See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/283902024

Physio‐Chemical Changes During Repeated Frying of Cooked Oil: A Review

Article  in  Journal of Food Biochemistry · November 2015

DOI: 10.1111/jfbc.12215

CITATIONS READS

107 22,390

1 author:

Prakash Kumar Nayak

Central Institute of Technology
58 PUBLICATIONS   708 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

PV integrated low-cost solar dryer for marginal farmers' of NER-India to dehydrate the agricultural produces using green technology View project

Isolation and identification of novel bacteriocin producing probiotic microbial species from Northeast region, exploration of probiotic traits and application of purified
bacteriocin in food preservation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Prakash Kumar Nayak on 04 November 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Journal of Food Biochemistry ISSN 1745-4514

PHYSIO-CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING REPEATED FRYING OF

COOKED OIL: A REVIEW
PRAKASH KUMAR NAYAK1,4,5, UMA DASH2, KALPANA RAYAGURU3 and KEASVAN RADHA KRISHNAN1
1
Department of Food Processing Technology, Central Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar, Assam 783370, India
2
Department of Chemistry, Rajendra (Auto.) College, Balangir, Odisha, India
3
Department of Agricultural Processing and Food Engineering, CAET, OUAT, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India
4
Center for Food Sc. & Technology, Sambalpur University, Odisha, India

5
Corresponding author. ABSTRACT
TEL: +91-98599-11865;
FAX: +91-03661-277143; Today, fried foods are very famous everywhere around the world and it can be
EMAIL: pk.nayak@cit.ac.in observed by the increasing number of fast food restaurants in the last few decades.
Deep frying of foods at high temperature enhances the sensorial properties which
Received for Publication April 19, 2015 include the unique fried flavor, golden brown color and crispy texture. Chemical
Accepted for Publication October 1, 2015
reactions like oxidation, polymerization, hydrolysis, etc., take place in the food
system, which ultimately alters the physical and chemical properties of fat. Conse-
doi:10.1111/jfbc.12215
quently, so many by-products such as free fatty acids, alcohols, cyclic compounds,
dimers and polymers are produced. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the
physical and chemical changes during deep fat frying to monitor the quality of
fried foods. In this review, we constituted the previous studies on the changes in
fats during frying and methods used to analyze the quality of fried oil, in order to
explore the areas which require further research.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Deep frying is the most common and one of the oldest methods of food prepara-
tion worldwide. To reduce the expenses, the oil tends to be used repeatedly for
frying. Repeated use of this oil has become a common practice due to low level of
awareness among the public about the bad effect of this practice. Nowadays, the
consumption of deep-fried food has gained popularity which may cause increased
risk of obesity. When heated repeatedly, changes in physical appearance of the oil
will occur such as increased viscosity and darkening in color, which may alter the
fatty acid composition of the oil. In this review, we have investigated the detail
mechanism of decay of oil and parameters to be measured to know the quality
and safety of oil.

simultaneous heat and mass transfers in food processing

INTRODUCTION
Edible oil is a vital module of food; it provides energy,
essential fatty acid and serves as a carrier of fat-soluble vita-
mins. India is the world’s largest importer and the third
largest consumer of edible oil (Choudhary and Grover
2013). In India, the annual and per capita consumption of
edible oil were 11 million tons and 11.5 kg, respectively, in
the year 2007. (Data information: Ministry of Agriculture,
Govt. of India). Oil is widely used for the trendiest gastro-
nomic process called frying, both in industrial and domes-
tic food preparations, and it increases the consumption of
fatty matters (Gertz et al. 2000). Deep fat frying involves
operation by immersing the food as a whole into the hot oil
around or more than 180C temperature (Hubbard and
Farkas 1999; Debnath et al. 2003, 2009). During the
process, a reverse transfer of water vapor from food to the
oil and finally to the atmosphere occurs (Farid 2001). In
this process, various chemical reactions such as thermal
oxidation, polymerization and hydrolysis take place. These
reactions produce insoluble, nonvolatile matters which
increase its viscosity, darken the color, increase the foaming
and decrease the smoke point (Kalogeropoulos et al. 2007).
As a whole, deep fat frying deteriorates the quality of oil
(Table 1). Most streets vendors reuse the deep fried oil for

Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 1

DEEP FRYING OF OIL P.K. NAYAK ET AL.

