Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mechanics Faculty
Design and Manufacturing in Automotive Engineering
MEASUREMENTS AND
ERGONOMIC MODELING IN
AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY
SUMAR
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE ERGONOMICS
1.1. Ergonomics and its domain of specialization
1.1.1. Definition of Ergonomics
1.1.2. Ergonomics Domains of Specialization
1.2. Automotive Ergonomics
1.3. The role of ergonomics in the automotive design
Chapter 2. ANTHROPOMETRIC AND BIOMECHANICAL DATA IN AUTOMOTIVE DESIGN
2.1. Basic Knowledge of Anthropometry and Biomechanics
2.1.1. Body Planes and Anatomical Landmarks
2.1.2. Anthropometric Measures
2.1.3. Biomechanics
2.1.3. Date Percentile Anthropometric
2.2. Application of percentile anthropometric data
in automotive design
2.2.1. Use of static anthropometric dimension for vehicle design
2.3 Application of percentile biomechanical data
in automotive design
Chapter 3. OCCUPANT PACKAGING
3.1. Definition and importance of vehicle packaging
3.1. Key vehicle dimensions and reference points
3.3. The occupant packaging process
Chapter 4. METHODS AND TECHNICS FOR PROJECTING THE CONDUCTION POST
4.1. H‐Point Measurement Methodology & Techniques: HPM and HPD
4.2. Ergonomics methods and tools to promote occupant accommodation
4.3. Human modelling computer aided design systems
4.4. Recent developments in digital human modeling for ergonomics problem solving
4.5. Integration of Biomechanics in DHM Methods for Ergonomics
Bibliography
Chapter. 1. INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMOTIVE ERGONOMICS
An important step in the process of designing a new car body is the choice of
style by customer representatives as well as by managers of the manufacturing
company after the presentation of several concept variants in the form of models and
artistically made drawings. The results of the judging are extremely useful especially
since the variants presented already take into account many of the constraints
imposed for the operation of the future car. This requires the prior assessment of
comfort ‐ first of the driver and then of the passengers, for each proposed variant of
the body. Knowledge of "Ergonomics / engineering of human factors" is extremely
necessary for automotive design and engineering to achieve optimal compatibility
between occupants and vehicle components in terms of physical, cognitive and
environmental aspects. Automotive ergonomics is the study of how automotive can
be designed better for human use. In vehicle design, the term human factor is
interchangeably called as automotive ergonomics [1].
The human factor aspect of designing automobiles is first considered at the
Vehicle Packaging stage. The term Vehicle Packaging comes to use whenever a new
model is in the early stage of study. It is a method to safeguard and protect space for
the human user and necessary components that make up the vehicle being designed.
Other purposes are to provide alternative solutions and proposals, to ensure the legal
requirements are met and to ensure all the in house requirements are met.
However, the process performed with the usual method and tools is quite
difficult in terms of the amount of work and time allotted. Out of the desire to
reinterpret the concept of car in the most original way, we try to develop technical
tools with which to quickly evaluate the new technical solutions proposed. The
experience of some of the most innovative companies in design has proven that a
successful research can be achieved by combining computer‐assisted methods with
testing on test stands the new solutions proposed.
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1.1. Ergonomics and its domain of specialization
1.1.1. Definition of Ergonomics
The word ergonomics comes from the Greek word “ergon” which means work
and “nomos” which means laws. It’s essentially the “laws of work” or “science of
work”. Good ergonomic design removes incompatibilities between the work and the
worker and creates the optimal work environment. Defined very synthetically
"Ergonomics is the science, technology and art of man at work" (Sen, 1979)
There are many definitions of Ergonomics. In short, in general, several authors
have defined in four benchmarks for ergonomics, as follows:
1. fit the task to the person;
2. use the rule of work;
3. work smarter not harder;
4. make things user‐friendly.
In ergonomics, we always have to try that; how we can re‐design the task,
re‐design the product, and re‐design the work accessories or, in other words, how we
can re‐design the whole system. So that, it is compatible, it is comfortable for the
human being, and we can improve the performance and efficiency.
First attempts to regulate working conditions trace back to England in 1802,
with the Morals and Health Act to protect children. Similar regulations have been
rolled out in Prussia in 1839 and 1853. Schmidtke (1989) mentions fundamental
ergonomic studies between 1850 and 1920 by Lavoisier, Lahy and Marey as well as
basic research in physiology by Gustav Fechner in 1860. Industrial ergonomics were
established in the 1920s and 30s. Automotive ergonomics were developed in the
1950s onwards.
