ventilation
• air circulation, water drainage or waterproof?
Cut of Uppers

low cut
greatest mobility

mid cut

high cut
may help to control ankle sprains
Running Shoe Types

• Cushion:
• for high-arch feet, underpronator
• extra cushioning in the midsoles to help absorb shocks; their
soles have a curved or semicurved shape (last) that
promotes a normal running motion
• Motion control:
• for flat feet or feet that pronate after landing
• straight last and a more rigid midsole than other running
shoes, these help keep your feet properly aligned.
• Stability:
• for normal or neutral feet
• semicurved last, but the less rigid midsoles allow feet to
strike the ground naturally
• Both pronation and supination are issues signified by the
way your foot hits the ground as you are running or
walking.
• But while pronation involves and inward roll of your foot
and ankle, supination is the outward rolling of your foot and
ankle.
• In a pronated foot, the inside part of your foot and the arch
absorb most of your weight as you land.
• A supinated foot, on the other hand, means that the outer
edge (pinky-toe side) bears the majority of your weight.
• Neither foot position is healthy for your feet or ankles, as
both can cause serious pain and injuries.
 Cushioning

• measured by durometer (hardness)

• mainly in midsole
• cushioning is helpful for hard surfaces
• especially as muscles start to fatigue
• greater cushioning means less efficiency
• may cause ankle instability and sprains
• gel or air cushions cause landing instability
• cushioning columns are better
• breaks down over time
• impact testing for endurance
Biomechanical Efficiency?

• all shoes absorb and

dissipate energy
• cushioned running shoes
absorb the most energy
• the greater the cushioning
the more lost energy
• sprinters’ shoes have the
least cushioning and are
therefore the more efficient
• bare feet are most efficient
but traction may be
compromised and they offer
little protection from stones,
heat or sharp objects
 Athletic Shoe Types

• basketball/volleyball
• sturdiest with thick midsole cushioning
• for wooden floors and high impacts
• cross-trainers
• most versatile athletic shoes available
• less cushioning
• spiked for track & field
• greatest traction on rubberized tracks
• lightest and fastest
• studded for soccer or rugby etc.
• greatest traction of grass or artificial turf
Pronation versus Supination

• of hand:
• one-dimensional rotation
• turning palm upwards is supination, downwards is pronation
• of foot
• three-dimensional motion
• inversion, plantiflexion and internal rotation
• supination is turning foot so that plantar surface (bottom of
foot) is directed medially (towards midline)
• pronation is turning foot so that plantar surface (bottom of
foot) is directed laterally (away from midline), this is most
common motion when a foot lands during running
Supinated Foot Pronates during
Landings
foot is supinated at landing pronates during loading

• orthotics help to reduce rates of pronation during

landings (Bates et al. 1979; Mündermann et al., 2003;
Stackhouse et al., 2004) but it is unclear how they
affect the kinetics (MacLean et al., 2006)
 Orthoses and Orthotics

• orthosis
• device added to support an anatomical structure
• i.e., brace or wedge
• e.g., custom foot orthotic (CFO) appliances (“orthotics”),
ankle-foot orthoses (AFO) and knee braces
Foot Orthotic Appliances

• orthotic with medial forefoot post

for forefoot supination (varus)

• orthotic with lateral forefoot post

for forefoot pronation (valgus or
plantiflexed first ray)

• orthotic with medial heel post for

subtalar varus
References

Bates B et al. Amer J Sports Med 7:338-342,1979.

Huberti HH & Hayes WC. J Bone Jnt Surg 66A:715-
724,1984.
Insall J, Falvo KA & Wise DW. J Bone Jnt Surg 58A:1-
8,1976.
MacLean C, McClay Davis, I & Hamill J. Clin Biomech
21:623- 630,2006.
Mündermann A et al. Clin Biomech 18:254-262,2003.
Stackhouse CL, McClay Davis, I & Hamill J. Clin Biomech
19:64-70,2004.
Knee (Genu) Valgus

valgus: outward angulation

of the distal segment
• distal segment is rotated
Laterally
• distal means farther
away from the body’s
centre
• “knock-kneed”
• common in women
Knee (Genu) Varus

inward angulation of
the distal segment
• “bowlegged”
• common in horse
riders
Quadriceps-angle or Q-angle
• “quadriceps-angle” is formed in the
frontal plane by two line segments:
• from tibial tubercle to the middle of the patella
• from the middle of the patella to the anterior
superior iliac sine (ASIS)
• in adults is typically 15 degrees
• Increases or decreases in the Q-
angles are associated with increased
peak patellofemoral contact pressures
(Huberti & Hayes, 1984).
• Insall, Falvo, & Wise (1976) implicated
increased Q-angle in a prospective
study of patellofemoral pain.
Prostheses

prosthesis
device that replaces an anatomical structure
i.e., an artificial limb
e.g., solid-ankle, cushioned-foot (SACH) foot,
FlexFoot, C-knee, Mauch leg
Sprinting Prostheses

LAUSANNE, Switzerland -- Double-

amputee sprinter Oscar Pistorius
won his appeal Friday and can
compete for a place in the Beijing
Olympics.