TABLE 1. QUALITY PARAMETERS OF COOKING OIL oil complement, fryer model and use of filters (Lalas et al.
FFA Viscosity 2006; Mariana et al. 2014). Different factors such as fatty
(Acid PV IV (mPA s) Saponification acid composition of oil, product quality, frying time, tem-
Oil Type Value) (meq./kg) (g/100g) at 400C Value perature, heating type, composition of frying oil, composi-
Soybean 1.15 10 139 33 195 tion of fried food, fryer type, antioxidants and oxygen
Sunflower 1.21 6.6 134 35 193 availability affect the deprivation of oil.
Mustard 1.5 20 125 48 184 Several studies have been carried out on degradation of
Palm 1.75 3.18 45 29 202 oil, but a systematic study and the effect of oil deterioration
Olive 6.6 10 94 40 196
have not been studied yet. This review is an approach
towards the investigation of the detail mechanism of decay
of oil and parameters to be measured to determine the
quality index of oil.
further cooking purposes without discarding it. Azman
et al. (2012) have determined the level of knowledge, atti-
tude and practice of night market food outlet operators in Phenomenon Responsible for Quality
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia regarding the usage of repeatedly Changes during Deep Fat Frying
heated cooking oil. They have collected data from the
Phenomenal changes involve increase in the concentration
respondents (n = 100) by face-to-face interview and
of free fatty acids, as well as polar materials, polymeric com-
observed that majority of respondents had only moderate
pounds and decrease in the unsaturated fatty acid composi-
(53.0%) or low (18.0%) level of knowledge regarding this
tion. (Kassama 2003). It mainly depends on three types of
issue. Most respondents (67.0%) agreed that it is not a
chemical reactions such as hydrolysis, oxidation and polym-
good practice. The majority (69.0%) agreed that the usage
erization. Oil becomes more stable if it contains lower levels
of repeatedly heated cooking oil is detrimental to health.
of linoleic, linolenic acid and higher levels of oleic acid
Despite that, most respondents (63.0%) admitted that they
(Aladedunye and Przybylski 2013). Decomposition of
had used cooking oil repeatedly. Most (62.0%) of the
linolic acid produces 2,4-decadienal which is responsible for
cooking oil samples taken from the night market food
deep-fried flavor.
outlets were considered fit for human consumption.
Saxena 2014 conducted a study jointly with the National
Diabetes, Obesity and Cholesterol (N-DOC) Foundation,
IIT-Delhi and Diabetes Foundation of India (DFI) that has Hydrolysis
revealed that reuse of oil in home-cooked food forms a It involves the breakage of triglycerides in the presence
heavy dose of trans-fatty acids (TFA). A random sample of water and steam (Coultate 1989). It produces
survey of 402 women between the age group of 25 and 60 monoglycerides, diglycerides, free fatty acids and glycerol,
across Delhi was conducted by a team of researchers to eventually (Fig. 1). The extent of hydrolysis depends on the
monitor the pattern of usage of oil while cooking. Besides oil temperature, interface area between oil and the aqueous
highlighting the harmful effects of TFA, the study has also phase, amounts of water and steam. Free fatty acids and
raised some serious concern over the cooking practice in lower molecular weight acidic products arising from fat oxi-
many households. Nearly 43.3% of the women reuse the fat dation enhance the hydrolysis process in presence of steam
or oil (used for frying) at least two to three times for
cooking. Also, 54% of the women left the used oil after
frying in the same utensil in which the frying was done, and
merely 6% of women drained off the used oil before
storing.
This imparts negative effects on the health condition of
consumers. The process of oxidation in the human body is
assumed to be a causal factor of certain diseases such as car-
diovascular, cancer, early aging, or cataract. Furthermore,
discarding the deteriorated oil to the environment enhances
pollution.
The presence of air and water further accelerates the dete-
rioration of frying oil (Chatzilazarou et al. 2006). It also FIG. 1. FORMATION OF FATTY ACIDS AND DIACYL GLYCEROLS
depends on the nature of the fried material, the frying oil, (AOCS LIPID LIBRARY, OILS & FATS, FORMATION OF NEW
time, temperature, intermittent continuous heating, fresh COMPOUNDS DURING FRYING – GENERAL OBSERVATIONS, 2009)

