VELAMMAL MATRIC. HR. SEC.

SCHOOL
T.S. KRISHNA NAGAR, CHENNAI-37
HIGHER SECONDARY COMPARTMENT

MATHEMATICS – QUICK REVIEW

FORMULAE, DEFINITIONS, THEOREMS
AND RESULTS
STD. XI

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 INDEX
S.NO. CHAPTERS

1. SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

2. BASIC ALGEBRA

3. TRIGONOMETRY

4. COMBINATORICS AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

5. BINOMIAL THEOREM, SEQUENCES AND SERIES

6. TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

7. MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

8. VECTOR ALGEBRA – I

9. DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS – LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS – DIFFERENTIABILITY AND METHODS OF
10.
DIFFERENTIATION
11. INTEGRAL CALCULUS

12. INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY THEORY

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 CHAPTER-1

SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS

SET: A set is a collection of well-defined objects

FORMULAE:
1. A ⊆ B ⟹ A is the superset, B is the Subset.
A ⊂ B ⟹ A is the proper subset of B.
A ⊆ B ⟹ A is the improper subset of B.
∅ ⊂ 𝐴 ⟹ ∅ and A are called trivial Subset.
A ⊆ A ⟹ A is an improper subset of itself.
∅ ⊂ 𝐴 ⟹ ∅ is a proper subset of any set.
𝑃(𝐴) – Power Set of A – A set that contains all subsets of A.

2. AUB = {𝑥: 𝑥𝜖𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥𝜖𝐵}

A∩B ={𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}
A-B ={𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}
A∆B = (A-B) ∪ (B-A) = (A∪B) – (A∩ B)

3. Commutative property
𝐴∪𝐵 =𝐵∪𝐴
𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐵∆𝐴
𝐴𝑋𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝑋𝐴
𝐴∩𝐵 =𝐵∩𝐴
𝐴−𝐵 ≠𝐵−𝐴

4. Associative property
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶)
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩ 𝐶 = 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)

5. Distributive Property
𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

6. Identity Property
𝐴∪∅=𝐴
𝐴 ∩∪= 𝐴

7. Idempotent
𝐴∪𝐴 =𝐴
𝐴∩𝐴 =𝐴
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8. Absorption
𝐴 ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) = 𝐴
𝐴 ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝐴

9. De Morgan’s law
(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵 ′
(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵 ′
𝐴 − (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 − 𝐶)
𝐴 − (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 − 𝐶)

10. Symmetric difference

𝐴∆𝐵 = 𝐵∆𝐴
(𝐴∆𝐵)∆𝐶 = 𝐴∆(𝐵∆𝐶)
𝐴 ∩ (𝐵∆𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)∆(𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)

11. On empty set and Universal Set

∅′ =∪
∪′ = ∅
A ∪ A′ =∪
A ∩ A′ = ∅
𝐴∪𝑈 =𝑈
𝐴 ∩ ∪= 𝐴

12. Cardinality

A is said to be finite if 𝑛(𝐴) = 𝑘 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 ∈ 𝑊

➢ If 𝑛(𝐴) = 1 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝐴 𝑖𝑠 Singleton.
➢ n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) − n(A ∩ B) A, B are 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒
➢ n(𝐴 ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡
➢ n(𝐴 ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + 𝑛(𝐵) + n(𝐶) − n(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) − n(𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) − n(C∩A) + n(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 ∩ 𝐶)
➢ If n(𝐴) = 𝑘, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛[(𝑃(𝐴)] = 2𝑘
➢ 𝑖𝑒 n(∅) = 0, n({∅}) = 2𝑜 = 1

13. Cartesian Product

AxA = {(𝑎, 𝑏): 𝑎, 𝑏 𝜖𝐴}
AxB = {(𝑎, 𝑏) ∶ 𝑎 𝜖 𝐴, 𝑏 𝜖 𝐵}
AxB ≠ BxA, unless 𝐴 = 𝐵
RxRxR = {(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) ∶ 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅}

➢ Constant : A quantity that remains unaltered throughout a process

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➢ Variable : A quantity that varies in a process

14. Interval: A subset I of R is an interval if

(i) I contains at least two elements and
(ii) a,b ϵ I and a < 𝑐 < 𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑐 ∈ 𝐼

15. Finite Interval

(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} (Open)
[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏} (Closed)
(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}

16. Infinite Interval

(𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < ∞}
[𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < ∞}
(−∞, 𝑏) = {𝑥: −∞ < 𝑥 < 𝑏}
(−∞, 𝑏] = {𝑥: −∞ < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}
(−∞, ∞) = {𝑥: −∞ < 𝑥 < ∞}
or R or the set of real numbers

17. Relation: Let A, B be any two non-empty sets. A relation R from A to B is

defined as a subset of the
Cartesian Product of A and B. Symbolically R ⊆A x B.
Domain: If R is a relation from A to B,
The set {𝑎𝜖𝐴: (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑏 ∈ 𝐵 } is called the domain of the
relation
Range: If R is a relation from A to B, then the set
{𝑏𝜖𝐵: (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖𝑅 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝜖𝐴} is called the range of the relation
Reflexive: R is said to be reflexive if a is related to a ∀𝑎 ∈ 𝑆, the non empty set.
Symmetric: R is said to be symmetric if 𝑎𝑅𝑏 ⟹ 𝑏𝑅𝑎
Transitive: R is said to be transitive if aRb, bRc ⟹ aRc
If a relation contains a single element then it is transitive

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 Equivalence: If R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive then it is equivalence
relation.
Inverse:If R is a relation from A to B then the relation defined from B to A by
R-1={(𝑏, 𝑎): (𝑎, 𝑏) ∈ 𝑅}is called the inverse of R.
* A universal relation is always an equivalence relation.
* An empty relation can be symmetric and transitive.

Function : Let A, B be two sets. A relation f from A to B, a subset of AxB is

called a function from A to B if it satisfies the following.
(i) For all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, there is an element b ∈ B such that (a, b) ∈ 𝑓
(ii) If (a,b) ∈ 𝑓 and (a,c) ∈ 𝑓 then b = c

Representation:
Tabular form:
x x1 x2 ...... xn
y y1 y2 ...... yn
Graphical Representation:
When the domain and the co-domain are subsets of R, many functions
can be represented using a graph with x-axis representing the domain and y-axis
representing the co-domain in the (x, y)-plane.

Analytical Representation:
If the functional relation y=f(x) is such that f denotes an analytical
expression, we say that the function y of x is represented or defined analytically.
𝑥−1
Some examples of analytical expressions are 𝑦 = 𝑥+1 , 𝑦 = √9 − 𝑥 2

Identity function:𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋

X X

a b
b c
c a

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Constant Function:𝑓: 𝑋 → 𝑋 𝑑𝑒𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑎𝑠 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋
X Y

x a
y b
z c

Modulus Function: f: R → R defined as f(x) = |𝑥|

|x| = x if x ≥ 0,
-x if x <0.
one to one function:
𝑓: 𝐴 → 𝐵 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑖𝑓 𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑥 ≠ 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑦)
(𝑜𝑟)
𝑥 = 𝑦 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑦)

onto function:
f : A → B is onto if for each b ∈ B there will be at least one element a ∈ A such that
f (a) = b.
Note: one to one function is injective.
onto function is surjective function.
A function f : A → B is said to be bijective if it is both one to one and onto.
Composition of functions:
Let f:X→ 𝑌 𝑔: 𝑌 → 𝑍be two functions.
Then h:X→ 𝑍defined as = ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] iscalled composition of f with g
It is denoted as h=g∘f

Inverse Function:
Let f:X⟶Y be a bijection. The function g : Y⟶X defined by g(y)=x if f(x) = y, is
called the inverse of f and is denoted by f-1.

Algebra of functions:
For any set X, and real valued functions f and g, the operations on algebra are defined
as
(𝑓 ± 𝑔)𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)
(𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) where g(x) ≠ 0
(−𝑓)(𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)
(𝑐𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑐𝑓(𝑥)

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Note:𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑜 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + . . . . . . + an is called a polynomial function.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 is called an exponential function
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥 is called a logarithmic function
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑄(𝑥)is called rational function,where P(x), Q(x) are polynomials, Q(x) ≠ 0
Odd Function:𝑓: 𝑅 ⟶ 𝑅 defined as 𝑓(−𝑥) = −𝑓(𝑥)is called an odd function.
Even Function:𝑓: 𝑅 → 𝑅 defined asf(-x)=f(x)is called an even function

Graphical Representation:
Reflection: 𝑦 = −𝑓(𝑥) (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
𝑦 = 𝑓(−𝑥) (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠)
𝑦 = 𝑓 −1 (𝑥) (𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑦 = 𝑥)

Translation: 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑐), 𝑐 > 0 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑓𝑡)

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥 − 𝑐), 𝑐 > 0 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑑 , 𝑑 > 0 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑢𝑝𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑)
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑑 , 𝑑 > 0 (𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑓𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑑)
Dilation: Dilation is also a transformation which causes the curve stretches
(expands) or compresses (contracts).
If positive constant is greater than one, the graph moves away from the 𝑥-axis.
If the constant less than one, the graph moves towards the 𝑥-axis.

Note:
1. If n(A)=k then n [P(A)]=2k
2. If P(A) is the power set of A then 𝑛 [𝑃 (𝑃(𝑃(∅)))] = 4
3. If f and fog are one to one then g need not be one to one.

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 CHAPTER-2

BASIC ALGEBRA

Real Numbers ( R )

Rational numbers (Q) Irrational Number (𝑄 ′ )

𝑚
𝑄 = { 𝑛 /m, n ∈ z, n ≠ 0} (neither terminating nor infinite periodic)

(Terminating or infinite Periodic)

Integers Z ={... , −2, −1,0,1,2, … }

Whole numbers W={0,1,2,…}

Natural numbers N={1,2,3…}

𝑁⊂𝑊⊂𝑍⊂𝑄⊂𝑅
Number Line

→ Rational numbers

→ Irrational numbers
√2

√3

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Properties:
➢ a,b ∈ R ⟹ a+b, ab∈ R
➢ a, b, c ∈R, ⟹ a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c and a(bc) = (ab)c.(Associative)
➢ a ∈R, a + 0 = a and a(1) = a.
➢ a, b ∈R, a + b = b + a and ab = ba. (Commutative)
➢ a, b, c ∈R, a(b + c) = ab + ac. (Distributive)
➢ a,b ∈R, a<b if and only if b-a>0
➢ For any a ∈R, a2≥ 0
➢ For any a, b ∈R only one of the following holds: a=b(or)a < b(or) a > b
➢ If a,b ∈ R and a<b, then a+c<b+c for all c ∈R
➢ If a,b ∈ R and a<b, then ax<bx for all x>0
➢ If a, b ∈ R and a<b, then ay>byfor ally<0

2. Absolute value
|x| = x if x ≥ 0,
-x if x <0.

➢ if |x+y|=|x-y| then xy=0.

