Tecnia Institute Of Advanced Studies

Rohini, DELHI

Video Editing Notes

B.A. (JMC) - 209
(Compiled by Miss Jyoti Gupta)
 Unit-1

Introduction To Video Editing

Concept:

Radio and television programme production starts with pre- production. it is the planning and
development stage. this start with writing of script. The script includes instructions and
guidelines for the production of the programme. The next stage is production. Here all the
material for the programme is recorded. Postproduction is the final stage in programme
production. A major component here is editing. In radio and other audio productions, the
sounds recorded during production are edited and dubbed if required. In television
production, the recorded audio and visual material are pieced together through editing.
Music is added. Extra verbal content is added through dubbing but most important
component here is editing. Well, here are some editing aesthetic tips that should help you tell
a better story with your video.

Meaning:

Video editing is the process of putting together, cleaning up and finalizing a video for presentation
or output. It is mostly used to describe post-production work, which is the work done after all of the
shots and footage have been taken.

Editing is the most important part of the production (film,advertisement, news making etc ) process

A good editor can save a bad movie

A bad editor can ruin a great film

Objectives:

There are many reasons to edit a video and your editing approach will depend on the desired
outcome. Before you begin you must clearly define your editing goals, which could include
any of the following.

 Remove unwanted footage : This is the simplest and most common task in editing. Many
videos can be dramatically improved by simply getting rid of the flawed or unwanted bits.

 Choose the best footage : It is common to shoot far more footage than you actually need
and choose only the best material for the final edit. Often you will shoot several versions
(takes) of a shot and choose the best one when editing.

 Create a flow : Most videos serve a purpose such as telling a story or providing information.
Editing is a crucial step in making sure the video flows in a way which achieves this goal.
  Add effects, graphics and music : This is often the "wow" part of editing. You can improve
most videos (and have a lot of fun) by adding extra elements.

 Alter the style, pace and mood of the video : A good editor will be able to create subtle
mood prompts in a video. Techniques such as mood music and visual effects can influence
how the audience will react.

 Give the video a particular ‘angle’: Video can be tailored to support a particular viewpoint,
impart a message or serve an agenda.

Importance of Editing

Types of editing

• Linear editing

• Non- linear editing

• Offline editing

• Online editing

Linear editing :

• Also Known as Tape to Tape editing

• In linear editing, video is selectively copied from one tape to another. It requires at least two
video machines connected together — one acts as the source and the other is the recorder

• Place the video to be edited in the source machine and a blank tape in the recorder.

• Press play on the source machine and record on the recorder

Cons:

- Videotape cannot be cut and put back together

- The accuracy of time for each scene when replacing a clip. 

Pros

- Linear editing is not as expensive as non-linear editing.

- Linear editing is also quick in the tv news field.

Non linear Editing:

This is edited on computers with specialized software. These are non destructive to the
video being edited and use programs such as Adobe Premiere Pro, Final Cut Pro, Avid
and Velocity.

Digital Video Editing software is software that allows you to use your computer to edit video
and audio, usually via a standard or modified computer keyboard and mouse. It can also be
software that is incorporated into a turnkey video editing system that consists of a custom,
dedicated computer for editing.
In this method, video footage is recorded (captured) onto a computer hard drive and then
edited using specialized software. Once the editing is complete, the finished product is
recorded back to tape or optical disk.
 Advantages
- More efficient than tape to tape editing
- Can add all sorts of effects and basically re-arrange things without starting over from
scratch.
Disadvantages
- Time consuming
- Expensive
- Software Knowledge

Online editing / Live editing

In some situations multiple cameras and other video sources are routed through a central
mixing console and edited in real time. Live television coverage is an example of live
editing.
live coverage of cricket matches or other sports related programs, live reality shows, live
award funtions etc.

Offline editing

• Offline video editing is another technique that consists of making a copy of the raw video
footage and compressing it to a smaller resolution.
• The editor creates a duplicate of an existing raw video and compresses it into a format
such as ProRes. This smaller resolution footage is called proxy footage.
• The editor works with the proxy footage, making adjustments, adding/deleting clips and so
on.
• When the editing process is done, the editor exports the project but allows the original raw
video footage to replace the proxy footage.
• This technique is usually used when the editor doesn’t have a sufficiently capable machine
to edit video clips in raw format.
• As you probably already know, editing a 4K video clip requires a lot of processing power
and most computers aren’t equipped to do that.
• Many beginner video editors don’t have the necessary budget to invest in a more powerful
machine yet, so they rely on offline cutting to achieve their goals.
• The smaller resolution footage (proxy footage) is easier to work with and doesn’t need a
 lot of computer resources.
• The editor uses the proxy footage to edit video clips and exports the final version with the
original, raw video footage.