2 Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
during frying (Pokorny 1989). The extent of hydrolysis can
be determined by the saponification value of oil.
Oxidation
Three types of oxidation take place in deep-fried oil such as
autoxidation, thermal oxidation and photosensitized oxida-
tion. The oxidation by direct combination with oxygen at
ordinary temperature is called autoxidation. It results in the
rancidity of oil, which causes unpalatable odor and flavor
due to the oxidative or hydrolytic degradation of oil.
(Shukla and Bhattacharya 2004). Oxidative rancidity
involves oxygen attack of glycerides and occurs in all kinds
of unsaturated fats (Sangle and Daptare 2014). Thermal
oxidation occurs due to heating at high temperature more
than 180C (Marinova et al. 2012). The rate of thermal oxi-
dation is faster than the autoxidation (Choe and Min 2007).
All the above said oxidation processes follow a mechanism
known as free radical mechanism (Fig. 2). It mainly involves
three steps: chain initiation, propagation and termination.
In chain initiation, the reactions goi ahead by heat, light
and metal catalyst with the formation of alkyl free radical
(R) (Halliwell and Gutteridge 1984).
In propagation, the radical formed in the first step reacts
with oxygen to form the peroxy radical (ROO) (Halliwell
and Gutteridge 1984). The levels of peroxy radicals are
higher than lipid free radicals. Peroxy radical abstracts
hydrogen from another lipid molecule and forms lipid
radical (R + ROOH). The hydroperoxides are very unstable
and gives rise to short chain compounds by the cleavage of
O-O, C-C and C-O bonds around the peroxide group to
decompose into short chain compounds. The radicals cata-
FIG. 2. SIMPLIFIED SCHEME OF THERMAL
OXIDATION (AOCS LIPID LIBRARY, OILS &
FATS, FORMATION OF NEW COMPOUNDS
DURING FRYING – GENERAL OBSERVATIONS,
2009)
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
lyze the reactions while the formation and decomposition of
peroxide radical takes place in a reversible way.
Termination involves the formation of final products like
nonpolar dimer, oxidized monomer, oligomer, alcohols,
aldehydes, ketones, acids, lactones, etc. Silvagni et al. 2010
have explained formation of aldehyde directly from peroxyl
radical through an independent pathway during the thermal
treatment of peanut oil at 180C and it can be qualitatively
analyzed by gas chromatography (Marmesat et al. 2008).
Frying temperature, the number of frying process, the con-
tents of free fatty acids, polyvalent metals and unsaturated
fatty acids of oil decreases the oxidative stability and flavor
quality of oil. While antioxidants play an important role in
decreasing the frying oil oxidation, the effectiveness of anti-
oxidant decreases with elevated frying temperature.
Oxidation is one of the most important deteriorative
changes that occur in deep-fried oil and it comprises of five
main stages, namely induction period, peroxide formation,
peroxide decomposition, polymerization and degradation,
as shown in Fig. 3.
Photo-oxidation occurs when normal triplet oxygen are
converted to a singlet oxygen by the exposure of ultraviolet
(UV) radiation. The singlet oxygen interacts with polyun-
saturated fatty acids to form hydroxyl peroxide which initi-
ate the autoxidation reaction.
Change in Physical Parameters during Deep
Fat Frying
Physical changes in oil due to deep fat frying include
increase in color, foaming and viscosity. There are various
methods to measure these changes. The qualitative changes
can be evaluated by visual inspection.
3
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
Color
Color is a prejudiced indicator used by the food industry
for rapid monitoring of frying oil quality. Darkening of
oil color occurs due to the development of pigments
(nonvolatile decomposition products [NVDPs] and α-,
β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds) during oxidation and
thermal decomposition of fatty acids which diffuses into the
oil during frying, although due to traces of carotenoids
available in oil, Maskan 2003 has also explained that oil
darkening may be caused by caramelized scorched product,
which accelerates the reduction of lightness value (L-value)
in oil when assessed by the Hunter colorimeter (Ketaona
et al. 2013). In the studies conducted by Tarmizi et al.
(2013), the darkened frying oil samples showed higher
lightness (L*), redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) values
during frying, when assessed by the Hunter colorimeter. It
indicated that the oil were darker, more reddish and yellow-
ish, when compared to the color of fresh oil. Furthermore,
total color difference which combines L*, a* and b*values
was found to be increased with frying time.
Aladedunye and Przybylski (2009) have observed that
color development in oil undergoing frying was 67% higher
than frying performed under carbon dioxide blanketing
process, but the oil processed by vacuum frying has the
least amount of color pigments when comparing to the
other process. Nor et al. (2008) also reported that the dark-
ening of oil samples was due to the oxidation of phenolic
antioxidants present in the oil while heating. Debnath et al.
(2012) have suggested that color of rice bran oil depend
upon the number of frying cycle. They observed that after
six cycles of heating and frying, red color was increased
from two units to three and 4.5 units during heating and
frying, respectively. The increase in yellow color was
observed from 15 units to 20 and 25 units during heating
4 Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 3. FIVE MAIN STAGES IN THE
OXIDATION OF OIL DURING FRYING
(PERKINS 1967)
and frying, respectively. The increase in color of oil was
attributed due to the Maillard reaction. In preliminary
comparative studies conducted by Sulieman et al. (2006) on