➢ |xy| = |x||y|
𝑥 |𝑥|
➢ |𝑦| = |𝑦|, y≠ 0
➢ |x+y| ≤|x|+|y|

3.Polynomials:
Polynomial

linear Quadratic cubic Bi-quadratic (quadric)

degree 1 degree 2 degree 3 degree 4

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Remainder theorem:
If a polynomial f(x) is divided by x-a then the remainder is f(a) . Thus the
remainder c = f(a) = 0 if and only if x – a is a factor for f(x).
Note:
➢ If f(a)=0 for a polynomial f(x) then x=a is a zero of f(x)
➢ A polynomial f(x) can have either real or unreal roots.
➢ If a+b √𝑝 is a root of f(x) then a-b√𝑝 is also a root (irrational roots occur in
pair)
➢ Identity equation: An equation valid for all values in its domain.
➢ Conditional equation:An equation valid only for some values in its domain.

4. Exponents and Radicals:

For any real numbers a≠ 0, and m negative or non-negative the exponent states,
am =a x a x a x a………..m times.
1
a-m =𝑎𝑚

am an = am+n (Product rule)

𝑎𝑚
=If𝑎am-n
n (division
=b then rule
a is the nth /quotient
root of b ==rule)
>a=b1/n a
𝑎𝑛

𝐼𝑓 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑏 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑎 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑡ℎ 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑏 1⁄𝑛

(𝑎𝑚 )n = amn

(ab)n = an bn

ax=1⇔ x=0
Logarithm:

ax=y⟹ log 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑥It exists only for positive real numbers.

➢ log 𝑎 1 = 0 because a0 =1 for all base ‘a’.
➢ log 𝑎 (𝑎y )= y , and 𝑎 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑥 =x
➢ log 𝑎 𝑥 + log 𝑎 𝑦 = log 𝑎 𝑥𝑦 (Product rule)
𝑥
➢ log 𝑎 𝑥 − log 𝑎 𝑦 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 (𝑦) (division/quotient rule)
➢ log 𝑎 𝑥 𝑚 = 𝑚 log 𝑎 𝑥 (Power rule)
➢ log 𝑏 𝑎 = 1⁄𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑏
𝑎

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 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑥
➢ log 𝑏 𝑥 = (change of base rule)
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎 𝑏
Note:
If a=10 then log10xis called common logarithm
If a=e then logex is called natural logarithm
Rational function:
𝑝(𝑥)
A function of form 𝑞(𝑥),q(x) ≠0 is called a rational function

Partial fraction:
𝑝(𝑥)
In a rational function 𝑞(𝑥) if the degree of p(x) less than the degree of q(x), then it is
called a Proper fraction.
𝑝(𝑥)
Improper rational Function 𝑞(𝑥) can be broken or simplified into partial fraction.

Partial fraction

Linear factor Repeated linear Factor Not factorable

𝐴 𝐵 𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝑥+𝐵
+ 𝑐𝑥+𝑑 + (𝑥+𝑎)2
𝑎𝑥+𝑏 𝑥+𝑎 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐

Quadratic formula:
−𝑏±√𝑏 2 −4𝑎𝑐
𝑥= , b2-4ac =∆ (discriminant)
2𝑎

b2-4ac > 0, roots are real, distinct(curve intersect x axis at two points)

b2-4ac = 0, roots are real, equal (curve intersect x axis at one point)

b2-4ac < 0, roots are unreal (curve does not intersect x-axis)
➢ If α, β are the real roots of an equation then the equation will be
x2 –( α + β)x+ αβ = 0 .
−𝑏 𝑐
➢ If ax2+bx+c =0 is the equation with roots α, β then α + β = , αβ =
𝑎 𝑎
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Inequalities:
ax2+bx+c > 0, ax2+bx+c < 0
let α, β be the critical numbers (or) roots.

-∞ R-I α R-II β R-III ∞

Select any values and check on the inequality and it must be maintained.
ax2+bx+c =0, (x- α)(x- β)=0
x- α x- β (x- α)(x- β)
- ∞<x< α - - >0
α <x< β + - <0
β <x<∞ + + >0

The solution of ax2+bx+c > 0 ⇒ x ∈ ( - ∞ , α) ∪ (β , ∞)

ax2+bx+c <0 ⇒ x ∈ (α, β)
Identities:
➢ (x+a)3=x3+3ax(x+a)+a3
➢ (x-a)3=x3-3ax(x-a)-a3
➢ x3+a3=(x+a)(x2-ax+a2)
➢ x3-a3=(x-a)(x2+ax+a2)
➢ A polynomial of degree five is called quintic polynomial
➢ anxn+an-1xn-1+ ………..+a1x+a0, ai∈ R is called a polynomial of degree ‘n’.

Definition:
A real number 𝑎 is said to be a zero of the polynomial f(x) if f(a) = 0. If x = a is a zero
of f(x), then x – a is a factor for f(x).

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 CHAPTER 3
TRIGONOMETRY
Degree measure
1 𝑡ℎ
If a rotation from the initial position to the terminal position (360) of
the revolution, the angle is said to have a measure of one degree and written
as 10. A degree is divided into minutes and minute is divided into seconds.
One degree = 60 minutes (60′)
One minute = 60 seconds (60′′)

Radian measure
The radian measure of an angle is the ratio of the arc length it subtends, to the
radius of the circle in which it is the central angle.

➢ 𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑠 = 1800
Basic trigonometric ratios in right angled triangle:
opp
➢ sinθ = hyp hyp
adj
➢ cosθ =hyp opp
θ

adj
opp sinθ
➢ tanθ = = cosθ
adj
1
➢ cosecθ = sinθ
1
➢ secθ =
cosθ
1 cosθ
➢ cotθ = tanθ = sinθ

Basic trignometric identities

cos2θ + sin2θ = 1 sec2θ - tan2θ = 1 cosec2θ - cot2θ = 1

cos2θ = 1 - sin2θ sec2θ = 1 + tan2θ cosec2θ = 1+ cot2θ

sin2θ = 1 - cos2θ tan2θ = sec2θ – 1 cot2θ = cosec2θ - 1

14 | P a g e
Values of trigonometic functions

0˚ 30˚ 45˚ 60˚ 90˚

sinθ 0 1 1 √3 1
2 √2 2
cosθ 1 √3 1 1 0
2 √2 2
tan θ 0 1 1 √3 ∞
√3

√5+1
sin 54˚ = 4

√3+1
cos15˚ = sin 75˚ = 2√2

√5− 1
sin18˚ = 4

1
cos18˚ = 4 √10 + 2√5

√5+1
cos36˚ = 4

Relationship between degree and radian measures:

180 °
➢ πc = 180˚, 1 radian =( )
𝜋

𝜋
➢ 1˚ = 180 radian

𝜋𝑟 2
➢ Area of the sector = (360˚) 𝜃 (in degree measures)

𝜋𝑟 2 𝑟 2𝜃
➢ ( 2𝜋 ) 𝜃 = (in radian measures)
2

𝑎𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑠
➢ 𝜃= =
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟

∴ s = r𝜃

15 | P a g e
Trigonometric functions and their properties

II I

sin𝜃 90° + 𝜃 All 90° − 𝜃

cosec𝜃 180° - 𝜃 360° + 𝜃

III IV
tan 𝜃 180° + 𝜃 cos 𝜃 360° - 𝜃
cot 𝜃 270°- 𝜃 sec 𝜃 270° + 𝜃

Signs of trigonometric functions in various quadrants can be remembered with the

slogan “ All Silver Tea Cups”.

90˚ - θ sinθ cosθ

90˚ + θ ratio changes as cotθ tan θ

270˚ + θ secθ cosecθ

270˚ - θ

180˚– θ, 180˚+ θ, 360˚-θ, 360˚+θ ratio will not change the periodicity of trigonometric
function

sinx, cosx, cosecx and secx periodic functions with period 2π.

tanx and cotx are periodic functions with period π

odd and even trignometric functions:

Trignometric function except cos𝜃 and sec𝜃 are odd trignometric functions.

Trigonometric identities

Sum, difference and compound angles.

• cos (α+β) = cosαcosβ - sinαsinβ

• cos (α-β) = cosαcosβ + sinαsinβ
• sin (α+β) = sinαcosβ + cosαsinβ
16 | P a g e
 • sin (α-β) = sinαcosβ – cosαsinβ
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
• tan(α+β) = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼−𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
• tan(α-β) = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛼 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
• cos2A = cos2A – sin2A or cos2A = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
• sin2A = 2sinAcosA or sin2A = 1+𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
2𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴
• tan2A = = 1−𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
• sin2A = , cos2A = , tan2A = 1+𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝐴
2 2
• cos3A = 4cos3A – 3cos A
• sin3A = 3sinA – 4sin3A
3𝑡𝑎𝑛𝐴−𝑡𝑎𝑛3 𝐴
• tan 3A = 1−3 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 𝐴
1
• cos(60𝑜 − 𝐴) cos 𝐴 cos( 60𝑜 + 𝐴) = cos 3𝐴
4
1
• sin(60𝑜 − 𝐴) sin 𝐴 sin( 60𝑜 + 𝐴) = sin 3𝐴
4
• tan(60𝑜 − 𝐴) tan 𝐴 tan( 60𝑜 + 𝐴) = tan 3𝐴
• sin 4𝐴 = 4 sin 𝐴 𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 𝐴 − 4 cos 𝐴 𝑠𝑖𝑛3 𝐴

Half angle identity

𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃 𝜃
sinθ = 2sin 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 , cos 𝜃 = cos22 - sin2 2 = 1 − 2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 2 = 2𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 2 − 1