Olympic Rule: For the purpose of

this Rule the following shall be
considered assistance, and are
therefore not allowed:
e) use of any technical device that
It's a great day for sport. I think
incorporates springs, wheels or
this day is going to go down in
any other element that provides
history for the equality of disabled
the user with an advantage over
people.
another athlete not using such a
-- Oscar Pistorius
device.
 ME F340 Introduction to Sports Engineering

BITS Pilani Rajesh P Mishra

Pilani Campus Department of Mechanical Engineering
 BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus

Ergonomics and Comfort in

Protective, Playing Surfaces and
Sport Clothing Lect 4
The Ergonomic Approach

• An ergonomic approach can be adopted in virtually any

kind of design or purchasing project.
• General methodology which might be applicable to the
following types of projects:
1. Selecting a commercially available product for purchase
2. Improving an existing product or system
3. Designing a new product or system
4. Adapting an individual workplace
5. Refurbishing a business or workplace, for instance, after
automation
6. Designing a complete plant
The Ergonomic Approach

• Involve users in the project

• Ergonomic requirements introduced as early as possible in
the project
• Conventional methods used for project management
• Make sure that the planning is flexible
• Realize that cooperation implies joint responsibility
• Initiative: making a detailed survey of the project,
formulating the questions and planning the rest of the
project
• Problem identification: gathering the required data, which
usually leads to a multitude of alternative solutions
• Selection of solutions: selecting from the alternatives and
further developing the selected option
• Implementation: implementing the selected option
• Evaluation: evaluating the option and the project
Initiative Phase

• Define who is involved in the project

• Clients (e.g., company managers)
• Members of the project team
• Help brought into the project, for example, subcontractors
and experts
• Users and their environment
• Make sure that those involved support the project
• team members agree on the code of conduct
• false expectations on the part of the user avoided
• the limits of the project stated
• the course of the project described at the onset
The Ergonomic Approach

• Problem Identification Phase

• the data processing established at the start
• more than one analysis technique selected
• existing documents surveyed at the start
• it assured that the analysis does not influence the result

• Selection of Solutions Phase

• it understood that textbooks, software and other tools do
not provide the complete answer
• users allowed to work with a prototype
• indirect users taken into account
The Ergonomic Approach

• Implementation Phase
• an implementation strategy selected beforehand
• tests realistic all users trained
• the implementation supported by the provision of good
manuals
• users have a role in organizational changes
• users convinced of the improvements
• Evaluation Phase
• the same techniques of data collection maintained
• teething problems sort themselves out
• there awareness for the possibility of habit formation
Sport Surfaces

• The surface on which sport is played must be considered for

both training and competition purposes.
• The compliance of the surface should suit the characteristics
of the human body if safety and performance are to be
optimal.
• Very often, financial cost is one of the most important design
criteria for indoor facilities, whereas the ability to withstand
harsh weather is the important consideration for outdoor
surfaces.
Sport Surfaces

• Sport facility floors should be reasonably resilient,

• should be nonslip
• non-reflective,
• should give a true bounce and roll,
• should be of a color appropriate to their use,
• should be easy to maintain and resistant to all types of
footwear used, and
• should be nonabrasive.
Sport Surfaces

• Special flooring considerations apply for certain activities:

• Squash courts should be capable of absorbing sweat
falling from players, whereas floors in weight training rooms
must withstand possible damage from heavy apparatus.
• The design of artificial surfaces for soccer has improved
considerably since the first generation of synthetic pitches
• They found no evidence of an increased risk of injury when
games were played on modern synthetic pitches.
• Third-generation turf, which consists of a sand- and rubber-
infilled structure, has begun to find favor among game
legislators in soccer
Sport Surfaces

• The shock reduction property of third-generation turf has

been related to injuries incurred.