the antiradical performance and physicochemical charac-
teristics of vegetable oil upon frying of French fries, the
gradual increase in darkness was observed during the frying
period. The color value of the vegetable oil increases with
increasing the frying time. It was due to the movement of
brown pigments from the fried products into the frying oil.
The combination of oxidation and polymerization of
unsaturated fatty acids in the frying medium was also to be
blamed for the increase in the color values (Irwandi et al.
2000). When comparing the final results of three different
samples of vegetable oil, the authors have concluded that
the darkening of oil color was due to increase in linolenic
content of the oil. It was observed that the color changes in
palm olein during frying were relatively faster than the
other oil. However, studies have shown that although palm
olein becomes darker with having higher color value during
frying, it will not affect the color of the fried products
(Razali et al. 1999). The findings therefore indicated that
darkening is considered as a useful phenomenon as it pre-
vents the continual use of edible oil which has undergone
excessive deterioration.
Density
Density is an important property affecting the heat transfer
by natural convection and buoyant movement of gas
bubbles in a liquid. The density of different types of oil is
dissimilar due to differences in its composition. Kalogianni
et al. (2011) have studied that the change in density of palm
oil and olive oil by varying the number of cycles of frying
from four to 40 (Fig. 4 – density of palm oil and olive oil as
function of frying number of cycles). During frying and
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 4. DENSITY OF PALM OIL AND OLIVE
OIL AS FUNCTION OF FRYING NUMBER OF
CYCLES (N). (KALOGIANNI ET AL. 2011)
heating of oil, reactions like oxidation, polymerization,
isomerization (in both frying and heating) and hydrolysis
(in frying) occur; as a result, several polymers were gener-
ated. The change in palm oil density is more than olive oil,
suggesting that the generation of higher polymer content in
palm oil than olive oil and change in the density was more
pronounced after the 20th cycle of frying.
Zahir et al. (2014) have observed that the density of
corn and mustard oil were decreased with the rise in tem-
perature as well as with using the same oil for frying of
potato for three times. The densities of oil were related to
the standard value in the range of 0.898–0.907 g/mL
(SON, Standard Organization of Nigeria, 2000).They also
observed the density values of 0.9694 and 0.9223 g/mL for
mustard and corn oil, respectively, at room temperature
(35C). It may be due to the pi bonds which make the more
rigid bonds and the more strenuous rotation between C-C
bonds.
Viscosity
Viscosity is one of the indicators used to evaluate the physi-
cal changes in edible oil. It depends upon density, molecular
weight, melting point, degree of unsaturation and tempera-
ture (Sharova and Ramadan 2012).Viscosity increases
during hydrogenation as the increase in the chain length of
tri-glyceride fatty acid and decreases during unsaturation of
fatty acids (Santos et al. 2004). Further polymerization of
oil and formation of dimmer, polymer products with
molecular weight between 690 and 1,600 Da increases the
viscosity of oil (Choe and Min 2007). Oil rich in linoleic
acid are more easily polymerized during deep fat frying
than the oil rich in oleic acid (Formo et al. 1979; Takeoka
et al. 1997; Valdes and Garcia 2006). Santos et al. (2005)
have observed that heating of oil (190C) for several hours
will not change the Newtonian behavior of several types of
oil including olive.
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
The different arrangement of fatty acids on glycerol back-
bone of tri-glyceride molecules changes the viscosity of oil.
Zahir et al. (2014) have studied that at 35C viscosity of
mustard oil is higher than corn oil due to the degree of
unsaturation of oil. Sharova and Ramadan (2012) have
investigated the effect of unsaturation upon the viscosity of
sunflower oil (SO), cottonseed oil (CO) and palm oil (PO)
and found that the major fatty acids C18:1 and C18:2
appeared to make a great contribution towards the flowing
behavior. The viscosity of oil increases with the increase in
the level of C18:2 and decreases the level of C18:1 fatty acids
(Fig. 5 – relation between the levels of C18:2 and viscosity
in different oil and Fig. 6 – relation between the levels of
C18:1 and viscosity in different oil).
The presence of double bond does not allow fatty acid
molecules to stay closely together; therefore, they will inter-
fere with packing in the crystalline state (Abramovic and
Klofutar 1998; Aravindan et al. 2007). Thus, fatty acids with
higher number of double bonds will not be rigid and
behave like fluids when they are packed loosely (Kim et al.
2010).
Viscosity is strongly affected when exposed to higher
temperatures, air and increase in the number of frying
cycles, and it enhances the formation of oxidative and poly-
meric compounds and increases the tendency to foam
during frying (Samah and Fyka 2002). Tarmizi et al. (2013)
have studied that the viscosity of oil increased significantly
in the case of vacuum and atmospheric drainage after 2 days
of frying from 45.48 to 54.12 and 55.97 mPa·s, respectively
(Fig. 7). After 80 batches of frying, polar compounds
increased from 7.81 to 15.03% and 17.19 % in the case of
vacuum drainage and atmospheric drainage, respectively.
This is due to the formation of higher molecular weight
polymeric compounds upon increase in frying time.
The similar effect was observed by Debnath et al. (2012).
They observed the kinematic viscosity of rice bran oil as
3.39 × 10−6 m2/s. This value was increased by increasing the
5
DEEP FRYING OF OIL P.K. NAYAK ET AL.