𝜃
𝜃 2𝑡𝑎𝑛
cos𝜃 = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 − 1, tan𝜃 = 2
𝜃
2 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2

𝜃 𝜃
2 tan 1− 𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2 2
sin𝜃 = 𝜃 , cos 𝜃 = 𝜃
1 + 𝑡𝑎𝑛2 1+ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2
2 2

Sum to product
𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
sinC + sinD = 2 sin cos
2 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
sinC - sinD = 2 cos sin
2 2

𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
cosC + cosD = 2 cos cos
2 2

17 | P a g e
 𝐶+𝐷 𝐷−𝐶 𝐶+𝐷 𝐶−𝐷
cosC - cosD = 2 sin sin = −2 sin sin
2 2 2 2

Product to sum
1
sinA cosB = 2 [sin (A+B) + sin (A – B)]

1
sinA sinB = 2 [cos (A-B) – cos (A + B)]

1
cosA sinB = [sin (A + B) – sin (A - B)]
2

1
cosA cosB = 2 [cos (A+B) + cos (A - B)]

Trigonometric equations General solution

sin 𝜃 = 0 𝜃 = nπ ∀ n∈ 𝑧
cos 𝜃 = 0 𝜃 = (2n+1)𝜋/2 ; n∈ 𝑧
tan 𝜃 = 0 𝜃 = n𝜋 ; n∈ 𝑧
𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝜃 = sinα where α∈ [− 2 , 2 ] 𝜃 = n𝜋 + (−1)𝑛 𝛼; 𝑛𝜖𝑧
cos 𝜃 = cosα, where α∈ [0, 𝜋] 𝜃 = 2n𝜋 ± 𝛼, 𝑛𝜖𝑧
𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝜃 = tanα where α∈ [− 2 , 2 ] 𝜃 = n𝜋 + α, n∈ 𝑧

Law of sines or sine formula

𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= sin 𝐵 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝐶 = 2R
sin 𝐴

Napier’s formula

In any ∆ 𝐴𝐵𝐶
𝐴−𝐵 𝑎−𝑏 𝐶
tan( ) = 𝑎+𝑏 cot 2
2

𝐵−𝐶 𝑏−𝑐 𝐴
tan( )= cot
2 𝑏+𝑐 2

𝐶−𝐴 𝑐−𝑎 𝐵
tan( ) = 𝑐+𝑎 cot 2
2

18 | P a g e
Law of cosines
𝑏 2 +𝑐 2 − 𝑎2 𝑐 2 +𝑎2 −𝑏2 𝑎2 +𝑏 2 −𝑐 2
cos 𝐴 = , cos 𝐵 = , cos 𝐶 =
2𝑏𝑐 2𝑎𝑐 2𝑎𝑏

Projection formula

i) a = bcos C+ c cos B ii) b = ccosA+acos C iii) c = acosB + bcos A

Area of triangle
1 1 1
∆= ab Sin C = 2 bc Sin A = ac Sin B
2 2

Area of the segment = Area of sector – Area of ∆𝑂𝐴𝐵

1 1 2
= 2 𝑟 2𝜃 - 𝑟 sin𝜃
2

1 2
= 𝑟 (𝜃 – sin𝜃)
2

Area of a triangle (Heron’s Formula)

In ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶, ∆= √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) where s is the semi-perimeter of

∆𝐴𝐵𝐶.

Half angle formula

𝐴 (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝐴 𝑠(𝑠−𝑎)
i) sin 2 = √ ii) cos 2 = √
𝑏𝑐 𝑏𝑐

𝐴 (𝑠−𝑏)(𝑠−𝑐) 𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
ii) tan2 = √ where s =
𝑠(𝑠−𝑎) 2

Oblique SAA SSA* SAS SSS AAA

triangle
Details and Law of Ambiguity Either law Law of Infinite
applications sines arises of cosines cosines number of
for solution or tangents triangles

19 | P a g e
Inverse trigonometric functions:
The inverse functions sin−1 x, cos−1 x , tan−1 x , cosec −1 x , sec −1 x , cot −1 x are the
inverse circular functions. For the function y=sin x, there are infinitely many angles x
which satisfy sin x = t, −1 ≤ t ≤ 1.Of these infinite set ofvalues, there is one which
π π
lies in the interval[− 2 , 2].This angle is called the principal angle and denoted by sin-1t.
Ratio Domain Range Inverse Domain Range
ratios
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑥 [−
2 2
, ] [-1,-1] sin−1 𝑥 [-1,1] [−
2 2
, ]

cos 𝑥 [0, 𝜋] [-1,-1] cos −1 𝑥 [-1,1] [0, 𝜋]

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
tan 𝑥 (−
2 2
, ) (- ∞, ∞) tan−1 𝑥 (- ∞, ∞) (−
2 2
, )

cot 𝑥
(0, 𝜋) (- ∞, ∞) cot −1 𝑥 (- ∞, ∞) (0, 𝜋)

cosec 𝑥 𝜋 𝜋 R – (-1,1) R - (-1,1) 𝜋 𝜋

[− , ]- {0}
2 2
cosec −1 𝑥 [− , ]-{0}
2 2

sec 𝑥 𝜋 R – (-1,1) R - (-1,1) 𝜋

[0, 𝜋] − { }
2
sec −1 𝑥 [0, 𝜋] − { }
2

20 | P a g e
 CHAPTER 4

COMBINATORICS AND MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION

FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF COUNTING:

1. Sum rule :
If there are n choices for one action, and m choices for another action
and the two actions cannot be done at the same time, then there are n + m ways
to choose one of these actions.
2. Product rule :
If there are n ways of doing something and m ways of doing another
thing then there are n x m ways to perform both of these actions.

3. The Inclusion - Exclusion Principle:

n (A∪B)= n(A)+ n(B) – n(A∩B)
The pigeonhole principle :
The Pigeon Hole Principle states that if P items (pigeons) are put into H
pigeonholes with P>H, then atleast one pigeonhole must contain more than one item.
Factorials:
Factorials of a natural number n is the product of the first n natural numbers. It is
denoted by n !
(ie) n ! = 1 x 2 x 3 x 4 x….....x n. RECALL:
NOTE: W.K.T
5! = 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 120 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!
4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24 Replace 𝑛 as 1
3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6 1! = 1(1 − 1)!
2! = 2 × 1 = 2 1! = 1(0)!
1! = 1 ∴ 0! = 1

Permutations:
Permutations of distinct objects
If n, r are positive integers and r ≤n,
𝑛𝑃 𝑟 = n(n – 1)(n – 2)………..(n-r+1)
If n≥1, and 0 ≤ r ≤ n , then
𝑛!
𝑛𝑃 𝑟 = (𝑛−𝑟)!

21 | P a g e
Properties of permutations :
𝑛𝑃 𝑛 = 𝑛𝑃𝑛−1
𝑛 × (𝑛 − 1)𝑃𝑛−1 = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑛𝑃 𝑟 = (𝑛 − 1)𝑃𝑟 + 𝑟 × (𝑛 − 1)𝑃𝑟−1

Objects Always Together (String Method) :

The number of permutations of n different objects, taken all at a time, when m specified
objects are always together,
➢ Consider a string of m specified objects as a single unit
➢ Then we have (n-m+1) objects. Permute this (n-m+1) objects in
(n-m+1) ! ways.
➢ Then permute the m specified objects between themselves in m! ways.
➢ Finally, the answer is m ! x (n-m+1) !

No two things are together(Gap Method):

To obtain the number of permutations of n different objects when no two of k given
objects occur together and there are no restrictions on the remaining m=n-k objects, we
follow these steps:
➢ First of all, arrange the m objects on which there is no restriction in a
row. These m objects can be permuted in m Pm = m! ways.
➢ Then count the number of gaps between every two of m objects on
which there is no restriction including the end positions. Number of such
gaps will be one more than m that is (m+1) . In this (m+1) gaps, we can
permute the k objects in (m+1)Pk ways.
➢ Then the required number of ways are m ! x (m+1)Pk.

Rank of the word in the Dictionary:

• It is the place at which the given word comes when writing all the strings
formed by the letters of the given word in the dictionary order or lexicographic
order.
Theorem:
• The number of permutations of n objects, where p objects are of the same kind
𝑛!
and rest are all different is 𝑝 !

22 | P a g e
 • Generally, the number of permutations of n objects, where 𝑃1 objects are one
kind, 𝑃2 objects are of second kind, …… 𝑃𝑘 are of kth kind and the rest of it are
𝑛!
of different kind is𝑝
1 ! 𝑋𝑝2 ! 𝑋………….𝑋𝑝𝑘 !

Deduction:
The sum of all r digit numbers that can be formed using the given n non-zero digits is
(n − 1)P (r − 1)X(Sum of the digits)X 111 … 1 (r times)
Deduction:
If 0 is one digit among the given n digits, then we get that the sum of the r digits
numbers that can be formed using the given n digits (including 0) is
{(𝑛 − 1)𝑃 (r − 1) x(sum of the digits) x 111…….1(r times)} – {(𝑛 − 2)𝑃 (𝑟 − 2) x
(sum of the digits) x 111……1 ((r-1) times)}.

Combinations :
The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is given by
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶 𝑟 = ,0≤ r≤n
𝑟!(𝑛−𝑟)!
𝑛𝑃 𝑟
Relation between permutation and combination is 𝑛𝐶 𝑟 = 𝑟!

Properties of combinations :
𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)……..(𝑛−𝑟+1)
➢ 𝑛𝐶 𝑜 = 1, 𝑛𝐶 𝑛 =1, 𝑛𝐶 𝑟 = 𝑟!
𝐶 𝐶
➢ 𝑛 𝑟 = 𝑛 (𝑛 − 𝑟)
➢ If 𝑛𝑐 𝑥 = 𝑛𝐶 𝑦 then either x = y or x +y = n
➢ 𝑛𝐶 𝑟 + 𝑛𝐶 (𝑟-1) = (𝑛 + 1)𝐶 𝑟
𝑛
➢ 𝑛𝐶 𝑟= 𝑟 x (𝑛 − 1)𝐶 (𝑟 − 1)
𝑛(𝑛−3)
➢ No of diagonals in a polygon with n sides = 2
2𝑛 (1∙3∙5⋯(2𝑛−1))
➢ Result 2𝑛𝐶𝑛 = 𝑛!
➢ Result 1 ≤ 𝑟 ≤ 𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑛 x (𝑛−1) 𝐶𝑟−1 = (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)𝑛 𝐶𝑟−1 .