• Changes in surface characteristics cause players to adopt

different strategies, and athletes playing mainly on one
type of surface may find it difficult to play on another
Ergonomics and Comfort in Protective
and Sport Clothing:
• Industrial and sport protective clothing (PC) is
governed by protection requirements and
selected on the basis of performance and
comfort.
• The impact of PC on performance is determined
by the nature of the work or sport, the metabolic
rate required, the ambient environment, and the
characteristics of the PC.
• Comfort is typically subjectively measured and
impacts performance.
Introduction

• Comfort is multifactorial and dynamic rather than

static.
• Sport clothing design is mainly concerned with
maximizing heat and moisture loss and comfort
• Attempts to use synthetic fabrics to increase
comfort and heat dissipation have generally not
been successful.
• Future innovations may include protective and
sport clothing that responds to the environment,
and that features integrated cooling systems with
greater cooling capacity and practicality for mobile
workers and sportsmen.
Introduction

• Protective clothing (PC) is needed in work or sport to

protect against physical hazards, impact, abrasion, and
against toxic hazards.
• Protective and sport clothing may also be used to enhance
performance.
Why Protective and Sport Clothing?
• PC is often mandatory to protect from physical, nuclear,
pathogenic, and chemical hazards at work.
• PC which serves to protect against heat and flame; and
encapsulating coveralls which protect against toxins and
pathogens in biomedical, and hazardous materials work
• Sites required to protect from contaminants being released
into clean room work environment in modern industry
radiation protection via clothing may also be required
• Sport PC becomes a mandatory requirement in certain
sports such as American football, baseball, lacrosse, and
field and ice hockey
Why Protective and Sport Clothing?
• In cricket, American football and baseball, and other sports
the PC padding is used to protect against impact and
abrasion.
• In sport clothing, clothing may also provide warmth, as for
cross-country skiing, open water swimming, sport breath-
hold, and scuba diving.
• Examples of sport clothing to enhance performance,
include special swimming suits, now banned for Olympic
competition because they were shown to give a
performance advantage.
• Speed skating and down-hill ski suits also provide
aerodynamic advantages.
• More often, in both professional and recreational sport,
comfort of the wearer is considered an integrated part of
performance sport clothing.
Why Protective and Sport Clothing?
• Some clothing is sold in both sport and industry for its
alleged ability to improve comfort and reduce heat stress
via “wicking sweat away from the skin”
• In adventure sports such as mountain climbing, sport
clothing with advanced moisture-wicking and quickdrying
properties attracts interest particularly for wet environments
or those with large temperature changes.
• Sport clothing has also been marketed which allegedly
liberates heat to warm users.
• Whereas the principle is based on the heat released when
particular fabrics absorb water, the amount of heat
released is low.
• The heat may be liberated before the wearer goes into the
cold and some liberated heat will be lost to the ambient
environment, so the useful heat effects may be minimal
Characteristics of Clothing Comfort
• Bell et al. [11] reported that clothing comfort rating was
associated with performance on a cognitive exam.
• Maintaining accurate cognition and a positive mood is
especially important in emergency first responders and law
enforcement and military applications in PC.
• Clothing comfort is a very complex characteristic of PC and
sport clothing.
• Comfort is comprised of: 1) thermal, 2) non-thermal, 3) and
wear conditions; or: 1) physiological, 2) psychological, and
3) physical components.
• Comfort arises from the integrated visual, thermal, and
tactile sensations, the psychological status, body-clothing
interactions, and ambient environments.
Characteristics of Clothing Comfort
• Thermal comfort is a key issue in PC use and ergonomics
as well as in sport clothing.
• It arises in part from neural thermosensory monitoring of
the area between the wearer’s skin and the outer-most
layer of the clothing, the micro-environment.
• In fact, it should be noted that comfort has little to do with
the macro-environment and much more to do with the
micro-environment, the only environment with which the
body has contact.
• It is also noteworthy that even the body with no clothes
forms a micro-environment that is generally warmer and
more humid than the ambient environment except in the
hottest ambient environments.
Characteristics of Clothing Comfort
• Comfort measurements of clothing must be based on
subjective evaluations of human wearers which integrate
the combined effects of all relevant variables of clothing
systems on comfort.
• Wong et al. proposed a combination of objective and
subjective measures to model comfort, which probably will
yield the best validity.
• Accurately predicting human responses to PC seems
unlikely in view of the observed variable nature of humans
with respect to comfort.
• Comfort of the same PC or sport clothing may change over
time and initial judgment of clothing comfort or discomfort
may change after a period of wear.
• If clothing becomes damp or wet, in most cases comfort
diminishes
Ergonomics Issues

• Reduced productivity arises from several issues including

the weight and bulk of the clothing, visual and tactile
reductions associated with some clothing, and the heat
stress that typically accompanies PC use in hot ambient
environments.