Rules of Video Editing

 By following some simple rules for video editing, you can make your movies flow
together smoothly, in a classic style, without resorting to multiple transitions.

1.  B-Roll

B-roll refers to video footage that sets the scene, reveals details, or generally enhances the
story. For example, at a school play, besides shooting the play, you could get b-roll of the
outside of the school, the program, faces of audience members, cast members hiding in the
wings, or costume details.

These clips can be used to cover any cuts, or smooth transitions from one scene to another.

2.  Don't Jump

A jump cut occurs when you have two consecutive shots with the exact same camera set up,
but a difference in the subject. It happens most often when editing interviews, and you want
to cut out some words or phrases that the subject says.
If you leave the remaining shots side-by-side, the audience will be jarred by the slight
repositioning of the subject. Instead, cover the cut with some b-roll, or use a fade.

3.  Stay on your Plane (Don’t Cross the Line)

When shooting, imagine that there is a horizontal line between you and your subjects. Now,
stay on your side of the line. By observing a 180-degree plane, you keep a perspective that is
more natural for the audience.

It is important to maintain interest in an interview by having a variety of shots that show
different perspectives or angles. However, it is essential to maintain “consistency of screen
direction.” This means that you should not cross the “Axis of Action” or the imaginary line
that follows the main subject’s action or direction of focus.
The 180 Degree Rule states that you can place the camera anywhere along the 180 Degrees
of one side of the axis of action and maintain consistency of screen direction.

You should not cross the axis of action without:

1) The use of a moving shot that shows the crossing of the axis of action.
2) Indicate on screen that a shot is a “Reverse Angle” as is done in sporting events.
If you’re editing footage that disobeys this rule, try using b-roll between cuts. This way, the
change in perspective won’t be as abrupt, if it’s noticeable at all.
4.  45 Degrees

When editing together a scene shot from multiple camera angles, always try to use shots
that are looking at the subject from at least a difference of 45 degrees. Otherwise, the shots
are too similar and appear almost like a jump cut to the audience.

5.  Cut on Motion

Motion distracts the eye from noticing editing cuts. So, when cutting from one image to
another, always try to do it when the subject is in motion. For example, cutting from a
turning head to an opening door, is much smoother than cutting from a still head to a door
about to be opened.

6.  Change Focal Lengths

When you have two shots of the same subject, it’s easy to cut between close and wide
angles. So, when shooting an interview, or a lengthy event such as a wedding, it’s a good
idea to occasionally change focal lengths. A wide shot and a medium close up can be cut
together, allowing you to edit parts out and change the order of shots without obvious jump
cuts.

7.  Cut on Similar Elements

There’s a cut in Apocalypse Now from a rotating ceiling fan to a helicopter. The scenes
change dramatically, but the visually similar elements make for a smooth, creative cut.  You
can do the same thing in your videos. Cut from a flower on a wedding cake to the groom’s
boutonnière, or tilt up to the blue sky from one scene and then down from the sky to a
different scene.

8.  Wipe
At weddings, I love it when people walk in front of the camera. They are apologetic, but
unless it happened during the vows or the first dance, I am grateful for the wipe they gave
me to use during editing.  When the frame fills up with one element (such as the back of a
black suit jacket), it makes it easy to cut to a completely different scene without jarring the
audience. You can set wipes up yourself during shooting, or just take advantage when they
happen naturally.
9.  Match the Scene

The beauty of editing is that you can take footage shots out of order or at separate times,
and cut them together so that they appear as one continuous scene. To do this effectively,
though, the elements in the shots should match up.  For example, a subject who exits frame
right should enter the next shot frame left. Otherwise, it appears they turned around and are
walking in the other direction. Or, if the subject is holding something in one shot, don't cut
directly to a shot of them empty-handed.
If you don't have the right shots

to make matched edits, insert some b-roll in between.

10.  Motivate Yourself

Ultimately, every cut should be motivated. There should be a reason that you want to switch
from one shot or camera angle to another. Sometimes that motivation is a simple as, “the
camera shook,” or “someone walked in front of the camera.”
Ideally, though, your motivations for cutting should be to advance the narrative storytelling
of your video.

What is Video Editor?

A video editor uses digital software to organize video and sound files into a final product. A
video editor is required to possess both technical and creative abilities to be able to
effectively create the vision clients have in mind. Individuals in this position usually have
experience working with creative software and have a keen eye for creative digital design.

Types of production

• Commercials
• corporate training videos
• feature films
• music videos
• television programmes.

Employers

Film and video editors are employed by:

• animation companies

• broadcast companies
• film companies

• independent production house

• video/computer games companies.