FIG. 5. RELATION BETWEEN THE LEVELS OF

C18:2 AND VISCOSITY IN DIFFERENT OIL
SAMPLES (SHAROVA AND RAMADAN 2012)

number of consecutive frying cycles (Lalas et al. 2006). Vis- from 30 to 180C. When temperature increases, the viscosity
cosity of oil also depends upon the measuring temperature. of oil decreases as a result of increase in kinetic energy,
Lioumbas et al. (2012) have determined the viscosity of which enhances the movement of molecules and reduces
olive oil and palm oil by varying the measuring temperature the intermolecular forces.

FIG. 6. RELATION BETWEEN THE LEVELS OF

C18:1 AND VISCOSITY IN DIFFERENT OIL
SAMPLES (SHAROVA AND RAMADAN 2012)

FIG. 7. CHANGES IN VISCOSITY DURING

FRYING IN THE CASE OF VACUUM AND
ATMOSPHERIC DRAINAGE (TARMIZI ET AL.
2013)

6 Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

P.K. NAYAK ET AL. DEEP FRYING OF OIL

FIG. 8. STRUCTURE OF FATTY ACIDS

of one gram of sample (Zahir et al. 2014). Aladedunye and

CHANGES IN CHEMICAL PARAMETERS
DURING DEEP FAT FRYING
Fatty Acid
Fatty acid composition is widely used for the establishment
of oxidative stability and its authenticity of oil. As
unsaturation in the fatty acid tail of triglycerides increases,
the rate of oxidation increases (Mistry and Min 1992). For
instance, fatty acids like stearic, oleic, linoleic and linolenic
acids all have the same 18 carbon backbone, but they differ
in the number of unsaturation points (Fig. 8 structure of
fatty acids). Stearic acid is a saturated fatty acid with no
double bonds. Linolenic is the least saturated, with three
double bonds (Nawar 2007). The relative rates of oxidation
of stearic : oleic : linoleic : linolenic acid is 1:100:1,200:2,500
(Mistry and Min 1992).
As shown in Table 2 (composition of long chain fatty
acids in edible oil), these long chain fatty acids are found
virtually in all types of edible oil. The average molecular
mass of fatty acids is measured using the saponification
value. It is expressed as the amount (in milligrams) of
potassium hydroxide (KOH) required for the saponification
Przybylski (2009) have reported decrease of 13.3% in lin-
oleic acid and 47.1% in linolenic acid when fresh canola oil
was heated at 215C for 7 days. The study of Tarmizi et al.
(2013) revealed that the stability of palm oil was due to the
presence of saturated fatty acids (46%) and unsaturated
fatty acids (54%) in balanced portions. After 80 batches of
frying, the concentration of palmitic acid (C16:0). expressed
as a percentage of total fatty acids, increased in the case of
vacuum drainage as well as in atmospheric drainage from
its initial value of 40.19%. The apparent increase in palmitic
acid was due to the loss of unsaturated fatty acids but the
actual concentration in oil remains unchanged throughout
the course of frying. This is due to the fact that the oil was
kept in vacuum which is free from oxygen. Exposure of oil
to elevated temperature induces modification of fatty acids
that contains two or three double bonds (Jorge et al. 1996).
The relative oxidation rate of linoleic acid and linolenic acid
is much higher than steric acid.
The ratio of linoleic acid to palmitic acid (C18:2/C16:0)
can be used for the evaluation of oil deterioration
(Normand et al. 2001). During frying, the ratio found to be
decreased, and reduction was more apparent at higher

TABLE 2. COMPOSITION OF LONG CHAIN FATTY ACIDS IN EDIBLE OIL SAMPLES (MISTRY AND MIN 1992)

Saturated Monounsaturated Polyunsaturated

Myristic Palmitic Stearic Oleic Linoleic Linolenic
Oil type acid C14:0 acid C16:0 acid C18:0 acid C18:1 acid C18:2 acid C18:3
Canola Oil – 4 2 64 22 10
Corn Oil (Maize Oil) – 11 2 28 58 1
Cottonseed Oil 1 22 3 19 54 1
Peanut Oil – 11 2 48 32 –
Safflower Oil – 7 2 13 78 –
Soybean Oil – 11 4 24 54 7
Sunflower Oil – 7 5 19 68 1

Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 7

DEEP FRYING OF OIL
frying temperatures. The value decreased about 6.3,
9.72 and 26.52% during frying at 150, 200 and 250C,
respectively.
Iodine Value
The iodine value (IV) of oil is a direct representation of the
degree of unsaturation of the oil. Iodine is used to haloge-
nate the double bonds present in unsaturated fatty acids.
The IV is expressed in the number of centigrams of iodine
absorbed (Rangana 2005). The research carried out by
Abdulkarim et al. (2005) showed the changes in IV during
5 days of frying and the changes in the IV values from
day 0 to day 5were recorded as follows: canola oil (CO)
(109.9–103.0), soybean oil (SO) (116.9–111.8), palm oil
(PO) (56.8–53.7) and Moringa oleifera oil (MO) (65.9–
62.2). The change in the IV values for the above said oil was
in the order of CO > SO>PO > MO. MO and PO had a
longer induction period since there were no significant
changes for the first two days of frying. In canola oil and
soybean oil, the changes in the IV were significant after the
first day of frying, indicating shorter induction periods.
This was largely due to the high amounts of linolenic acid
present in the two samples of oil (Abdulkarim et al. 2005).
Pineda et al. (2011) have observed a steady decrease in
the IV of sunflower oil, olive oil and high oleic acid sun-
flower oil (HOSO) during frying. It may be due to the
decrease in the unsaturation of the oil samples. Frying leads
to decrease in the unsaturation for all types of oil; this de-
crease in IV is a result of complex physio-chemical changes
and indicates the decrease in oxidation rate (Lalas 2009).
IVs of all the oil samples exposed to air and air–light did
not change significantly, whereas deep frying substantially
reduce the IVs (Naz et al. 2005). Oxidation, which consists
of a complex series of chemical reactions, is characterized
by a decrease in the total unsaturated content of the oil due
to abstraction of hydrogen adjacent to the double bond and
the formation of free radicals. Hence, deep frying that accel-
erates the oxidation of the oil causes maximum reduction of
the IVs. However, no significant differences were found in
case of deep frying with respect to frying time.
Free Fatty Acids/Acid Value
Free fatty acids (FFA) value is the number of milligrams of
KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acids present in
1 g of oil. If the free fatty acid content of coconut oil or
palm oil has to be in the percentage of weight, the calcula-
tion is based on the molecular weight of lauric acid.
(Rangana 2005).
This is a fast, reliable method to monitor the acidity of oil
during frying (Bensmira et al. 2007). The hydrolysis of tri-
glycerides and decomposition of hydroperoxide at high
8 Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
temperature in the presence of moisture and air forms FFA.
In particular, it is damaging to the stability of the frying
medium and the fried foods. These are rapidly oxidized, and
they catalyze further oxidation of polyunsaturated fats by
solubilization and activation of catalytic metal salts. Their
surface activity increases their contact with oxidizable com-
ponents of the food, and promotes lipid protein interac-
tions (Urbancic et al. 2014). The maximum allowed value of
FFA varies depending on the type of food being fried and
number of batches during frying operation (Shaker 2014).
Gunstone (2008) suggested that the FFA content of the
refined oil should be less than 0.1% because most of the
FFAs from crude oil are removed during the refining
process. Casal et al. (2010) found out that the acidity of the
commercial olive oil was higher than virgin olive oil and
they observed that it may be due to the removal of free fatty
acid during saponification. Sebastian et al. (2014) have
found that the FFA levels in fresh oil samples varied from
0.05 to 0.08% and, for in-use samples from the fryer, ranged
widely from 0.25 to 3.99%. For the industrial production of
potato chips, the FFA level of 0.5% has been reported as the
threshold for discarding the used frying oil, whereas a
maximum value of 1% FFA is usually allowed by the proces-
sors of pre-fried French fries (Ismail 2005). Higher FFA
concentrations are tolerated in the case of oil used for frying
battered and breaded products (2–2.5%) (Tarmizi et al.
2013).
The FFA value increases with time of frying (Naz et al.
2005) as shown in Fig. 9 – effect of deep frying on FFA
levels of olive, corn and soybean oil. Furthermore, this value
changes with the variation of food product. They observed
that the FFA of chicken drum sticks was higher than that of
the oil used for deep frying of French fries (Fig. 10).
Though, the moisture in potato (76.7%) is more than in
chicken (70%), and the thermal conductivity of both food-
stuffs are almost the same (0.54 W/(m.K)), the FFA of corn
oil used for frying of chicken was slightly greater as com-
pared to FFA of the oil used for potato. It is due to the fatty
acids released from fat-containing foods such as chicken
and their concentration in the frying oil increases with con-
tinuous use.
FFA value increases with increase in the number of frying
cycles and heating. The change in FFA after frying is more
in comparison to heating. The increase in FFA is because of
the cleavage and the oxidation of double bonds to form car-
bonyl compounds and low molecular fatty acids during
frying. The moisture coming from fried products accelerates
the hydrolysis and it is due to fact that water can promote
the hydrolysis of triacylglycerol to form combination of
mono and diacyl glycerol, glycerol and free fatty acids.
Debnath et al. (2012) have found that the FFA value of rice
bran oil increases from 0.3 to 0.44% and 0.48 % after
heating and frying for one to six consecutives cycles, respec-
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 9. EFFECT OF DEEP FRYING ON FFA
LEVELS OF OLIVE, CORN AND SOYBEAN OIL
(NAZ ET AL. 2005)
tively. The increase in FFA value is not an unswerving
parameter for degradation of frying oil because it is difficult
to differentiate between FFA formed by oxidation or by
hydrolysis (Frega et al. 1999; Mohamed et al. 2006). FFA