• The weight of PC may be most problematic for workers

such as firefighters who have to transport themselves, their
PC, and equipment up several flights of stairs.
Characteristics of the Work or Sport
Metabolic The higher the metabolic rate, the more heat the worker/sportsman
Rate must dissipate - good in cold environments, challenging in the heat.
Economy/Effic The more economical the worker/sportsman, the less energy
iency liberated as heat.
Weight- If the worker/sportsman must support his/her own body weight plus
Supported the weight of protective clothing (PC) and other equipment, the total
weight will impact the required metabolic rate.
Characteristics of the Ambient Environment
Temperature Impacts dry heat transfer between the worker/sportsman and the
ambient environment.
Water Vapor Impacts evaporation rate and cooling.
Pressure
Radiant Load Radiation from any source will increase the heat that must be
dissipated by the worker/sportsman.
Characteristics of the Protective and Sport Clothing
Weight Impacts the energy costs of transporting the additional weight of PC.
Resistance to Raises the energy costs. The greater the interference and the greater the
Movement movement required, the greater the increase in energy costs.
Clothing Impacts the micro-environment under clothing. High insulation reduces
Insulation the heat transfer rate.
Clothing Impacts the micro-environment under clothing. Low permeability reduces
Permeability the sweat evaporation rate.
Clothing Impacts the heat gain of clothing.
Reflectivity
Percent of Covered Fully encapsulating PC generally presents more ergonomics
Surface Area of issues for work in warm/hot environments.
Body
Degree of Fully encapsulating PC totally isolates the worker from the environment;
Isolation some PC has many openings for movement of air in and out. Greater the
air exchange may be advantageous or disadvantageous depending on the
environment and other factors listed above.
Fit May impact clothing pumping effects, depending on the clothing and
movements.
Fabric Industrial PC fabrics must exhibit protective characteristics, but in sport
clothing, moisture transfer, style, and comfort are important for
marketing. Some fabrics may release a small amount of heat.
Ergonomics issues in sport

• It appears that 100% polyester fabric or other synthetic

fabrics offer no thermoregulatory or comfort advantages
with some studies showing a worse thermoregulation and
clothing comfort than natural fabrics

• Compression garment manufacturers claim that

compression garments “stabilize” the muscle which
allegedly increases blood flow to the working muscles,
thereby leading to improved performance

• In winter sports and some recreational sports during cool

weather such as sport hunting, camping, and rock climbing,
sport clothing to keep sportsmen warm is highly valued.
Ergonomics issues in sport

• In contrast to the difficulties in developing new fabrics to

keep sportsmen cool, advances have been made in
warmth using advanced insulated fiber and fabric
structures.

• Recent innovation includes battery-powered heated

trousers designed for boosting Olympic athletes’
performance.

• Passive heating of the thighs following the warm-up

completion using pants incorporating electrically heated
pads slowed the decline in muscle temperature and
enhanced the subsequent sprint cycling performance.
Ergonomics issues in sport

• Sport clothing is often marketed based on the ideas of

improving performance, reducing thermal stress, keeping
the sportsman drier, and often on the basis of improved
comfort.
• Taken the above available evidence together, claims about
superior sport clothing fabrics should be tested.
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics
• Development of new materials and new approaches.
Materials improving upon the well-known triple-layer
moisture transmitting material (Gore-Tex, Gore Inc., Elkton,
MD, USA) may improve vapor transmission rate and
increase sweat evaporation in industrial and sport PC
• Other materials may provide better protection with less bulk
and weight, such as some modern fabrics have done for
ballistic vest protection (e.g., Kevlar, E.I. DuPont,
Wilmington, DE, USA).
• Novel fabric technology in the laboratory includes shape
memory material and phase change material which
contains automatic environmental acclimatizing properties,
potentially having wide applications in protective and sport
clothing.
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics
• Innovative three-dimensional fabric structure could also
reduce the expense and weight with improved protection
• Clothing affects thermoregulation to varying degrees, with
evaporative resistance being the major determinant in
maintaining the thermal balance
• Vapor and moisture permeability characteristics of the
clothing play a critical role in influencing the micro-
environment and therefore the wearer comfort
• Increasing ventilation through smart clothing cut or
combining different fabric panels (e.g., employing highly
vapor permeable fabric) at critical points could yield better
performance and comfort
 Improving Comfort and Ergonomics