23 | P a g e
Mathematical induction :
The method to prove a mathematical statement P(n), the process of induction involves
the following steps:
Step 1:
Verify that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 1, ie. To prove P(1) is true.
Step 2:
Verify that the statement is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘 + 1, whenever it is true for 𝑛 = 𝑘, where k is
a positive integer.
Step 3:
If step 1 and step 2 have been established then the statement P(n) is true for all positive
integers n.
Double factorial of n :
Factorial of an integer n, denoted by n! can be viewed as a function f : N U {0} → N,
where N is the set of all Natural integers, defined as
1 for n = 0
f(𝑛) = { }
nx(n − 1)(n − 2)x … … … 3x2x1 for n ≠ 0
We can define n!! (double factorial of n) as
1 for n = 0,
nx(n − 2)x(n − 4)x … … … . .4x2 for n is even
𝑔(𝑛) =
nx(n − 2)x(n − 4)x … … … .3x1 for n is odd

Eg:
5!! = 5 x 3 x 1 = 15
8 !! = 8 x 6x 4 x2 = 376
Note :
n!! ≠(n ! ) !

24 | P a g e
 CHAPTER - 5
BINOMIAL THEOREM, SEQUENCES AND SERIES
Finite series and sequence

Finite sequence Finite Series

1. Arithmetic Progression (AP) 1. Sum of Arithmetic and Geometric progression
2. Geometric Progression (GP) 2. Telescopic summation for finite series
3. Arithmetic - Geometric Progression (AGP) 3. some special finite series
4. Harmonic Progression (HP)
5. Arithmetic, Geometric, Harmonic Progression

Infinite series and sequence

Infinite sequence Infinite series

1. Fibonacci Sequence 1. Convergent series
2.Partial sum of sequence 2. Geometric series
3. Arithmetico-Geometric series
4.Telescopic summation
5.Binomial expansion
6.Exponential expansion
7.Logarithmic series

Binomial Coefficients:
𝑛!
𝑛𝐶 𝑟 =
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟!
𝐁𝐢𝐧𝐨𝐦𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐨𝐫𝐞𝐦 𝐟𝐨𝐫 𝐩𝐨𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐞 𝐢𝐧𝐭𝐞𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐥 𝐢𝐧𝐝𝐞𝐱:

𝑛 𝑛
(a+b)n =∑𝑘=0 nC k an-k bk (or) ∑𝑘=0 nC k ak b n-k

(a + b)n= nC0 anb0 + nC1an−1b1 +……+ nCr an-r br +…..+ nCn a0bn.

25 | P a g e
 (a - b)n= nC0anb0 - nC1an−1b1 + nC2an−2b2……+ (-1)nnCr an-r br +…..+(-1)nnCn a0bn.

(1+x)n =nC0+ nC1x+ nC1x2+……….+nCrxr+….+ nCnxn

x=1⇒nC0+ nC1+ nC2+…+ nCn = 2n

(1-x)n =nC0- nC1x+ nC1x2-……….+(-1)nnCrxr+….+(-1)n nCnxn

x=1⇒nC0+ nC2+ nC4+… = nC1+nC3+nC5+…. = 2n-1

The (r+1)th term in the expansion of (a+b)n, n∈ N is tr+1 = nCr an-r br r=0,1,…n

➢ In the product of (a+b)(a+b) … (a+b), n times, the term of n Cr is the co-efficient of an-r br.
➢ nCr= nCn-r
In the expansion of (a+b)n, n∈ N the greatest co-efficient is 𝑛𝐶𝑛 . If n is even, it is
2

𝑛𝐶𝑛−1 (or) If n is odd, it is 𝑛𝐶𝑛+1

2 2

Middle term is 𝑇𝑛+1 if n is even

2
Middle terms are 𝑇𝑛−1+1 and 𝑇𝑛+1+1 if n is odd.
2 2
Arithmetic Progression (AP) or Arithmetic sequence:
i. A sequence of the form
a, a+d, a+2d, ….a+(n-1)d
a is first term, d- common difference
ii. nth term of AP is Tn= a+(n-1)d
iii. For n∈ N, Tn=an+b where a and b are relatively prime.
𝑛
iv. The sum of Sn of the first n term of the arithmetic sequence is Sn=2 [2a+(n-1)d]

Geometric Progresion (GP):

i. A sequence of the form a,ar,ar2 ,……….. arn-1,arn.
a is first term, r is the common ratio
ii. nth term of GP is Tr= arn-1
iii. If a,ar, ar2,…… is a GP with r>0 log a +log (ar)+log (ar2)+……is an AP with common
difference log r
iv. The constant sequence c,c,c …. is an arithmetic sequence and also a geometric
sequence(if c ≠0)
v. Special constant sequence 0,0,0….is arithmetic sequence. If it is considered as a
geometric sequence, first term is 0.

26 | P a g e
The sum of sn of the first n terms of the geometric sequence
1−𝑟 𝑛
Sn= 𝑎 ( 1−𝑟 ) r<1
𝑟 𝑛 −1
Sn= 𝑎 ( 𝑟−1 ) r>1
If r=1, the sequence is a constant sequence a,a,a,……
Sn=na.
1−𝑟 𝑛
If r ≠1, 1+r+r2+…+rn-1 = ( 1−𝑟 )

Harmonic Progression(HP):
A sequence h1, h2, h3,…….. in a harmonic sequence or harmonic progression if
1 1 1
, , , …is an arithmetic sequence
ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3
1
General term of harmonic progression (HP) is Tn=𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑
Arithmetico - Geometric Progression (AGP):

A sequence of the form a,(a+d)r,(a+2d)r2,(a+3d)r3…(a+(n-1)d)rn-1,(a+nd)rn,…..

AP = a,a+d,a+2d,…….

GP = 1,r,r2,….then AGP is a,(a+d)r,(a+2d)r2,…..

a=first term , d=common difference , r=common ratio.

General Term Tn= (a+(n-1)d)rn-1.

All APs and GPs are AGPs

The sum Sn of the first n terms of the Arithmetico –Geometric sequence is

𝑎−[𝑎+(𝑛−1)𝑑]𝑟 𝑛 1−𝑟 𝑛−1
𝑆𝑛 = + 𝑑𝑟( (1−𝑟)2 ) for r≠1
1−𝑟

Arithmetic,Geometric,Harmonic, Arithmetico-Geometric Mean

Arithmetic Mean:
For ‘n’ positive numbers a1, a2, a3,…..an
a1 +a2 +a3 +⋯+an
AM= 𝑛
For any two positive numbers a, b
a+b
AM= 2

27 | P a g e
Geometric Mean:
For ‘n’ positive numbers a1,a2,a3,…..an

GM= 𝑛√𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 , … 𝑎𝑛

For any two positive numbers a and b

GM=√𝑎𝑏
Harmonic Mean:
The harmonic mean of a set {h1, h2,…,hn} of positive numbers is defined as
𝑛
1 1 1
+ ℎ + ⋯+ ℎ
ℎ1 2 𝑛

For any two positive numbers a and b

2𝑎𝑏
HM = 𝑎+𝑏

Note:
• AM ≥GM ≥HM
• AM X HM = GM2

Infinite series:
1
i. ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0 𝑥 converges for all real numbers x with|𝑥| < 1 and the sum is 1−x.
1
= 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 3 + ⋯.
1−𝑥
1
ii. ∑∞ n n
n=0(−1) x converges for all real number x with |x| < 1and the sum is 1+x.
1
= 1 − x + x 2 − x 3 … ..
1+x
1 1 1
iii. ∑∞ n
n=0(2x) converges for all real number x with|x| < 2 and the sum is 1−2x , |x| < 2
1
= 1 + 2x + 4x 2 + 8x 3 + ⋯
1 − 2x
𝑥𝑛
iv. ∑∞
𝑛=0 ( 𝑛! ) converges for all real number x and sum is 𝑒
𝑥

𝑥 𝑥2
𝑒𝑥 = 1 + + +⋯
1! 2!
v. ∑∞ 𝑛
𝑛=0(−1) 𝑥 converges only for x=0

28 | P a g e
Special Finite Series:
𝑛(𝑛+1)
1. ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐾 = 1 + 2 … + 𝑛 = 2
𝑛(𝑛+1)(2𝑛+1)
2. ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐾 2 = 12 + 2 2
2 …+𝑛 =
6
𝑛(𝑛+1) 2
3. ∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝐾 3 = 13 + 3 3
2 …+𝑛 = [ 2 ]

BINOMIALSERIES:
Binomial theorem for rational exponent:
Binomial theorem for rational exponent
𝑛(𝑛−1) 2 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2) 3
➢ (1 + 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 2!
𝑥 + 3!
𝑥 +⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑛(𝑛−1) 𝑛(𝑛−1)(𝑛−2)
➢ (1 − 𝑥)𝑛 = 1 − 𝑛𝑥 + 2! 𝑥 2 − 3!
𝑥3 + ⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2) 3
➢ (1 + 𝑥)−𝑛 = 1 − 𝑛𝑥 + 2! 𝑥 2 − 3!
𝑥 +⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑛(𝑛+1) 𝑛(𝑛+1)(𝑛+2)
➢ (1 − 𝑥)−𝑛 = 1 + 𝑛𝑥 + 2! 𝑥 2 + 3!
𝑥3 + ⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑝
𝑝 𝑝(𝑝−𝑞) 𝑝(𝑝−𝑞)(𝑝−2𝑞) 3
➢ (1 + 𝑥)𝑞 = 1 + 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 +⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑞 𝑞 2! 𝑞3 3!
𝑝
𝑝 𝑝(𝑝−𝑞) 𝑝(𝑝−𝑞)(𝑝−2𝑞) 3
➢ (1 − 𝑥)𝑞 = 1 − 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 +⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
𝑞 𝑞 2! 𝑞3 3!
−1 2 3
➢ (1 + 𝑥) = 1−𝑥+𝑥 −𝑥 +⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
➢ (1 − 𝑥)−1 = 1 + 𝑥 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
➢ (1 − 𝑥)−2 = 1 + 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 + 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)
➢ (1 + 𝑥)−2 = 1 − 2𝑥 + 3𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 3 + ⋯ (|𝑥| < 1)