In 1959, various scientific organizations dealing with ergonomics grouped
under the roof of International Ergonomics Association (IEA).
According to the International Ergonomics Association, the definition of
ergonomics is: Ergonomics (or human factors) is the scientific discipline concerned
with the understanding of interactions among humans and other elements of a
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system, and the profession that applies theory, principles, data and methods to
design in order to optimize human well‐being and overall system performance.
Practitioners of ergonomics and ergonomist contribute to the design and
evaluation of tasks, jobs, products, environments and system in order to make them
compatible with the needs, abilities and limitations of the people.
Now, there are so many other definitions by other authors:
Human Factors Engineering is the practice of designing products so that the
user can perform required use, operation, service and supportive tasks with
minimum stress and maximum efficiency. (Woodson 1981)
In 1995 Fernandez defined ergonomics as “the design of workplace,
equipment, machine, tool, product, environment and system taking into
consideration the human’s physical, physiological, biomechanical, psychological
capabilities and optimizing the effectiveness and productivity of work systems; while
assuring the safety, health wellbeing of the workers. In general, the aim of
ergonomics is to ‘fit the task to the individual’ not ‘individual to the task’” (Fernandez,
1995).
Ergonomics has been defined as an interdisciplinary science that aims to
achieve optimal relationships between man ‐ workplace ‐ environment (physical and
social), with special effects in terms of increasing labor productivity and improving
human working conditions. Ergonomics draws on many disciplines to optimize the
interaction between the work environment and the worker.
Ergonomics uses in an integrated way the knowledge of the disciplines of
bio‐psycho‐medical sciences (physiology, psychology, ecology, anthropology,
biomechanics, work mechanics, hygiene etc.), technical‐economic (management
science, labor study, industrial aesthetics, technological engineering, industry
economics, cybernetics, machine building engineering, occupational safety
technology etc.), social (labor sociology), all aiming at the long‐term maintenance of
work capacity, the promotion of human health.
Ergonomics is therefore not the monopoly of the biologist, anthropologist,
psychologist, sociologist, engineer, economist or organizer, but it appeals to these
specialists to provide the organizer with maximum information on the optimal
possibilities of man to integrate into the work process.
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Industrial design
Mechanical
engineering ERGONOMICS Physiology
Biomechanics Psychology
Anthropometry
Figure 1.1. Summarizes the main disciplines / sciences used by ergonomics that give it the
character of multidisciplinary / interdisciplinary
1.1.2. Ergonomics Domains of Specialization
According to the International Ergonomics Association, there are three broad
domains of ergonomics: physical, cognitive, and organizational.
Physical Ergonomics
Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric,
physiological and biomechanical characteristics as they relate to physical activity.
This is the ergonomics domain we are most concerned with in the workplace,
and most of the content on this paper is very much focused on workplace
ergonomics.
Benefits of Ergonomics:
1. Lower costs
2. Higher productivity
3. Better product quality
4. Improved employee engagement
5. Better safety culture
The ergonomics improvement process systematically identifies ergonomic
hazards and puts in place engineering and administrative control measures to
quantifiably reduce risk factors.
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Ergonomics Process
Assess Risk: Conducting an ergonomic assessment is a foundational element of
the ergonomics process. Your ergonomic improvement efforts will never get off the
ground without being able to effectively assess jobs in your workplace for
musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) risk factors.
Plan Improvements: The core goal of the ergonomics process is to make
changes to your workplace that reduces risk. Making changes at scale requires a
significant planning effort that includes prioritizing jobs to be improved, identifying
effective improvement ideas and cost‐justifying the improvement projects.
Measure Progress: Measurement is an important component of any successful
continuous improvement process. High performing ergonomics programs are
constantly measured using both leading and lagging indicators.
Scale Solutions: By establishing a common set of tools to train your workforce,
assess risk, plan improvements, measure progress, and design new work processes,
you’ll be able to scale ergonomics best practices throughout your organization.
Cognitive Ergonomics
Cognitive ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception,
memory, reasoning, and motor response, as they affect interactions among humans
and other elements of a system.