• Recent study [90], in which placing clothing vents at torso,

arm, and legs in combat uniforms promoted heat transfer and
reduced physiological strain
• More research is needed to determine locations of critical
points within the micro-environment of protective and sport
clothing and thus will enable manufactures to incorporate
smart vents at critical points
• With regard to the challenges of heat dissipation for PC in
warm or hot environments, the best short-term solution is
probably micro environmental cooling
• Cooling is supplied via either cooled liquid, cooled gases, or
phase-change materials
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics

• With phase change cooling under PC, replacing or

removing the cooling system may be problematic under
conditions where PC cannot be removed.
• Supplying large volumes of cooling to mobile workers and
sportsmen can be challenging particularly at locations
without an electrical supply.
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics

• A recently developed cooling system attempts to cool

sportsmen or workers by cooling the palmar surface of
hands
• The battery powered hand-held cooling device circulates
chilled water to cool the palm and fingers, which is suitable
for highly mobile and fully encumbered emergency first
responders.
• Sports such as American football and a few others have
employed hand cooling in conjunction with fans to provide
area cooling.
• For more information on personal microclimate cooling in
occupational settings and sport, see reviews.
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics

• While heating is generally less challenging than cooling,

self-heated insulated sport clothing remains a need for
many winter sports and in military applications during cold
weather.
• The common method to keep one warm in the cold is
through the use of multiple insulated layers of clothing,
adding extra weight and bulk to the wearer and trapping
humidity between layers.
• A novel approach is now available, involving embedded
metallic heating elements (conductive metal materials) into
clothing.
Improving Comfort and Ergonomics

• The battery-powered heated trousers used in the past

summer Olympics is the most recent technology
advancement in this regard.

• More work is needed to address this technology’s field

applications during prolonged military operations and
wearer discomfort arisen from the rigid nature of metallic
elements and its logistic maintenance and durability.
Future Directions

• PC, the need to increase safety and productivity should

drive the development of new technology and clothing.
• Marketing competition will likely provide most of the
incentive for further improvements in both comfort and
ergonomics.
• Development of active fabrics and clothing that responds to
activity and the ambient environment should improve
comfort as well as performance.
• Clothing systems that can automatically or easily manually
adjust water vapor transmission capacity and the rate of
heat dissipation both through the fabric and at openings
would be of great value in both industry and sport, and in
some PC applications.
Future Directions

• Innovation of an integrated cooling clothing system could

also allow protective and sport clothing better coping with
rapid environmental variations.
• Portable circulated liquid and gas cooling with ultrathin,
flexible tubes in the clothing textile structure have shown
some promise for mobile applications.
• However, it remains challenging to design and manufacture
integrated cooling clothing that takes full consideration of
usability (e.g., performance, weight of system), durability
(e.g., dimensional stability during repeated use, flexural
endurance, abrasion resistance, mechanical strength),
maintainability (e.g., ease of care, launderability), and
affordability (e.g., material cost, maintenance cost).
Future Directions

• Future PC and sport clothing is expected to feature smart

responses with artificial intelligence that interacts with
humans, the environment, and clothing itself.

• Smart protective and sport clothing systems incorporating

noninvasive sensors and monitors into clothing for
assessing and diagnosing the wearer’s real-time
physiological status (e.g., heart rate, electrocardiography,
respiration, core temperature, metabolic rate, and blood
pressure) and environment (e.g., humidity, heat flux,
chemicals) would be of great utility in improving safety.
Future Directions

• Future smart clothing would allow early detection of

medical problems and enable advanced action to ensure
safety of the wearer, which is of great value for athletes,
emergency first responders, and in military applications.

• Trans-disciplinary research and development of smart

medical systems and technology are currently underway in
industry and research laboratories and future technology
transfers are foreseeable.
Summary

• Technological developments
• Aerodynamic considerations
• Drag reduction has become a criterion in clothing for
sprinters, speedskaters, and cyclists, among others
• Principles of fluid mechanics have been relevant in the
design of racing boats, rowing shells, and surf boards as
well as in understanding swimming techniques
• Sport shoes and clothing are subject to fashion as well as
design for comfort and performance
• Color can have performance implications as well as
aesthetic consequences
Ergometers

Ergometer may refer to: Exercise machine, equipped with an

apparatus for measuring the work performed by exercising.
Indoor rower, called an ergometer by rowers. An instrument
for measuring the amount of work done by human muscles.
12-min run test,
maximum weight lift for monitoring improvement
Pulse rate
Blood pressure
maximal oxygen uptake
Training equipment

Biokinetic Swim Benches

Boxing speedballs
Cricket Bat