Responsibilities for Video Editor

• Meet with clients to establish the desired feel and look for the video to be created

• Receiving a brief, and maybe an outline of footage and/or a shot list, script, or screenplay

• assembling all raw footage, with camera shots either recorded or transferred onto video tape
in preparation for inputting into the computer

• inputting uncut rushes and sound, and storing them into files on the computer

• digitally cutting files to put together the sequence of the film and deciding what's usable

• creating a 'rough cut' (or assembly edit) of the programme/film and determining the exact
cutting for the next and final stages

• reordering and fine-tuning the content to ensure the logical sequencing and smooth running
of the film/video.

• Establish a clear understanding of the storyline and purpose of the video's creation

• Edit video to include preselected music, interviews, sound clips and other important aspects
of the project

• Ensure the correct formatting and presentation for finalized videos according to client's
specifications

SKILLS

• A keen eye for detail and a critical mind

• creativity and a passionate interest in film and video editing

• patience and concentration

• the ability to listen to others and to work well as part of a team

• a high level of self-motivation, commitment and dedication

• organisational and time management skills

• the ability to work under pressure and to deadlines

• communication skills, both written and oral.

 Unit-2

Process of video editing

Video formats : Analogue and Digital

A video file format is a type of file format for storing digital video data on a computer
system. Video is almost always stored in compressed form to reduce the file size.

It is important to understand the different types of video formats available in the market. To
inculcate this understanding first is the knowledge of all the respective tapes formats like
VHS, analog beta, digital and high definition tapes, as well understand their advantages and
disadvantages, relative costs and quality.

Analogue v/s Digital

Analog Digital

Basic An analog signal is a A digital signal is a discrete wave

continuous wave that changes that carries information in binary
over a time period. form.

Representation An analog signal is represented A digital signal is represented by

by a sine wave. square waves.

Description An analog signal is described by A digital signal is described by bit

the amplitude, period or rate and bit intervals.
frequency, and phase.

Range Analog signal has no fixed Digital signal has a finite numbers
range. i.e. 0 and 1.

Example The human voice is the best Signals used for transmission in a
example of an analog signal. computer are the digital signal.
Analog video formats:

Betamax

VHS

Hi-8

U-matic

8mm

Digital video formats :

Digital Betacam

DV cam, DVCPRO

DV MiniDV

 Betamax :

Betamax (also known as Beta, as in its logo) is a consumer-level analog-recording and

cassette format of magnetic tape for video, commonly known as a video cassette recorder.
It was developed by Sony and was released in Japan on May 10, 1975, followed by the US in
November of the same year

.
VHS (Video Home System)

It is a widely-adopted videocassette recording ( VCR ) technology that was developed by

Japan Victor Company (JVC) and put on the market in 1976. It uses magnetic tape 1/2 inch
(1.27 cm) in width. Originally, the abbreviation VHS stood for Vertical Helical Scan, and was
later changed as the technology gained in popularity.

VHS is used by home consumers, and also to a limited extent in television (TV) production.

8mm

The 8mm video format refers informally to three related videocassette formats for

the NTSC and PAL/SECAM television systems. These are the original Video8 (analog
recording) format and its improved successor Hi8 (analog video and analog audio but with
provision for digital audio), as well as a more recent digital recording format known
as Digital8.

Their user base consisted mainly of amateur camcorder users, although they also saw
important use in the professional television production field.

In January 1984, Eastman Kodak announced the new technology. In 1985, Sony of Japan
introduced the Handycam, one of the first Video8 cameras with commercial success. Much
smaller than the competition's VHS and Betamax video cameras.

U-matic

U-matic is an analogue recording videocassette format first shown by Sony in prototype in

October 1969, and introduced to the market in September 1971.

At the 1971 introduction of U-Matic, Sony originally intended it to be a videocassette format

oriented at the consumer market. This proved to be something of a failure, because of the
 high manufacturing cost and resulting retail price of the format's first VCRs. But the cost was
affordable enough for industrial and institutional customers, where the format was very
successful for such applications as business communication and educational television. As a
result, Sony shifted U-Matic's marketing to the industrial, professional, and educational
sectors.

Digital Betacam

Digital Betacam, AKA Digibeta or D-Beta, was introduced by Sony in 1993 as a replacement

for the analog Betacam SP format. Digital Betacam was superior in performance to DVCam
and DVCPro, while being cheaper than D1.

Digital Betacam attracted a fair amount of professional support but didn't go as far as to
become an industry standard like it's predecessor.

DV-CAM

In 1996 Sony responded with its own professional version of DV called DVCAM. Because of the wider
track and track pitch, DVCAM has the ability to do a frame-accurate insert edit, while regular DV may
vary by a few frames on each edit compared to the preview.