Organizational Ergonomics
Organizational ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of
socio‐technical systems, including their organizational structures, policies, and
processes.
1.2. Automotive Ergonomics
A vehicle is most often developed using known and proven technology in
known and proven combinations. So, in most cases, there is already something to
build on, a structure or platform that must be reconfigured or slightly altered. When
there is nothing to start with but a clean sheet of paper, then it is good to know all
the ingredients, requirements and prerequisites needed to develop a vehicle
architecture that meets customers’ expectations.
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Developing the technical components of a vehicle is easy. Engineering is a
straight forward science that follows rules of physics, math and chemistry.
The interesting part starts when it comes to fit the human into the machine.
Knowing and understanding the human is the real challenge. (*Clemens Marek ‐
Ergonomics for Passenger Cars)
The driver interacts with vehicle components: steering wheel, brake, clutch
and many other controls / displays, tools, equipment or work items inside the vehicle,
even outside the vehicle. This interaction is influenced by so many other factors:
Environmental factors, psycho‐social factors, economic factor.
Now, during this interaction, there are three components; one component ‐
that is the human being, another is the work accessories and the third component is
the surrounding physical environment. These three components are together making
the whole system.
The automotive ergonomics is actually dealing with this type of interaction;
not only with the driver or passenger and the vehicle component; but on the other
hand, all other people who are engaged in this process: those who are designing
these vehicles, those who are designing vehicle components, those who are making
or assembling the parts or developing the vehicle; Then, there is also maintenance
operation; there is also personnel who are engaged in service, so, all these people.
Automotive ergonomics is nothing but consideration of ergonomic principles
and use of ergonomic tools and techniques in the field of automotive design process.
Automotive ergonomics is a specialized branch of ergonomics where we are
discussing about the human compatibility with automotive products and all other
factors which affect that interaction.
If we can consider the ergonomic principle in the design process, it will lead to
improved performance, efficiency, productivity of the overall system; not only the
user's performance will be increased, but also the overall performance of the system;
(that system consists of man, environment, equipment, physical environment) and at
the same time, there should be less chance of error and accident.
What are the basic needs of the driver in car product design? While developing
car products, especially for car, we need to consider how to use ergonomic principles
to increase mobility, comfort and convenience. We also need to think about the
various safety issues; how can we avoid accidents, how can we protect ourselves
from accidents, how can we reduce the pronunciation of accidents.
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Similarly, we need to think; that; we can increase efficiency; that is, cost,
mileage, how we can increase lift, how we can increase fuel economy. On the other
hand; we must also think about the aesthetic part, i.e. entertainment, elegant appearance
and then craftsmanship.
Driving a vehicle is a demanding task, even if it is not done as a profession.
Ergonomics therefore plays an important role during the development process.
Human limits are manifold, which makes ergonomics a multi‐disciplinary task.
Capacity and demand need to be considered simultaneously. A task can only be
performed if the individual human capacity exceeds the demand of the particular task
(Kroemer, 1997).
What are the limits? A number of constraints are pure geometrical and caused
by the dimension of the human body, which is a science of its own, called
“Anthropometry”. Dempster (1955) investigated the space requirements of the
seated operator. Internal loads of the human body build the next category of
constraints. The operation of the vehicle requires a mechanical interaction.
Biomechanics is the dedicated science for that. Human senses are remarkably good,
so good that their limits are not always understood. Vision is of course the most
important sense in this context, but also hearing and proprioception are relevant for
a driver. Human senses are investigated in “Physiology“ (Schmidt, 2005).
Even if the driver can reach everything, the operational forces are in the
perfect range and the senses can master the situation, there is still the need to
understand how the system works and the duty to come up with the right decision in
the given time. Cognitive limits are difficult to investigate. Psychology is in the lead of
this field, which is interdisciplinary itself.
Figure 1.2. Categories of human performance limits and relevant scientific fields
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The individual capacity depends on a vast number of parameters, but even
then it is not constant. Age, training, boundary conditions, fatigue and motivation
come into play. For engineers it is sometimes difficult to accept this large spectrum,
which causes some uncertainty. However, this is “the nature of the beast”.