Exponential Series:
𝑥𝑛
The series∑∞
𝑛=0 is called an exponential series.
𝑛!
𝑥𝑛 𝑥
For any real number x, ∑∞
𝑛=0 𝑛! =
𝑒

1 1 1
➢ 𝑒1 = 1 + + + + ⋯
1! 2! 3!
1 1 1
➢ 𝑒 −1 = 1 − 1! + 2! − 3! + ⋯
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
➢ 𝑒 𝑥 = 1 + 1! + 2!
+ 3!
+⋯
𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
➢ 𝑒 −𝑥 = 1 − 1! + 2!
− 3!
+⋯
𝑒 𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥6
➢ 2
=1+ 2!
+ 4!
+ 6!
+⋯
𝑒 𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑥 𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
➢ 2
= 1! + 3!
+ 5!
+⋯

29 | P a g e
 𝑒+𝑒 −1 1 1 1
➢ =1+ + + + ⋯
2! 2! 4! 6!
𝑒−𝑒 −1 1 1
➢ 2!
= 1 + 3! + 5! + ⋯
2𝑥 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)3
➢ 𝑒 2𝑥 = 1 + 1!
+ 2!
+ 3!
+⋯
2𝑥 (2𝑥)2 (2𝑥)3
➢ 𝑒 −2𝑥 = 1 − 1!
+ 2!
− 3!
+⋯

Logarithmic Series:
xn
The series ∑∞
n=1(−1)
n+1
is called logarithmicseries. This series converges for all
n
values of x, |x| < 1. The series converges when x = 1 also.
x2 x3 x4
log (1 + x) = x − + − + … |x| < 1
2 3 4
x2 x3 x4
log (1 − x) = −x − − − − ⋯ |x| < 1
2 3 4
1+𝑥 𝑥3 𝑥5
log ( ) = 2 [𝑥 + + + ⋯ ]
1−𝑥 3 5

Fibonacci Series:
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑛−2 , 𝑛 ≥ 3 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑥1 = 1, 𝑥2 = 1

𝑛 = 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 . . .
𝑥𝑛 = 1 1 2 3 5 8 13 21 34 55 . . .

30 | P a g e
 CHAPTER - 6

TWO DIMENSIONAL ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY

Locus of a point:
A point is an exact position (or) location on a plane surface
Straight Line
i. slope m = tanθ.
𝑦 −𝑦
ii. slope of line joining two points (x1,y1), (x2,y2) is m=𝑥2 −𝑥1
2 1
𝑎
iii. When the general form of the linear equation is ax+by+c=0, slope= −
𝑏
Note: In a plane three or more points are said to be collinear if they lie on a same
straight line.
Different forms of an equation of a straight line:
i. Slope and intercept form
y=mx+b , where b≠ 0, m is the slope,b is the y-intercept
ii. Point slope form
(y-y1) =m(x-x1)
iii. Two points form
𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑥1
=
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
iv. Intercept form
𝑥 𝑦
𝑎
+ 𝑏 = 1, wherea is x –intercept, b is y-intercept

v. Normal form
𝑥 cos 𝛼 + 𝑦 sin 𝛼 = 𝑝,
where 𝒑 is length of normal drawn from origin to a line, which makes an angle ∝ with 𝑥-axis.
vi. Parametric form(or)symmetric form
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
= =𝑟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
Where the parameter 𝑟 is the distance between (𝑥1, 𝑦1 ) and any point (𝑥, 𝑦) on the line.
vii. The general form of the equation of straight line is
ax+by+c=0
viii. The equation of y – axis is x = 0
The equation of x – axis is y = 0

General form to other forms:

𝐴 𝐶 𝐴 𝐶
i. Slope and intercept form y=− 𝐵 𝑥 − 𝐵 , slope = − 𝐵 , y- intercept = − 𝐵
𝑥 𝑌 −𝑐 −𝑐
ii. Intercept form : −𝑐 + −𝑐 = 1, x intercept = 𝐴
, y- intercept = 𝐵
𝐴 𝐵

31 | P a g e
iii. Normal form Ax+By+C=0 with xcos 𝜃 + 𝑦 sin 𝜃 = 𝑝
−𝐴 −𝐵 |𝐶|
√𝐴2 +𝐵2
𝑥 + √𝐴2 𝑦 = √𝐴2
+𝐵2 +𝐵2
−A −B |C|
cos α = √A2 sin α = √A2 and p = √A2
+B2 +B +B2
iv. Angle between two straight lines
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
tan 𝜃 = | | 𝜃 = tan−1 | |
1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2

v. Condition for parallel lines

m1=m2
If the equation of two lines are in general form a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2=0,
𝑎1 𝑏
then 𝑎2
= 𝑏1 or a1b2=a2b1
2
vi. Any line parallel to the straight line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0
vii. Condition for perpendicular lines
𝒎𝟏 × 𝒎𝟐 = −𝟏
If the equation of the two lines are in general form a1x+b1y+c1=0 and a2x+b2y+c2=0,
condition for perpendicular lines a1a2+b1b2=0
viii. Any line perpendicular to the straight line 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 is of the form
𝑏𝑥 − 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑘 = 0
ix. Distance formulae:
➢ For the two points (x1, y1),(x2, y2), D=√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2
➢ A Point to a line, point(x1,y1), line ax+by+c=0
𝑎𝑥 +𝑏𝑦 +𝑐
Distance = | 1 2 12 |
√𝑎 +𝑏
➢ The distance between two parallel lines a1x+b1y+c1=0 and
a1x+b1y+c2=0 is
𝑐 −𝑐
Distance = | 12 22 |
√𝑎 +𝑏
➢ The co-ordinates of the nearest point (foot of the perpendicular)on the
line ax+by+c=0 from the point (x1,y1) is
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 −(𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐)
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
➢ The co-ordinates of the image of the point (x1,y1) with respect to the
line ax+by+c=0 is
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 −2(𝑎𝑥1 + 𝑏𝑦1 + 𝑐)
= =
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
x. Pair of straight line passing through the origin
➢ ax2+2hxy+by2=0 is a homogeneous equation of degree two. Degree of
each term is two.
➢ Condition for parallel lines is h2-ab=0
➢ For perpendicular lines : a+b=0

32 | P a g e
 xi. Angle between pair of straight lines
2√ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏
tan 𝜃 = | |
𝑎+𝑏
➢ The lines are real and distinct, if m1 and m2 are real and distinct
i.e.ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏>0
➢ The lines are real and coincident, if m1 and m2 are real and equal
i.e.ℎ2 − 𝑎𝑏 = 0
➢ The lines are not real(imaginary), if m1 and m2 are not real i.e.
2
ℎ − 𝑎𝑏 < 0

xii. Equation of the bisectors of the angle between the lines ax2+2hxy+by2=0
➢ Let the equation of the two straight lines be, y-m1x=0,y-m2x=0
−2ℎ 𝑎
m1+m2= , m1m2=𝑏
𝑏
𝑥 2 −𝑦 2 𝑥𝑦
➢ Locus of P(p,q) is =
𝑎−𝑏 ℎ

General form of pair of straight lines:

ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0
It is a non-homogeneous equation of degree two.
➢ Condition for pair of straight lines.
𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
abc+2fgh-af2-bg2-ch2=0 (or)|ℎ 𝑏 𝑓 | = 0
𝑔 𝑓 𝑐
➢ Two straight lines represented by ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 are parallel if
𝑎 ℎ 𝑔
= 𝑏 = 𝑓 or bg2= af2
ℎ
➢ If ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 represents a pair of straight lines then distance
(𝑔2 −𝑎𝑐) (𝑓 2 −𝑏𝑐)
between them is 2√ 𝑎(𝑎+𝑏) or 2√ 𝑏(𝑎+𝑏)

33 | P a g e
Relationship between the equations of pair of straight lines:

➢ If the equation ax2+2hxy+by2+2gx+2fy+c=0 represents a pair of straight lines,

then ax2+2hxy+by2=0 represents a pair of straight line passing through the origin
parallel to the first pair.
ℎ𝑓−𝑏𝑔 𝑔ℎ−𝑎𝑓
➢ Point of intersection of two lines P=(𝑎𝑏−ℎ2 , 𝑎𝑏−ℎ2 )

Angle between the straight lines:

2√ℎ2 −𝑎𝑏
Angle between the two straight lines is 𝜃 = tan−1 | |
𝑎+𝑏

Note: The pair of straight lines through the origin is a homogenous equation of degree
two.

34 | P a g e
 CHAPTER - 7

MATRICES AND DETERMINANTS

Matrix:

A matrix is a rectangular array or arrangement of entries or elements displayed

in rows and columns put within a square bracket [].

Order of the matrix:

If a matrix A has m rows and n columns then the order or size of the matrix A is
defined to be m x n (read as m by n).

Types of matrices:

A matrix A = [aij]m×n is said to be

➢ Square matrix : If m = n
➢ Row matrix : If m = 1
➢ Column matrix : If n = 1
➢ Zero matrix : If aij = 0, for all values of 1≤ i ≤ m and 1 ≤ j ≤ n.
➢ Diagonal matrix : A square matrix A=[aij]nxn is called a diagonal matrix if
aij=0 whenever i≠ j.
➢ Scalar matrix : A diagonal matrix whose entries along the principal
diagonal are equal.
➢ Unit matrix (or) Identity matrix: A square matrix in which all the diagonal
entries are 1 and the rest are all zero.
➢ Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular
matrix if all the elements below the main
diagonal are zero.
➢ Lower triangular matrix: A square matrix is said to be a lower triangular
matrix if all the elements above the main
diagonal are zero.
Equal matrices:
Two matrices A = [aij]m×n and B=[bij]m×n, are said to be equal if and only if
(i) both A and B are of the same order
(ii) the corresponding entries of A and B are equal. That is, aij = bij for all i and j.