MiniDV

It is a format which was used for recording and storing of digital media in bulk. The word
“mini” refers to the smaller-sized tape that is used inside the storage devices, as the MiniDV
format was physically smaller than other commonly used storage tape formats.
 PVR

A personal video recorder (PVR), also known as a digital video recorder (DVR), is an
electronic device that records television programs or movies to a hard disk storage medium,
rather than to compact disc or DVD. Once stored on the drive, the program can be watched
directly from the drive, burned to disc

HD-High definition

The first high-definition digital recorder was Sony’s HDD-1000. It is the recorder that uses 1-
inch, open reel tape

High-definition (HD) digital video formats, which provide 720 or 1080 lines of resolution.

The digital formats are captured on camcorders and transferred to the computer via
memory card, storage drive or uploading via cable or wireless.

Advantages

• Digital videotape can be copied almost indefinitely without a loss of quality. This is an
important consideration in postproduction sessions that require numerous generations of
video effects.
 • Digital material can be directly uploaded to digital editing systems without the need of
analog-to- digital conversion.

• Digital videotapes are better suited for archival (long-term) storage 

• The technical quality of digital recordings is significantly better than typical analog
recordings. At the same time, compared to analog recording, digital recording requires far
greater amounts of data.

Linear and Non- linear Video Editing

Linear editing

• Linear editing is nothing but to make a copy of the selected portions from the shot tapes on
to another tape called the master tape in the recorder.

• The concept behind linear editing is simple: one or more tapes containing the original
footage are transferred (recorded) segment by segment onto a tape in a video recorder.

Types

• In camera

• Assemble editing

• Insert editing

In camera

• In camera editing: video shots are structured in such a way that they are shot in order and of
correct length. This process does not require any additional equipment other than the
camcorder itself, but requires good shooting and organizational skills at the time of the
shoot.

Assemble editing

Assemble editing: video shots are not structured in a specific order during shooting
but are re-arranged and unwanted shots deleted at the time of transferring
(copying). This process requires, a camcorder & V.C.R, the original footage remain
undamaged, but the rearranged footage is transferred to a new tape. Each scene or
cut is assembled on a blank tape either one-at-a-time or in a sequence. This editing
is done in a chronological order. Any timing error during this basically mechanical
process results in a glitch in the video.

There are two types of assemble editing:

a. A ROLL: editing from a single source with the option of adding an effect,
such as titles or transmitting from a frozen image the start of the next cut or
scene.

b. A/B ROLL: editing from minimum two sources VCR’s or camcorders and
recording to a third VCR. This techniques requires a video mixer, camcorders
 and VCRs. The source must be electronically “syncy”together so that the
record signals are stable.

Insert editing

Insert editing: new material is recorded over existing footage. This techniques can
be used during the original shooting process or during a later editing process. Since
the inserted footage is placed over the unwanted footage. Some of the original
footage is erased.

Steps for linear editing

• The source machine(s) contain the original footage and the edit recorder, which is controlled
by an edit controller, is used to record the final edited master

• Logging Your Tape-“Logging” refers to the process of selecting what footage you would like
to extract from the source media and deposit on your local hard drive to be manipulated
further in the editing process. 

• :Before you start editing you have to discover what and where the scenes are you are going
to use in your program.

• There are three different logs kept on the tape themselves, depending on the tape format.

TIME CODE - time code is a number on the tape, which tells you the exact location of any
frame on the tape. This number is on all the digital tapes.

TIME AND DATE - this is the time hour-minute- and sometimes second the tape was made.
Again the tape format will determine this. On the older VHS cameras you had to turn it on,
and the date would be showing on the screen, on the newer DV formats this is
embedded/hidden on every frame and can be used. This is a fast way to find a clip.

TAPE COUNTER - this number is the least accurate, especially when you are changing the
tape from one player to another. It depends upon the tape being completely rewound to
have any degree of accuracy.

Non-linear editing

• It is a very flexible method which allows you to make changes to any part of the video at any
time. This is why it's called "non-linear" — because you don't have to edit in a linear fashion.

Process

• Log and Capturing-

Video Once your edit system is set up correctly, you need to record (capture) the footage
from the source machine (e.g. camera or VCR) onto the computer's hard drive.

• First assembly

The first assembly is where you take all of that meticulously logged footage and
arrange it into a timeline consistent with the film’s storyboard. For feature-length
films, this can be quite a task, so to make it more manageable editors will often break
 the process up by organizing each scene as a standalone before sequencing all of
the scenes together.

• Rough cut

With the rough cut, you’ll be trimming that crazy-long first assembly down to one,
neat tidy first draft. This means going through all of the different versions of each take
and picking out the best one to keep.
Next, you’re going to turn your attention towards the structure and pacing of the film,
adding in pauses, transitions, titles, dummy narration, and anything else that’ll help
capture and convey the emotions and messages embedded in the narrative.