The vehicle should be designed in such a way that, while the operator, means,
any user is using that vehicle or automotive product, his cognitive as well as physical
load for operating that vehicle should be as less as possible. Various usability
dimensions like effectiveness, efficiency, engaging, error tolerance and easy to learn;
these have to be ensured. Then it helps to meet all pre‐selected ergonomic standards
and requirements. If we consider ergonomic design principles in the automotive
design process, it will help to meet the pre‐selected ergonomic standards and
requirements
The subject Ergonomics or Human Factors can be categorized mainly under
three domains of specializations; one ‐ physical ergonomics, second ‐ cognitive
ergonomics and third one is the organizational ergonomics.
Under physical ergonomics we discuss about human anatomy, anthropometry,
physiology and biomechanics and under biomechanics ‐ posture, manual material
handling, safety, repetitive movement, musculoskeletal disorders, this type of various
aspects; physical aspects of human being and its compatibility with the automotive
components are discussed under physical ergonomics. We will study the seating
comfort, whether the person can see outside, how his visibility is inside and outside
the vehicle; say, how much ease is there in operating steering wheel, brake etc.
In case of cognitive ergonomics, we discuss about how various information
from the road or from inside the vehicle, various information through various sensory
channels or our sense organs (we perceive and accordingly we are interacting, or we
are driving the vehicle).
The driver perceives that information, perceiving that and accordingly doing
some muscular activity to control various control operations for navigating that
vehicle.
The third area is the organizational ergonomics; the organizational ergonomics
is dealing with socio‐technical system, organizational structure, policies, and
processes.
The automotive design process; the focus point (from the start to end) of any
automotive design process is a human being, means, user or customer. The starting
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point; that is the understanding the customer needs and expectation (that is also
with the human being) and it is also ending with the human being i.e. obtaining the
feedback after the product uses. This is also coming from the human being that is the
user and customer.
Therefore, major steps involved in the automotive design process, as
mentioned by Bhise in his book Automotive Ergonomics (2016) are: first one ‐
understanding the customer needs, second ‐ product planning, third ‐ automotive
styling engineering, then detailed engineering, then prototype, testing, validation,
tooling design, plant design and construction, production of vehicle and obtaining
feedback from the users.
The primary goal of ergonomist is to work with the vehicle design team to
produce ergonomically superior vehicles.
There are different types of vehicles, starting from on‐road vehicle, off‐road
vehicle and their use purpose is also different ‐ some vehicles are being used for
civilian purpose, some for military purpose or defense purpose. There is huge
variation in vehicle design.
It is very challenging for the ergonomist as well as for the designers to design
this type of vehicle where we can accommodate the passenger or driver or even
maintenance person or the assembly worker; that there is different variation in terms
of their body dimension, in terms of their force capability, in terms of their various
psychological needs. This is really challenging; that how we can make the automotive
product compatible with the intended users. That is the biggest challenge for the
designer as well as for the ergonomist. The varying anthropometrical abilities,
biomechanical abilities as well as cognitive abilities; that need to be looked into while
we are designing this type of automotive products.
In the automotive industry, for a particular company that is planning for a new
automotive product, the advanced design group plans for that product or vehicle. The
vehicle planning activity starts after approval from the higher authority or the
management, then the business plan is decided by the company management and
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then they give the responsibility to the chief program manager who constitutes the
functional groups.
Vehicle design & development is actually a coordinated activity among various
functional groups and among that groups; ergonomist or human factors engineers
work in close association with many different vehicle design teams.
Ergonomists conduct research in the following three areas in the automotive
design: first one ‐ that is the descriptive ergonomics research, second one ‐
experimental ergonomics research and third one is the evaluative ergonomics
research.
The role of the car ergonomist is the provision of data, which describes the
characteristics of the user and various limitations in the car script. We can take the
example of measuring and distributing anthropometric data, biomechanical data,
driver movement data, passenger data, as well as people working in the factory
bridge or on the assembly line.
In experimental ergonomics research, ergonomists or ergonomics engineer
conduct experiments to determine the effects of different design variables, individual
components or whole vehicle, on the physical/physiological/psychological cognitive
aspects of the users. For example, re‐designing the seat and its impact on occupant
comfort; or how better design of steering wheel or brake, clutch, accelerator can be
done, so that it will be much more convenient for the driver to operate.
On the other hand, evaluative research, where evaluation is happening,
comparison is happening ‐ which design feature is better than another one. In this
case, comparing the proposed or intended vehicle design concept with other
benchmarked vehicles, for example, determining how the newly incorporated
features are superior to the existing one, in terms of customer rating.