35 | P a g e
Algebraic operations on matrices:
➢ If A = [aij]m×n and B=[bij]m×n, then A+B = [cij]m×n, where cij= aij+ bij
➢ If A= [aij]m×n and λ is a scalar, then λA = [λaij]m×n.
➢ -A = (-1)A
➢ A+B = B+A
➢ A–B = A+(-1)B
➢ (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) where A, B and C are of the same order.
➢ i. A(BC) = (AB)C
ii. A(B+C) = AB+AC
iii. (A+B)C=AC+BC

Multiplication of matrices:

A matrix A is said to be conformable for multiplication with a matrix B if the

number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.

Transpose of matrix:

The transpose of A, denoted by AT is obtained by interchanging rows and columns of A.

i. (𝐴𝑇 )T = A ii. (𝐾𝐴)T = KAT

iii. (A+B)T = AT+BT iv. (AB)T =BTAT

Symmetric matrix:

A square matrix A is called symmetric if AT = A.

Skew symmetric matrix:

A square matrix A is called skew symmetric if AT = -A.

➢ Any square matrix can be expressed as sum of a symmetric and skew

symmetric matrices.
➢ The diagonal entries of a skew symmetric matrix must be zero.
Theorem:Any square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric matrix and a
1 1
skew – symmetric matrix. 𝐴 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑇 ) + 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑇 )

36 | P a g e
 Determinants:
To every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number
called determinant of the matrix A.
➢ Determinants can be defined only for square matrices.

➢ Matrix is only a representation whereas determinant is a value of a matrix.

Properties of Determinants:
➢ The determinant of a matrix remains unaltered if its rows are changed into
columns and columns into rows.
➢ If any two rows/ columns of a determinant are interchanged, then the
determinant changes in sign but its absolute value remains unaltered.
➢ If there are n interchanges of rows (columns) of a matrix a then the
determinant of the resulting matrix is (-1)n|A|.
➢ If two rows (columns) of a matrix are identical, then its determinant is zero.
➢ If a row (column) of a matrix A is a scalar multiple of another row (or
column) of A, then its determinant is zero.
➢ If each element in a row (or column) of a matrix is multiplied by a scalar k,
then the determinant is multiplied by the same scalar k.
➢ If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is expressed as sum of
two or more terms then the whole determinant is expressed as sum of two or
more determinants.
➢ If, to each element of any row (column) of a determinant the equi-multiples
of the corresponding entries of one or more rows (columns) are added or
subtracted, then the value of the determinant remains unchanged.
Factor theorem:

If each element of a matrix A is a polynomial in x and if |A| vanishes for x=a,

then x–a is a factor of |A|.

NOTE

1. If 𝑟 rows (columns) are identical in a determinant of order 𝑛(𝑛 ≥ 𝑟),

when we put 𝑥 = 𝑎, then (𝑥 − 𝑎)𝑟−1 is a factor of |𝐴|.
2. If the determinant is in cyclic symmetric form and if 𝑚 is the difference
between the degree of the product of the factors ( obtained by substitution) and
degree of the product of the leading diagonal elements and if

37 | P a g e
 𝒎 Other factor
𝑚=0 𝑘
𝑚=1 𝑘(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐)
𝑚=2 𝑘(𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐 2 ) + 𝑙(𝑎𝑏 + 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑐𝑎)
2 2

Product of determinants
Procedures for multiplication of two determinants.
(i) Row by column multiplication rule
(ii) Row by row multiplication rule
(iii) Column by column multiplication rule
(iv) Column by row multiplication rule

Area of the triangle

Area of the triangle with vertices (x1, y1), (x2, y2) and (x3, y3) is given by the absolute
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
value, Area of the triangle = |2 |𝑥2 𝑦2 1||
𝑥3 𝑦3 1

If the area is zero, then the three points are collinear.

Singular matrix:

➢ A square matrix A is said to be singular if |A| = 0 and non-singular if

|A|≠ 0.
➢ For any square matrix A with real number entries, A + AT is a symmetric
matrix and A – AT is a skew symmetric matrix.
Results:
➢ |AT| = |A|
➢ |AB| = |A| |B| where A and B are square matrices of same order.
➢ If A = [aij]n x n, then |KA| = Kn|A|, where k is a scalar.
➢ A determinant of a square matrix A is the sum of products of elements
of any row (or column) with its corresponding cofactors.
|A|=a1A1+b1B1+c1C1
➢ If the elements of a row (or column)are multiplied with the corresponding
cofactors of any other row (or column), then their sum is zero.
For example,
a1A3+b1B3+c1C3 = 0

38 | P a g e
 CHAPTER – 8

VECTOR ALGEBRA-I
➢ A scalar is a quantity determined by its magnitude.
➢ A vector is a quantity that is determined by both its magnitude and its direction.
Therefore it is a directed line segment.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is called the position vector of P
➢ If O if the origin and P is any point in space 𝑂𝑃
with respect to O.
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | is called the magnitude of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
➢ |𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 which is a positive number and is a measure
of its length.
➢ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = −𝐵𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( the arrow indicates the directions)

Types of vectors:
1. Zero or Null vectors: A vector whose initial and terminal points are coincident.
2. Unit Vector: A vector whose magnitude is unity.
3. Like and unlike vectors: Like vectors have the same sense of direction and
unlike vectors have opposite directions.
4. Co-initial vectors: Vectors having same initial or starting point.
5. Co-terminus vector: Vectors having same terminal or end point.
6. Collinear or parallel vectors: Vectors having the same line of action or having
the lines of action parallel to one another.
7. Coplanar vectors: Vectors parallel to the same plane or vectors lying on the
same plane.
8. Negative vector: A vector which has the same magnitude of 𝑎 but is in the
opposite direction is called negative of 𝑎.
9. Reciprocal of vector: Vector which has same direction of 𝑎 but has magnitude
reciprocal of 𝑎.
10. Free and localized vector: When the origin of the vector is any point it is called
free vector, but when it is restricted to a certain specific point it is said to be
localized vector.

39 | P a g e
Properties of addition of vector:

1. Vector addition is commutative 𝑎 + 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎.

2. Vector addition is associative (𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) + 𝑐 = 𝑎 + (𝑏⃗ + 𝑐).
3. 𝑜 is the additive identity for every 𝑎
𝑎+𝑜=𝑜+𝑎=𝑎
4. For every 𝑎, ˗𝑎 is the additive inverse.
𝑎 + (−𝑎) = (−𝑎) + 𝑎 = ⃗0

Multiplication of a vector by a scalar:

1. m(𝑎 + 𝑏⃗) = m𝑎 + m𝑏⃗

2. m(𝑎 - 𝑏⃗) = m𝑎 - m𝑏⃗
3. m(−𝑎) = (-m)𝑎 = -m𝑎
4. (m + n)𝑎 = m𝑎 + n𝑎
5. m(n𝑎) = n(m𝑎) = mn𝑎
6. –m(- 𝑎) = m𝑎

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑂𝐵
𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ − 𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where𝑂𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , 𝑂𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are position vectors of A, B respectively

Results:
𝑎⃗
➢ Unit vector 𝑎̂ = |𝑎⃗|
➢ A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, y2, z2) are any two points
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |=√(𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )2 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )2 + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )2
|𝐴𝐵
➢ The position vector of P dividing AB in the ratio m:n internally is 𝑟 =
𝑚𝑏 ⃗ +𝑛𝑎⃗
where 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are P.V. of A, B and 𝑟 is P.V. of P
𝑚+𝑛
⃗ −𝑛𝑎⃗
𝑚𝑏
➢ If P divides AB externally in the ratio m:n, then 𝑟 = .
𝑚−𝑛
⃗
𝑎⃗+𝑏
➢ Mid point of AB is given by [𝑂𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑏⃗]
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎, 𝑂𝐵
2
𝑂𝐴+𝑂𝐵+𝑂𝐶 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
➢ Centroid of ∆ABC with origin ‘O’ is given by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑂𝐺 = 3
⃗ ⃗
➢ If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are coplanar 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑛𝑏 = 𝑐
➢ If three vectors 𝑎, 𝑏⃗, 𝑐 are collinear then there are numbers l, m, n such
that l+m+n=0 and l𝑎 + 𝑚𝑏⃗ + 𝑛𝑐 = 0

40 | P a g e
 ➢ Two vectors are said be equal if they have same direction and same
magnitude
➢ |𝑎 + 𝑏⃗| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏⃗|
⃗)
(𝑎⃗×𝑏
➢ Vectors of magnitude 𝜆 perpendicular to 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ is±𝜆 |𝑎⃗×𝑏⃗|

Rectangular resolution of a vector in twodimensions:

If P(x, y) is a point then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 = x𝑖̂+ y𝑗̂ where 𝑖̂ and 𝑗̂ are unit vectors along ox and oy
respectively.

Rectangular resolution of a vector in three dimensions:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = x𝑖̂ + y𝑗̂ + z𝑘̂ where 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂, and 𝑘̂ are

If P(x, y, z) is any point in space, then 𝑂𝑃
unit vectors along x, y, z axes respectively.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = r = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
|𝑟| = |𝑂𝑃

Direction cosines of ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑂𝑃 is cos𝛼, cos𝛽, cos𝛾where 𝛼, 𝛽, 𝛾 are the angles made by
the vector with the positive direction of x, y, z axes.

l = cos𝛼, m = cos𝛽, n = cos𝛾

l2+m2+n2 = cos2𝛼 + cos2𝛽 + cos2𝛾 = 1

𝑥 𝑦 𝑧
l = 𝑟, m = 𝑟 , n = 𝑟

(x, y, z) are called direction ratios.

Scalar product of vectors or dot product:

𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑎|⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑏| 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 0≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋

𝜃 is the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗

41 | P a g e
 Properties of scalar product:

➢ Commutative property
𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 𝑏⃗ . 𝑎
➢ 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = 0 𝑎⊥𝑏⃗ if 𝑎, 𝑏⃗ are non zero vectors
➢ If 𝜃 = 0 then 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = ab
➢ If 𝜃 = 𝜋 then 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = - ab
⃗
𝑎⃗ .𝑏
➢ Angle between two vectors 𝜃 is given by 𝜃 = cos-1[|𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗|]

➢ 𝑎 . (𝑏⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗
𝑐) = 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ + 𝑎 . 𝑐 (Distributive property).
➢ (𝜆𝑎) . 𝑏⃗ = 𝜆(𝑎 . 𝑏⃗) = 𝑎 . (𝜆𝑏⃗) where 𝜆 is a scalar.
⃗ , 𝑏⃗ = b1𝑖 + b2𝑗 + b3𝑘
➢ 𝑎 = a1𝑖 + a2𝑗 + a3𝑘 ⃗ then 𝑎 . 𝑏⃗ = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3
➢ 𝑎. 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑎|2 = 𝑎2

Application of scalar product:

𝑎⃗ .𝑏 ⃗
1. Projection of 𝑎 on 𝑏⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑏|
𝑎⃗ .𝑏 ⃗
Projection of 𝑏⃗ on 𝑎 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
|𝑎|
𝜋 3𝜋
2. If 𝜃 = 2 or then the projection vector will be zero vector.
2
3. Work done = 𝐹 . 𝑑 where 𝐹 is the force and 𝑑 is the displacement.