• Fine cut

Where the rough cut focuses on refining the overall film, the fine cut focuses on
refining each and every itty bitty frame. So you maybe want to get your microscopic
goggles out. No, but seriously, you are going to need to pay super close attention to
every cut, making sure that they flow from one to the other in a seamless fashion. If
there are any blemishes, the fine cut is your last chance to catch them.
This is because, after the fine cut, the film receives what’s called a “Picture Lock”
which basically means it’s ready to be shipped off to other departments for finishing
touches (color corrections, special effects, etc.) and no more changes to the timeline
or TRT (total running time) can be made.

• Final cut (color grading, audio mixing, special effects,closed captions )

If you’re working on a major production, then you can expect to have very little to do
with the final cut. This is where you as the editor steps back and lets all of the color
grading, audio mixing, special effects, and closed captioning experts step in and take
the film from meh to magic!

• Render

In video production, it usually means the process by which different clips are
combined, transitions added, and maybe additional post-processing to produce the
final film.

Editing Techniques: Types of cuts and transitions

A transition is a an effect used to change from one clip in your edited sequence to the next. In
the early days of film editing, the only transition you could immediately view was a cut. Even
the simplest transition, the dissolve, had to be specially set up in an optical printer and sent
back to the editor for viewing. The whole process was expensive and could take several days.
Video made this process faster and easier. By mixing two video signals together, you could
watch a dissolve immediately and decide how you liked it. The more quickly you can see how
an effect will look, the more quickly you can refine it to suit your needs. Film editors had to
anticipate how transitions would look and how long they should last without actually being
able to preview them; there was never the time or budget to try transitions during editing.
It’s much easier to preview cross dissolves, fades, and other transitions in a video system,
and particularly in a nonlinear editing system.

A )Cut: A cut, the most basic type of transition, is a transition with no duration; when one
shot ends, another one immediately begins, without any overlap. All other transitions
gradually replace one shot with another; when one shot ends, another one gradually replaces
it.
The cut is an instantaneous change from one image (shot)to another. It is t h e most
common and least obtrusive transition device, assuming that the preceding and following
shots show some continuity. The cut itself is not visible; all you see are the preceding and
following shots. It resembles most closely the changing field of the human eye. Try to look
from one object to another located some distance away. The cut, like all other transition
devices, is basically used for the clarification and intensification of an event. Clarification
means that you show the viewer the event as clearly as possible. For example, in an
interview show the guest holds up the book she has written. To help the viewer identify the
book, you cut to a close-up of it. Intensification means that you sharpen the impact of the
screen event. In an extreme long shot, for example, a football tackle might look quite tame;
when seen as a tight close-up, however, the action reveals its brute force. By cutting to the
close-up, the action has been intensified

Various types of Cuts are:

* Jump Cut: Jump cut occurs when you have two consecutive shots with the exact same
camera set up. It happens most often when editing interviews and you want to cut out some
words or phrases that the subject says. For example, cutting from a turning head to an opening
door, is much smoother than cut from a still head to a door about to be opened.

* Motivated Cuts: Any edit breaks the illusion of continuity. When there is a reason for a
different shot, a motivated cut is the least disruptive. For example when an actor looks to one
side in a dramatic scene, we can cut easily to whatever the actor is supposed to be seeing.
When someone is talking about something, viewers expect to see it.
* Parallel cutting - Cutting between two actions occurring at the same time in different
locations or between events happening at the same time.

B ) Dissolve: The dissolve, or lap dissolve, is a gradual transition from shot to shot, the two
images temporarily overlapping. Whereas the cut itself cannot be seen on-screen, the BJ
(MC) 202 Unit 4, Lesson 2 19 dissolve is a clearly visible transition. Dissolves are often used to
provide a smooth bridge for action or to indicate the passage of time. Depending on the
overall rhythm of an event, you can use slow or fast dissolves. A very fast one functions
almost like a cut and is therefore called a soft cut. For an interesting and smooth transition
from a wide shot of a dancer to a close-up, for instance, simply dissolve from one camera to
the other If dissolves are overused, the presentation will lack precision and accent and will
bore the viewer. Additive Dissolve, Cross Dissolve Blends, Dip to Color Dissolve, Ripple
Dissolve etc.