Ergonomist provides the vehicle design teams with needed ergonomics design
guidelines, information or data regarding targeted users, ergonomic evaluation
during design and development process, and recommendation for product decisions
at the right time that is called the gateway or milestones in front of the right level of
decision‐makers. Then, while the management is taking decision then ergonomists
play an important role by providing various feedbacks.
The ergonomist plays an active role in the different phases of the car design
process. We know that there are mainly four phases in any product design process.
The first ‐ the pre‐conceptual phase, the second ‐ the conceptual phase, then the pre‐
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design stage, and the last is a detailed design stage. In all these four stages,
ergonomists play an important role and guide the design team so that superior
ergonomically automotive products can be designed.
In the first phase, which is the pre‐conceptual phase, information is mainly
gathered and the design limits are selected; first ‐ benchmarking of selected
competitive vehicles to understand the different designs and ergonomic issues with
these designs. Next, a survey of user needs is made as per the intended market
segment using questionnaires, interview in the field or in design clinic gathering
anthropometric data, biomechanical data, along with segment‐specific preference
data for aesthetic variables.
It follows, the making ready, the availability of various corporate and
regulatory standards and design guidelines including standards of Society of
Automotive Engineers (SAE), while the engineers or designers are conceptualizing
that vehicle, they can take care of all these standard guidelines.
The ergonomists actively participate in design limit selection, use context,
targeted user population, physical dimension, material, cost, manufacturability,
sustainability, so these different dimensions or different aspects of the design which
are to be thought of before designing a vehicle or designing an automotive product.
They play a crucial role with other design team members.
Figure 1.5. Pre‐conceptual phase
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Figure 1.6. Conceptual phase
The vehicle concept is developed in the conceptual phase. There are various
steps, starting from the sketching, mock‐up development and evaluation of the
mock‐up. Now, how ergonomist or ergonomics engineer contributes in this second
phase that is the conceptual phase. They participate in brainstorming and
interpretation of the focus group data. They also carry out evaluation of concept,
sketches, CAD rendered models, physical mock‐ups like clay models and foam core,
wooden or fiberglass bucks etc., from ergonomics perspective using checklist,
scorecards and design guidelines.
Ergonomists also participate in concept screening to select the best concept
following QFD techniques that is the Quality Function Deployment techniques.
The concept of the completed vehicle is evaluated in terms of ergonomics and
engineering aspects. The ergonomist plays a crucial role in this phase, because the
CAD model or the rendered CAD model is evaluated in the virtual platform using CAD
software using digital human models.
The ergonomists can create digital human models for the occupants and using
those human models they can evaluate various human factor issues in that vehicle
design. Another activity is the user trial in the driving simulator and test bucks to get
insights of various human factor issues like occupant packaging, entry/exit, head
clearance, field of view, visual obscuration, location of exterior lights, body cut lines,
fuel filler location etc. The various ergonomic aspects which are needed to be
considered that are also tested through user trials in test buck.
Particularly, this type of testing is important or quick studies or experiments
are required to resolve issues where sufficient information from available guidelines
or earlier research is not available.
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In the detailed design phase, the last phase, ergonomists conduct task analysis
with the users in terms of issues related to vehicle usage. Apart from task analysis
they also evaluate hardware as prototype parts and overall vehicle model.
Ergonomists also do assessments on control, display, field of view, entry/exit,
craftsmanship for the first production vehicle. In the detailed design phase, while the
first production vehicle is coming, that first vehicle is also evaluated from various
ergonomics perspective by the ergonomist or ergonomics engineer.
Figure 1.7. Detail‐design phase
Figure 1.8. Post‐design phase
After that, while the design process is complete, and the product is launched in
the market, the ergonomists continue their role in the automotive design process.
They also participate in the test drive and market research clinics to get what are the
difficulties which the test drivers are facing and, also, what type of feedback is
coming from the market. They generally perform these activities in the market
research clinics, obtaining reviews and act on the customer feedback data, the
complaints, warranty, and customer satisfaction survey, power rating data,
inspection survey with owners, automotive magazines and press.
From these various sources they get the information and accordingly decide
how further modification or improvement is required in the vehicle. Then conducting
ergonomics research, they translate research results into design guidelines for
application in future vehicle programs.
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