Vector product or cross product:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎| |𝑏| sin 𝜃 𝑛̂ where 𝑛̂ is the unit vector perpendicular to both 𝑎 and𝑏⃗,

0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋.

Properties of vector product:

➢ 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = −(𝑏⃗ × 𝑎) (not commutative)

➢ 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = ⃗0 iff 𝑎 || 𝑏⃗
𝜋
➢ If 𝜃= 2 , 𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎||𝑏⃗|𝑛̂
⃗ ×𝑘
➢ 𝑖×𝑖 =𝑗×𝑗 =𝑘 ⃗ = ⃗0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 × 𝑗⃗ = 𝑘
⃗ ,𝑗 × 𝑘
⃗ = 𝑖,
⃗ 𝑘⃗ ×𝑖=𝑗
42 | P a g e
 ⃗|
|𝑎⃗×𝑏
➢ 𝜃 = sin-1[ |𝑎⃗||𝑏⃗ ]
|

➢ 𝑎 × (𝑏⃗ ± 𝑐) = (𝑎 × 𝑏⃗) ± (𝑎 × 𝑐 )
➢ m(𝑎 × 𝑏⃗) = (m𝑎)× 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 × (𝑚𝑏⃗)
➢ If 𝑎 = a1𝑖 + b1𝑗 + c1𝑘⃗ , 𝑏⃗ = a2𝑖 + b2𝑗 + c2𝑘
⃗
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 ⃗
𝑎 × 𝑏⃗ = |𝑎1 𝑏1 𝑐1 |
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑐2
⃗)
(𝑎⃗×𝑏
➢ 𝑛̂ = ± |𝑎⃗×𝑏⃗|

Application of vector product:

1
1. Area of triangle = 2 |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗| where 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are adjacent sides.
2. Area of parallelogram = |𝑎 × 𝑏⃗| where 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗ are adjacent sides.
3. Moment or torque of force 𝐹 about the point is defined by 𝑀⃗⃗ = 𝑟 × 𝐹

43 | P a g e
 CHAPTER – 9

DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS – LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Limit

Let I be an open interval containing x0 ∈R. Let f : I → R. Then we say that the
𝑙𝑖𝑚
limit of f(x) is L, as x approaches x0 [symbolically written as f(x) = L], if,
𝑥 → 𝑥0
whenever x becomes sufficiently close to x0 from either side with x≠x0

f(x) gets sufficiently close to L.

Left hand limit:

We say that the left – hand limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 (or the limit of f(x) as
x approaches from the left) is equal to l1, if we can make the values of f(x) arbitrarily
close to l1 by taking x to be sufficiently close to x0 and less than x0. It is
𝑙𝑖𝑚
symbolically written as f(x0˗) = f(x) = l1
𝑥 → 𝑥𝑜¯

Right hand limit:

We say that the right – hand limit of f(x) as x approaches x0 (or the limit of f(x)
as x approaches from the right) is equal to l2 if we can make the values of f(x)
arbitrarily close to l2 by taking x to be sufficiently close to x0 and greater than x0. It
𝑙𝑖𝑚
is symbolically written as f(x0+) = f(x) = l2
𝑥 → 𝑥0+

𝑙𝑖𝑚
Note: f(x) = L exists if the following hold.
𝑥 → 𝑥0

𝑙𝑖𝑚
(i) f(x) exists.
𝑥 → 𝑥0−
𝑙𝑖𝑚
(ii) f(x) exists and
𝑥 → 𝑥0+
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
(iii) + f(x) = f(x) = L
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0−

44 | P a g e
 Left hand limit:

𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x0˗) = f(xo – h)
ℎ→𝑜
Right hand limit:

𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x0+) = f(xo + h)
ℎ→𝑜
Theorems on limits:

i) The limit of a constant function is that constant.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ii) c f(x) = c f(x), where c is a constant
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚

iii) [f(x) ± g(x)] = f(x) ± g(x)
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚

iv) [f(x) . g(x)] = f(x) . g(x)
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0
𝑙𝑖𝑚
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0f(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑚
v. = ; g(x) ≠ 0
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑙𝑖𝑚 g(𝑥) 𝑥 → 𝑥0
𝑥→𝑥0

𝑛
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
vi. If f(x) exists then [f(x)]n exists and [f(x)]n = [ 𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥𝑜 𝑥 → 𝑥0

Some important Limits:

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑥 𝑛−𝑎𝑛
i. = n an-1
𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
ii. =1
𝜃→0 𝜃
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1−𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
iii. =0
𝜃→0 𝜃
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑒 𝑥 −1
iv. =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑎𝑥 −1
v. = log a, a > 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥
45 | P a g e
 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 𝑥
vi. =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥
vii. =1
𝑥→0 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚 1
viii. (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = e
𝑥→∞
1
𝑙𝑖𝑚
ix. (1 + 𝑥)𝑥 = e
𝑥→0
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑘
x. (1 + 𝑥 )𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑘
𝑥→∞
𝑙𝑖𝑚 log (1+𝑥)
xi. =1
𝑥→0 𝑥

Sandwich theorem:

If f, g, h : I ⊆ R → R such that g(x) ≤ f(x) ≤ h(x) for all x in a deleted

neighborhood of xo contained in I and if

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚

g(x) = h(x) = l, then f(x) = l.
𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0 𝑥 → 𝑥0

Continuity:

Three requirements have to be satisfied for the continuity of a function y=f(x) at

x=x0.

i. f(x) must be defined in a neighborhood of x0 (i.e., f(x0) exists)

𝑙𝑖𝑚
ii. f(x) exists
𝑥 → 𝑥0

𝑙𝑖𝑚
iii. f(x0) = f(x)
𝑥 → 𝑥0

46 | P a g e
 Examples of functions continuous at a point:
1) Constant function is continuous at each point of R.

2) Power functions with positive integer exponents are continuous at every point of R.

3) Polynomial functions are continuous at every point of R.

𝑝(𝑥)
4) Quotients of polynomials namely rational functions of the form R(x) = 𝑞(𝑥), are continuous at
every point, where q(x) ≠ 0

5) The circular functions sin x and cosx are continuous at every point of their domain R.
1
6) The nth root functions, f(x) = 𝑥 𝑛 are continuous in their proper domain
1
7) The reciprocal function f(x) = 𝑥 is not defined at 0 and hence it is not continuous at 0. It is
continuous at each point of R – {0}.

8) The modulus function f(x) = |𝑥| is continuous at all points of the real line R.

9) The exponential function f(x) = ex is continuous on R.

10) The logarithmic function f(x) = logx (x > 0) is continuous in (0, ∞).

Algebra of continuous functions:

If f and g are continuous at x0 then
1) f + g is continuous at x = x0
2) f - g is continuous at x = x0
3) f . g is continuous at x = x0 and
𝑓
4) 𝑔 is continuous at x = x0; (g(x)≠ 0)

Composite function theorem on continuity:

If f is continuous at 𝑔(𝑥0 ) and g is continuous at x0 then fοg is
continuous at x0.
Continuity in a closed interval:

A function f : [a, b] → R is said to be continuous on the closed interval

[a, b] if it is continuous on the open interval (a, b) and
𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x) = f(a) and f(x) = f(b)
𝑥 → 𝑎+ 𝑥 → 𝑏−

47 | P a g e
Removable Discontinuity:

We could remove the discontinuity by redefining the function. Such

discontinuous points are called removable discontinuities.

A function f defined on an interval I ⊆ R is said to have removable

discontinuity at x0∈ I if there is a function h:I→R.

such that h(x) = f(x), ifx≠x0

𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x),if x = x0
𝑥 → 𝑥0

Jump Discontinuity:

Let f be a function defined on an interval I ⊆ R. Then f is said to have

jump discontinuity at a point x0∈ I if f is defined at x0.

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x) and f(x) exist but
𝑥 → 𝑥0− 𝑥 → 𝑥0+

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑚
f(x) ≠ f(x)
𝑥 → 𝑥𝑜− 𝑥 → 𝑥0+

48 | P a g e
 CHAPTER – 10
DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

DIFFERENTIABILITY AND METHODS OF DIFFERENTIATION

𝑙𝑖𝑚 ∆𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥0+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥0)

➢ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = =
∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑥 → 0 ∆𝑥

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥0+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥0)
➢ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 − )= is the left hand derivative
∆𝑥 → 0− ∆𝑥

𝑙𝑖𝑚 𝑓(𝑥0+∆𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 + )= is the right hand derivative
∆𝑥 → 0+ ∆𝑥

𝑑
➢ (𝑥 𝑛 ) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
➢ (logx) = 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (𝑎 𝑥 ) = 𝑎 𝑥 . 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑎
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (𝑒 𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (sinx) = cosx
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (cosx) = −𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (tanx) = 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (secx) = secxtanx
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (cosecx) = ˗cosecxcotx
𝑑𝑥

𝑑
➢ (cotx) = ˗cosec2x
𝑑𝑥

49 | P a g e
 𝑑 1
➢ (sin-1x) = √1−𝑥2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1
➢ (cos-1x) = √1−𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
➢ (tan-1x) = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 −1
➢ (cot-1x) = 1+𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥

𝑑 1
➢ (sec-1x) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

𝑑 −1
➢ (cosec-1x) =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥√𝑥 2 −1

➢ Product rule:

(uv)′=uv′+vu′

➢ Quotient rule:

𝑢 ′ 𝑣𝑢′ −𝑢𝑣 ′
(𝑣 ) = 𝑣2

➢ Chain rule:

Let y=f(u) be a function of u and in turn let u=g(x) be a function of x so that

y=f(g(x))=(fog)(x).
𝑑
Then 𝑑𝑥(f(g(x))=f '(g(x))g'(x).