C ) Wipe: This is where the screen splits, moving from one side of the image to the other to
 gradually reveal the next shot. It is more obvious than a fade or cross dissolve.Other wipe
effects like a diamond expanding from the centre of the top picture gradually shows the one
underneath. The wipe is such an unabashed transition device that it is normally classified as a
special effect. The wipe tells the viewers that they are definitely go into see something else.
There are various types of wipes such as-Gradient Wipe, A rectangular wipe,Inset Wipe,a
jagged-edged wipe, Wrap Wipe Bands , Zigzag Wipe. etc

D ) Fade: In a fade the picture either goes gradually to black (fadeout)or appears gradually
on the screen from black(fade-in). Like the curtain in a theatre, it defines the beginning or
the end of a portion of a screen event. As such, the fade is technically not a true transition.
Some directors and editors use the term cross-fade for a quick fade to black followed
immediately by a fade-in to the next image. Here the fade acts as a transition device,
decisively separating the preceding and following images from each other. The cross-fade is
also called a dip to black

• Fade-out: This begins with a shot at full intensity and reduces until it is gone. A fade-in
begins with a shot at no intensity and increases until it is full. These are the common
“fade to black” and “fade up (from black)” transitions.

The other extreme is the never go-to-black craze: some directors do not dare go to black for
fear of giving the viewer a chance to switch to another channel. If a constant dribble of
program material is the only way to hold a viewer's attention, however, the program content,
rather than the presentation techniques, should be examined.

There are other types of transitions such as: Cross Zoom, Cube Spin, Spin3D, Swing,zoom,
Channel Map Luminance Map,radial,zoom, etc

Unit -3

Mixing and Exporting

Sound design and Editing : Concept and troubleshooting

- Sound design is the process of recording, acquiring, manipulating, or generating audio

elements. It is employed in a variety of disciplines including filmmaking, television
production, theatre, sound recording and reproduction, live performance,  and video game
software development.

- The process usually involves manipulating previously composed or recorded audio, i.e.

creating music and sound effects.

How Sound Design Enhances Your Film

Off-Screen Space

The first way sound design can elevate your film is by creating a sense of off-screen space.
The visuals in the film show the audience what you want them to see but sound can give the
audience a greater sense of what is going on off the screen. This adds a fullness to the world
of your film.

That sense of a full world and a rich landscape is hard to match in the visuals. Really only
through sound can off-screen space be created. Especially if your film is shown in a
professional theater, the theatre sound design and speaker system will help with the feeling
of being in a full landscape.

For example, if the sound of an alarm clock can be heard but the camera doesn’t show
the alarm clock, instead it shows a person sleeping in bed. The alarm clock sound is
non-diegetic and it helps create a sense of off-screen space. Now as an audience, we
know that there is an alarm clock in the room this person is sleeping in, and we have a
greater sense of the space. 

Sound Bridge

The second way to elevate your film is to use the sound design technique called a sound or
audio bridge. An audio bridge is a kind of transition that takes the audio from the next scene
in the sequence and uses it in the one before. So you hear the next scene before you see it. 

This is an effective way to transition a scene and a great way to elevate your project. Audio
transitions can boost your project by breaking away from the usual cross dissolve or fade in
and fade out. 

Film Music

The third way to elevate your project is through film music. Music is the most effective way
to make your audience feel, tug at their heartstrings, raise tension, or set tone

Emotion

As we’ve touched on, the sound design and mixing have the ability to convey emotion in your
film. If you think a particular scene or beat isn’t landing, maybe what’s missing is sound or
music.

Location

Another great tool of sound design software and how sound design can elevate your project
is by setting the location. As discussed with the idea of off-screen space, sound in film can be
very grounding and help set the location of your scene.

The background and atmospheric noise tells the audience where the scene is taking place.
Although these sounds are usually quiet, they are essential to a scene. Why? Because they
appeal to the audience on a subconscious level.

Without them, the scene will feel unnatural to the audience. Without them, the realism of the
scene taken away and it stands out to the viewer, even if they aren’t sure why.

If the scene is taking place on a busy street, the background noise should be that of a busy
street. There should be sounds of people talking, car horns, and the light sounds of engines
revving. If the scene is in a forest, the background noise would be of blowing wind, leaves
rustling, and many animal sounds. It would feature anything that will inform the audience of
where the scene is set.

Meaning of troubleshooting

Troubleshooting is a systematic approach to problem solving that is often used to find

and correct issues with complex machines, electronics, computers and software
systems.

Commom problems in recording

• Your voice recordings are too bassy (proximity effect)

• You can hear too much ambient sound in your recordings (room noise)

• Your mic just isn’t good enough

• You get bassy rumbles due to vibrations from the floor or your desk

• Your breathing is distractingly loud in voice recordings

• Your audio sounds distorted and unclear

• Outdoor recordings are unclear due to lots of wind noise

• Sound is bleeding between microphones in your multi-mic setup

How to fix problems

• Sound proof your walls

• Use proper Microphones

• Shut all the doors

• Use a shock mount

• Use a reflection shield

• Put up heavy curtains over window

Effects and transitions

The only difference between an effect and a transition is that an effect is applied to a single
video track while a transition is applied to both video tracks.  An effect is dependent on a
single video track while a transition depends on two video tracks.