value is independent of the levels of linoleic acid and
tocopherol (Aladedunye and Przybylski 2013).
Peroxide Value
Peroxide value (PV) is a useful indicator of oxidation at the
initial stage, but it is not related to the frying duration
FIG. 10. VARIATION IN FFA LEVELS DUE TO VARIATION IN NATURE OF
FRIED FOOD (NAZ ET AL. 2005)
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
(Atinafu and Bodemo 2011). In determination of this value,
the hydroperoxides reacts with acidified potassium iodide to
liberate iodine that can be measured volumetrically by reac-
tion with standardized sodium thiosulphate. The value rep-
resents milli equivalent of oxygen per kg of fat. Cheman and
Wanhussin (1998) mentioned that a good-quality vegetable
oil should have a PV of lower than 2 meq/kg. A decrease in
PV during frying has been observed by several researchers
(White 1991; Vieira and Regitano-D’arce 1999; Zhang et al.
2007). The primary product of lipid oxidation is hydroper-
oxide, which is generally referred to as peroxides (Allendorf
2010). PV is influenced by constituent fatty acids and the
length or type of storage (Lawson 1995).
PV may increase after the sample is taken from the fryer.
Therefore, PV is generally not a very reliable parameter to
determine deterioration of cooking oil (Man and Hussain
1998). Marinova et al. (2012) have investigated the effect of
heating at 180C on the PV of oil samples (Fig. 11) and they
found out that the PV was not a representative for the
changes occurring in the oil samples, and storage of oil only
leads to increase in PV. The use of oil for frying does not
lead to substantial increases in PV because peroxides
decompose spontaneously above 150C (Marmesat et al.
2010). Chen et al. (2014) have correlated PV of palm oil
with frying temperature. The highest value was found at
150C, followed by significant decrease at 200C and slight
increase at 250C. This can be explained by the thermal
decomposition of hydroperoxides to carbonyl and aldehyde
compounds during deep fat frying at higher temperature,
which results in lower accumulation in the oil at higher
frying temperature.
Pineda et al. (2011) have observed that at 160C, PVs
showed a slight increase during the first 20 frying cycles fol-
lowed by a decrease in PV. At 180C, PVs showed a slight
9
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
increase at 10 cycles, remaining almost constant after 15
frying cycles. At a higher temperature (180C), PVs are lower
at severe frying conditions as peroxide decomposition rate
becomes higher than peroxide formation rate. As peroxides
are transient chemical compounds, they are also unstable
under frying conditions. There is equilibrium between per-
oxide formation rate and peroxide degradation rate and
similar behavior was observed by Casal et al. (2010) for
olive oil.
PV depends upon the method of heat treatment of oil.
Chu and Hsu (2001) have observed that PV of gas-treated
oil was 33% higher than microwave-treated oil for frying of
shallot, which indicated that the quick evaporation of water
by frying of shallot pieces with microwave heating produced
less oxidized oil.
Naz et al. (2005) have suggested that the increase in PV
of oil follows the order deep frying > air–light expo-
sure > air exposure. Debnath et al. (2012) have determined
the PV of fresh rice bran oil was 1.63 meqO2/kg. After
heating and frying for one to six cycles, the PV was found
to be increased from 2.2 to 3.6 meq/kg and 3 to
4 meqO2/kg respectively. For heating and frying they also
concluded that oil degrade more during frying as com-
pared to heating.
P-Anisidine Value
p-Anisidine value (p-AV) is defined as 100 times the optical
density measured at 350 nm in a 1 cm cell of solution con-
taining 1 g of oil and 100 mL of a mixture of solvent and
10
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 11. CHANGES IN THE PEROXIDE
VALUES (PV) OF THE OIL SAMPLES DURING
HEATING AT 180C (MARINOVA ET AL. 2012)
reagent, according to the International Union of Pure and
Applied Chemistry method (Paquat and Hautfenne 1987).
It is also defined as the relative amount of nonvolatile
unsaturated aldehyde compounds formed by the secondary
degradation products from fatty acid hydroperoxide. List
et al. (1974) were the first researchers to use the p-AV test to
judge oil quality and had demonstrated a highly significant
linear correlation (r = −0.82) between p-AV and flavor
scores in soybean salad oil.
Al-Kahtani (1991) reported that the p-AV was the most
reliable measure of oil oxidation and the discarding oil has
PV levels in the ranges 14.2 to 55.8. According to Gupta
(2005) a desirable p-AV for fresh frying oil should be less
than 4.0, with an upper limit of 6.0. He also mentioned that
if the fresh oil had a p-AV above 6, the oil would be highly
oxidized. The secondary products of oxidation are more
stable than the unstable peroxides formed in the primary
stages of the oxidation. It increases with the increase in
frying time and levels up after the equilibration of the
formed carbonyl compounds with their degraded portions
and the transfer of these components into fried food
(Aladedunye and Przybylski 2009). The p-AV value
decreases with the increase in tocopherol content. p-AV of
HOSO 4.3 (high oleic sun flower oil containing 4.3 linoleic
acid) containing higher amount of γ and δ tocopherol
isomers was lower than in HOSO 4.5 (high oleic sun flower
oil containing 4.3 linoleic acid) (Ali et al. 2013; Shaker
2014).
Aladedunye and Przybylski (2013) conducted a series of
frying trials and found that the p-AV level stabilized at 10
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
and 60 units, respectively, when frying was conducted under
vacuum and carbon dioxide blanketing. Also, Sebastian
et al. (2014) have suggested that p-AV of the oil after
vacuum drainage was lowered to about 12% than the air
drainage due to the fact that oil protected only from air (or
oxygen) during drainage period at lower pressure. The ten-
dency to an upper limit may be due to the advanced stage of
oxidation, since further formation of aldehyde was balanced
by loss of aldehydes during oxidation and polymerization to