➢ Implicit differentiation:

A function in which the dependent variable is expressed solely in terms

of the independent variable x, namely, y=f(x), is said to be an explicit function.

1
For instance, 𝑦 = 2 𝑥 3 − 1 is an explicit function, whereas an equivalent

50 | P a g e
 equation 2y-x3+2=0 is said to define the function implicitly or y is an implicit

function of x.

➢ Logarithmic differentiation:

The advantage in this method is that the calculation of derivatives of

complicated functions involving products, quotients or powers can often be

simplified by taking logarithms.

Note:log(mn) = log m + log n

𝑚
log = log m – log n
𝑛

log mn = n log m

➢ Substitution method:

Maximum applicable to differentiation involving inverse trigonometric

functions.

➢ Parametric functions:

Let x = f(t), y=g(t)

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡
= 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥

➢ Higher order derivative:

Differentiate same function for more than one time

𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦
𝑦 ′ = 𝑦1 = 𝑑𝑥 and 𝑦 ′′ = 𝑦2 = 𝑑𝑥 2 , ………..

𝑑 𝑑
➢ [𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)] = 𝑘 [𝑓(𝑥)], where 𝑘 is constant.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

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 CHAPTER-11

INTEGRAL CALCULUS
Integration (or) Antiderivative:

∫ 𝒇(𝒙)𝒅𝒙 = F(x) + c

➢ Antiderivative of f(x)is F(x)

➢ Arbitrary constant is c
➢ Integrand is f(x)
➢ Integrator is dx

FORMULAE

∫ 𝑘𝑑 𝑥 = kx + c ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = tanx + c

𝑥 𝑛+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = +c, 𝑛 ≠ −1 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐 2 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = -cotx + c
𝑛+1
1 −1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = (𝑛−1)𝑥 𝑛−1 + c, 𝑛 ≠ 1 ∫ 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 tan 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = secx + c

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + c ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑥 cot 𝑥𝑑𝑥 = -cosecx + c

1 1
∫ 𝑥 dx = log|𝑥| + c ∫ √1−𝑥 2 dx = sin-1x + c
1
∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑥𝑑𝑥 = -cosx + c ∫ 1+𝑥 2 dx = tan-1x + c
𝑎𝑥
∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑥𝑑𝑥 = sinx + c ∫ 𝑎 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = log 𝑎 + c

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = x + c ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑐

𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = log |𝑓(𝑥)| + c ∫ √𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥= 2√𝑓(𝑥) + c
𝑓(𝑥)

Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒇(𝒂𝒙 + 𝒃)𝒅𝒙:

1
∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 g(ax + b) + c, if ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑔(𝑥) + 𝑐

Properties of integrals:

∫ 𝑘𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑘 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , where 𝑘 is constant

∫(𝑓1 (𝑥) ± 𝑓2 (𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓1 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑓2 (𝑥)𝑑𝑥

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FORMULAE:

∫ tanxdx = log |secx| + c

∫ cotxdx = log |sinx| + c

∫ cosecxdx = log |cosecx − cotx| + c

∫ secxdx = log |sec x + tanx| + c

Integration by parts Bernoulli’s formula

∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢 ∫ 𝑢𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − 𝑢′ 𝑣1 + 𝑢′′ 𝑣2 − ⋯

𝑒 𝑎𝑥
Results: (i) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 [a sin bx – b cos bx] + c

𝑒 𝑎𝑥
(ii) ∫ 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑏𝑥 = 𝑎2 +𝑏2 [a cos bx + b sin bx] + c

Integration of Rational Algebraic Functions:

1 1 𝑎+𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 −𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log |𝑎−𝑥| + c

1 1 𝑥−𝑎
∫ 𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2𝑎 log |𝑥+𝑎| + c

1 1 𝑥
∫ 𝑎2 +𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎 tan−1 (𝑎) + c

1 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2−𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛−1 (𝑎) + 𝑐

1
∫ √𝑥 2 +𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + c

1
∫ √𝑥 2 −𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + c

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 𝒑𝒙+𝒒 𝒑𝒙+𝒒
Integrals of the form ∫ 𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄 𝒅𝒙 and ∫ 𝒅𝒙:
√𝒂𝒙𝟐 +𝒃𝒙+𝒄

𝑝𝑥+𝑞 𝐴(2𝑎𝑥+𝑏)+𝐵
∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐
𝑑𝑥

1
= A log |a𝑥 2 + b𝑥 + c| + B∫ 𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥

𝑝𝑥+𝑞 1
∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥 = A(2√𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐) + B∫ √𝑎𝑥 2 +𝑏𝑥+𝑐 𝑑𝑥

Note:

𝑥 𝑎2 𝑥
∫ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 + 𝑆𝑖𝑛−1 ( ) + 𝑐
2 2 𝑎
𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 − 2
log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + c

𝑥 𝑎2
∫ √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 + 2
log|𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + c

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 CHAPTER 12

INTRODUCTION TO PROBABILITY THEORY

Definition:

An experiment is defined as a process for which its result it well defined.

Definition:

Deterministic experiment is an experiment whose outcomes can be predicted

with certain, under ideal conditions.

Definition:

A simple event (or elementary event or sample point) is the most basic possible
outcome of a random experiment and it cannot be decomposed further.

Definition:

A sample space is the set of all possible outcomes of a random experiment.

Each point in sample space is an elementary event.

Classification of events:

➢ Sure event – Sample space S is the sure event.

➢ Impossible event – Null set 𝜑 is an impossible event.
➢ Complementary event – For every event A, there will be 𝐴̅ or A' (not A)
➢ Mutually inclusive events – Events do not occur simultaneously Ai∩ Aj = 𝜑,
for i≠ j
➢ A1, A2, A3,…,Ak are called mutually exclusive and exhaustive events if,
(i)𝐴𝑖 ∩ 𝐴𝑗 ≠ ∅, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 (ii)𝐴1 ∪ 𝐴2 ∪ 𝐴3 ∪ … ∪ 𝐴𝑘 = 𝑆
➢ Equally likely events – Same chance of occurrences.
➢ Independent events – Occurrence of one event does not affect the occurrence
of other.
Notations:

➢ A∪B → Occurrence of A or B or both

➢ A∩B → Simultaneous occurrence of A and B.
➢ A′, (𝐴̅) → non - occurrence of A.
➢ A∩ 𝐵̅ → Occurrence of only A.

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Probability:
𝑛(𝐴) 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑎𝑣𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝐴
P(A) = =
𝑛(𝑆) 𝐸𝑥ℎ𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑆

Axioms of probability:

➢ For any event P(A) ≥ 0

➢ For any two mutually exclusive events A, B
P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B)

➢ For sure event P(S) = 1

➢ 0 ≤ P (A) ≤ 1.
➢ For impossible event 𝜑, P(𝜑) = 0.
Theorem:
𝑛(𝐴)
Let S be a sample space and,for any subset A of S, let P(A)= . Then P(A) satisfies
𝑛(𝑆)
axioms of probability [P1], [P2], and [P3].
Theorem:

Let S be the finite sample space S = {a1, a2 ……….. an}. A finite probability space is
obtained by assigning to each point ai in S a real number pi, is called the probability of ai,
satisfying the following properties:

(i) Each 𝑝𝑖 ≥ 0. (ii) The sum of the pi is 1, that is, ∑ 𝑝𝑖 = 1.

Odds: This term relate the chances in favour of an event A to the chances against it.
If the probability of an event is p, then the odds in favour of its occurrence
are p to (1-p) and the odds against its occurrence are (1-p) to p.
Theorem:The probability of an impossible event is 0, P(𝜑) = 0.
Theorem:If 𝐴̅ is the complementary event of A, then P(𝐴̅) = 1-P(A).
Theorem:If A and B are any two events and 𝐵̅ is the complementary event of B then

P(A∩ 𝐵̅) = P(A) – P(A∩B)

Theorem:Addition theorem on probability

If A and B are any two events, then
➢ P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B)
➢ P(A∪B∪C) = P(A) + P(B) + P(C) – P(A∩B) – P(B∩C) – P(C∩A) + P(A∩B∩C)
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
➢ P(A∪B∪C) = 1 – P(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 1 – P (𝐴̅ ∩ 𝐵̅ ∩ 𝐶̅ )
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Conditional probability:
➢ P(A/B) → conditional probability of an event A assuming that the event B has
already occurred.
P(A∩B)
P(A/B) = P(B)
, P(B) ≠ 0.

P(A∩B)
➢ P(B/A) = P(A)
, P(A) ≠ 0.
Independent events: Two events A and B are said to be independent if and only if
P(A ∩ B) = P(A).P(B)
➢ For independent events (i) P(A/B) = P(A) if P(B) > 0
(ii) P(B/A) = P(B) if P(A) > 0

➢ The events A1, A2, A3,…,An are mutually independent if

P(A1∩A2∩A3∩A4…∩An) = P(A1)∙P(A2)∙P(A3)∙ ⋯ ∙P(An)

Theorem:Multiplication theorem on probability

P(A∩B) = P(A/B) . P(B) (or)
P(A∩B) = P(B/A) . P(A)
Theorem: For two independent events A, B
i. ̅ and B
A ̅ are independent
ii. ̅ are independent
A and B
iii. ̅ and B are independent
A
Theorem:
For any two events A, B such thatP(A) ≠ 0, P(B) ≠ 0
i. If A, B are mutually exclusive, they cannot be independent.
ii. If A, B are independent, they cannot be mutually exclusive.
Theorem:
If A1, A2,A3, …. An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events and B
is any event in S then P(B) is the total probability of the event B.
➢ P(B) = P(A1).P(B/A1) + P(A2).P(B/A2)+…+P(An).P(B/An)= ∑𝑛𝑖=1 P(Ai ). P(B/Ai )
Baye’s Theorem:
If A1, A2, A3, …..An are mutually exclusive and exhaustive events such
that P(Ai)>0, i=1, 2, ……n and B is any event in which P(B) > 0 then
P(Ai )P(B/Ai )
P(Ai/B) = ∑𝑛
𝑖=1 P(Ai )P(B/Ai )

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