Video Transitions : Fade in

Fade out

Cross dissolve

Wipe

Video Effects : Chroma Key

Color Correction (RGB curves, 3 way color corrector, tint)

Distort

Blur

Transform

Chroma key compositing, or chroma keying, is a visual-effects and post-production technique

for compositing (layering) two images or video streams together based on colour hues (chroma range).

The technique has been used in many fields to remove a background from the subject of a photo or
video – particularly the newscasting, motion picture, and video game industries. A colour range in the
foreground footage is made transparent, allowing separately filmed background footage or a static image
to be inserted into the scene. The chroma keying technique is commonly used in video production and
post-production. This technique is also referred to as colour keying, colour-separation overlay

Color Correction filter

It is used to balance the color formation in any image or during cinematography to

make the image of the perfect color combination. Color Correction allows you to use
a wide range of color formation effects for your object

Blur Effects
There are many types of blurs that can be applied to video clips. Blurs are a great way
to hide footage that should be implied but not seen in detail, or used to create a soft
background to anchor text or graphics.

Gaussian Blur

Gaussian blurs apply a mathematical formula that creates a soft, even blur of the
image.

Directional Blur
 Directional blurs blur the image in one lateral direction, most often at an angle that is
user selected.

Radial Blur

Radial blurs work like directional blurs, but instead of the blur being in a single
direction, it is circular around a point selected by the user.

Distort filter

There are a wide array of distortion effects. Distortion filters and effects manipulate
an image, moving pixels and altering the way they appear

Distortion filters and effects manipulate an image, moving pixels and altering the way
they appear.

Transform

The transform filter works like the transform properties of a clip. The video editor can
use it to zoom, rotate or move the clip’s position on screen.

Warp Stabilizer Effect

A filter that fits hand-in-hand with the Rolling Shutter Repair filter is the Warp
Stabilizer Effect. The use of small cameras is evident by the increased amount of
handheld footage. There is an aesthetic authenticity to be found in handheld footage,
but it doesn’t always work out as planned. A shaky camera can disorient the
audience. The Warp Stabilizer Effect helps to smooth out the shaky footage, creating
a fluid movement that’s easier for the audience to follow

Audio Filters
Filters aren’t just applied to the video track however; they can be applied to the audio
track to change what the audience hears. This is good news because, for many
novice editors, the process of learning a video editing program is daunting enough
without having to add in the learning curve of an audio editing application. Audio filters
inside of a video editing program prove to be powerful tools.

EQ
The EQ filter allows the video editor to adjust which audio frequencies are more or
less dominant in a clip. It can be used to boost vocal performances and subdue
background hums
Dynamics

Dynamic filters, such as compressors and limiters, adjust the overall dynamic range of
an audio clip. They can be used to suppress peaks in volume and raise low end
valleys, helping to level off the overall volume of an audio clip

Reverb

A reverb filter creates reverberation on an audio clip. It modulates the audio to

produce an echo, extending the decay of the clip. It can be used to simulate auditory
space, like an empty room, or used subtly to help punch up a voice-over track

Echo.
In audio signal processing and acoustics, Echo is a reflection of sound that arrives at the
listener with a delay after the direct sound. The delay is proportional to the distance of the
reflecting surface from the source and the listener

Hum removal (noise removal filter)

It is designed to remove low frequency buzz orhum from your audio file. Hum is often
caused by lack of proper electrical ground. This tool includes a series of notch filters that
can be set to remove both the base frequency of the hum(usually 50 or 60 Hz) as well
as any harmonics that may have resulted.

Archiving (Storage) and File formats

Meaning
Data archiving is the practice of identifying data that is no longer active and moving
it out of production systems into long-term storage systems.
Archival data is stored so that at any time it can be brought back into service.
Secure data archiving enables the long-term retention and storage of data.
Advantages
• Data can be kept secured
• Efficiency and speed in all aspects will be increased
• A lot of space can be saved
• Be economically efficient
• Easy Retrieval
 Archiving Tips
• Identify your digital audio files
• Decide which audio recordings have long-term value
• export the selected audio recordings

File formats
A video file format is a type of file format for storing digital video data on a
computer system. Video is almost always stored in compressed form to reduce the
file size.
A container and a codec are two components of any video file.
A video format is the container that stores audio, video, subtitles and any other
metadata.
A codec encodes and decodes multimedia data such as audio and video.
When creating a video, a video codec encodes and compresses the video while the
audio codec does the same with sound. Afterwards the encoded video and audio
are synchronized and stored in a media container—the file format. 

Video File Formats

• 1.  MP4
MPEG-4 Part 14 or MP4 is one of the earliest digital video file formats introduced in 2001.
Most digital platforms and devices support MP4. An MP4 format can store audio files, video
files, still images, and text. Additionally, MP4 provides high quality video while maintaining
relatively small file sizes.
• 2.  MOV
MOV is a popular video file format designed by Apple. It was designed to support the
QuickTime player. MOV files contain videos, audio, subtitles, timecodes and other media
types. It is compatible across different versions of Quick Time Player, both for Mac and
Windows. Since it is a very high-quality video format, MOV files take significantly more
memory space on a computer.
• 3.  WMV
The WMV video format was designed by Microsoft and is widely used in Windows media
players. WMV format provides small file sizes with better compression than MP4. That is
why it’s popular for online video streaming. Although it is not compatible with Apple
devices, users can download Windows Media Player for their iPhone or Mac
• 4.  FLV
FLV is a file format used by Adobe Flash Player. It is one of the most popular and versatile
video formats supported by all video platforms and browsers. The FLV format is a good
choice for online video streaming platforms like YouTube. They have a relatively small file
size which makes them easy to download. The only drawback is that it’s not compatible
with many mobile devices like iPhones.
• 5.  AVI
The AVI file format was introduced in 1992 by Microsoft and is still widely used today. The
AVI video format uses less compression than other video formats such as MPEG or MOV.
This results in very large file sizes, approximately 2-3 GB per minute of video. It can be a
problem for users with limited storage space. You can also create AVI video files without
any compression. This makes the files lossless. A lossless file will keep its quality over
time, regardless of how many times you open or save the file. Additionally, this eliminated
the use of codecs in video players.
• 6.  AVCHD (Advanced Video Coding High Definition)
AVCHD is a format used for HD video playback and digital recording. This video format
was designed by Panasonic and Sony for professional high definition video recording.
AVCHD also lets you store hours of high-quality video using only a tiny amount of data
by leveraging the H.264/MPEG-4 video compression technology. Additionally, the latest
version of the format AVCHD 2.0 supports three dimensional video.
• 7.  WebM
First introduced by Google in 2010, WebM is an open-source video format that was
developed with the current and future state of the Internet in mind. WebM is intended for
use with HTML5. The video codecs of WebM require very little computer power to
compress and unzip the files. The aim of this design is to enable online video streaming on
almost any device, such as tablets, desktop, smartphones or devices like smart TV.
• 8.  MKV
MKV file format incorporates audio, video and subtitles in a single file. MKV format was
developed to be future proof, meaning that the video files will always stay updated. MKV
containers support almost any video and audio format, making the format highly adaptive
and easy to use

How to Choose a Video File Format

• You should choose a file format based on your video quality requirements. The
video should achieve the required quality, but no more than that. High-quality
videos are hard to download, convert, share and manage. Plus, you need to take
into account how you want to view the video files. Not all browsers, programs, and
devices can play a specific video format.
Before choosing a video format, consider the following cases:
• For online videos choose a file format that most web browsers support. This way,
your video will be played natively on the browser. MP4 and WEBM are browser
compatible video formats.
 • For home video recordings, choose a format with high quality video good chance of
being usable in the future. Open source file formats are more future-proof than
proprietary formats that are controlled by enterprises. MP4 or AVI formats are a
good fit for that category.
• For Windows applications, choose a format that is compatible with Windows. WMV
is a good choice In this case.

Styles of packaging

News package

• A news package is usually the longest type of storytelling found on television

newscasts.

• A package is a self-contained taped news report. Usually, the news anchor will read
an introduction live, then the pre-recorded story will be shown.

Elements:

• Anchor VO- Introduction of the topic

• Visuals

• Voice-overs

• Piece to camera/ Stand-up

• Bytes

Steps of package production

• Story idea

• Research content

• Script writing (VO and stand-up)

• Shoot: B-Roll, Sound byte, Stand up

• Editing

Tips :
 • Separate the script into two columns. On the left side, write video. On the right side,
audio. Because you are writing for a visual medium, it is vital to separate out what the
audience will see and what they will hear.

• Choose sound bytes that are emotional, provide an interesting opinion, or help your
story along. As you choose these sound bytes, mark the time on the tape next to the
sound byte you write out so the editor can find it easily.

• Write voice-overs that you, the reporter, will say to push the story along. The voice-
overs should not stick out, but rather sound natural with the story.

• Weave sound bytes and voice-overs together to create a cohesive audio section to your
story.

• Find places to put natural sound, which is strongly connected with video.

• Write down video you have that complement the audio. You will have a large selection
from shooting B-Roll in the field. Mark times next to the video so the editor can find it easily.

• Read over your script and make sure it sounds natural, follows the guidelines of a story, and
is easy to read so the editor will have an easier time editing it later.

• Once the script is completed you are ready to go into the sound booth and record your
voice-overs.