produce higher molecular weight compounds (linked by
carbon–carbon and/or oxygen–carbon bonds) from fatty
acids (Tsaknis et al. 2002).
Total Oxidation Value
The total oxidation (TOTOX) value can be calculated by
using p-AV and it is often used in the industry in conjunc-
tion with PV to calculate the so called TOTOX value.
TOTOX VALUE = 2PV + P-AV
The TOTOX value is often considered to have the advantage
of combining evidence about the past history of oil (as
reflected in the p-AV) with its present stage (as evidenced in
the PV). Therefore, determination of TOTOX value has
been carried out extensively to estimate oxidative deteriora-
tion of food lipids (Rossell 1983). This value represents the
oil or fat quality, oxidation status and presence of degrada-
tion products formed from previous oxidation of oil.
Typical TOTOX value reported by Ghosh et al. (2012) for
native soybean oil was 3.02 which increased to 19.93 in deep
frying, 19.37 in shallow frying and 16.70 in par frying after
the fourth round of frying. Therefore, deep fried soybean oil
had significantly higher TOTOX value than shallow and par
fried oil. The results were in agreement with Wai et al.
(2009) who reported that the lower the TOTOX value, the
better the quality of oil as it is more stable to oxidative
rancidity.
2-Thiobarbituric Acid Value
TBA (thiobarbituric acid) value is expressed as milligrams
of malondialdehyde (MDA) equivalents per kilogram
sample or as micromoles MDA equivalents per gram
sample. MDA is a relatively minor product of oxidation of
polyunsaturated fatty acids that reacts with the TBA reagent
to produce a pink complex with an absorption maximum at
530–532 nm (Tarladgis et al. 1964). According to Hassanien
et al. (2014), the TBA value is very low for oil samples
coming from continuous frying. This is due to the low con-
centrations of the frying oil in fatty acids with more than
two double bonds, which are the main precursors of the
MDA and similar results were reported by Sebedio et al.
(1991) for palm oil.
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
Total Polar Compounds
It is the measure of thermo-oxidative degradation of frying
oil (Debnath et al. 2012). It is one of the most valid and
objective criteria for the evaluation of deterioration of
cooking oil. During frying, peroxides and hydro peroxides
were broken down to form short chain acids and aldehydes,
ketones, alcohol and nonvolatile products (Xu et al. 1999)
and it becomes polar, as a result (Sharav et al. 2014). The
total polar material consists of polymeric, cyclic nonvolatile
substances (resulting from oxidation and hydrolysis of oil)
including soluble constituents leached from the fried
product (Debnath et al. 2012).
Melton et al. (1994) have suggested that more research is
needed to find the total polar compounds (TPC) level at
which the oil should be discarded. Several researchers have
suggested a threshold level of 25–27% TPC for discarding
fried oil (Uriarte and Guillen 2010). In Spain, Austria, Swit-
zerland, France and Belgium, TPC is used as a tool to deter-
mine the time at which frying oil discarded (Clark and
Serbia 1991). Hassanien and Sharoba (2014) have observed
TPC in the oil increased during frying and were strongly
correlated with frying time (Fig. 12). During frying, rate of
increase in TPC was relatively slower in PO than the sun-
flower oil (SO) and cottonseed oil (CO). The initial polar
compounds contents were 0.91, 0.87 and 0.65 %, in CO, SO
and PO, respectively. At the end of experiment, TPC levels
increased to 11.9, 10.7 and 10.1 % for CO, SO and PO,
respectively. CO sample had the highest value when com-
pared to PO and SO at the end of frying and those oil
samples were considered acceptable after 16 h of frying as
many countries had set maximum acceptable levels of
25–27% for TPC content (Clark and Serbia 1991; Mellema
2003; Uriarte and Guillen 2010). The time required to reach
FIG. 12. LEVELS OF TOTAL POLAR COMPOUNDS (G/100 G OF OIL) IN
DIFFERENT OIL SAMPLES DURING FRYING OF FRENCH FRIES
(HASSANIEN AND SHAROBA 2014)
11
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
this limit varied among the oil samples examined and it
was in the order olive oil (41.7 h) > corn oil > (37.2 h) >
soybean oil (33.5 h) > grape seed oil (20.0 h) > sunflower oil
(10.5 h) (Marinova et al. 2012). Urbancic et al. (2014) have
examined the rise in TPC of sunflower oil after four to six
deep-frying cycles and it remained essentially constant even
at 20 cycles.
In the studies on discarding frying oil in the metropolitan
coastal area of the city of Santos, Brazil, Sharav et al. (2014)
evaluated the TPC using only the Fri-check. By this proce-
dure, the TPC of some of the samples showed quite high,
but unlikely, values, such as 78%. The samples ranged from4
to 78% for soybean oil and from 9 to 46% for vegetable fats
(Osawa et al. 2012).
Aladedunye and Przybylski (2013) have measured the
rate of formation of polar components for three HOSO
(HOSO4.3, HOSO4.5 and HOSO9.3) where the subscript
values give the percentage of linoleic acid content. The rate
of polar formation was 1.9% per frying day for HOSO4.5
and HOSO4.3, while it is 2.3 % for HOSO9.3. Despite higher
amount of tocopherol isomeric composition in HOSO4.5
(1,128 μg/g) compared to HOSO4.3 (688 μg/g), the TPC
remained the same for both oil samples. It has been
recorded that HOSO9.5 attains a discarding level of 25% at
the end of 7th day of frying, whereas HOSO4.3 was still good
for an additional 2 days of frying. The slightly higher
tocopherol content did not offer any additional advantage
to the TPC levels of oil (Warner and Moser 2009), but lin-
oleic acid content explained the difference in TPC levels of
the above three types of oil. Unsaturated fatty acids are one
of the many compositional factors affecting the formation
of polar compound HOSO4.3; there is no significant differ-
ence in TPC for HOSO4.5 and HOSO4.3.
The acid value in fresh soybean oil and palm olein, deter-
mined by Chen et al. (2013) using two different methods
such as standard rapid methods, and from the results, it was
observed that the average value of palm olein (0.071 mg
KOH/g) was higher than soybean oil (0.03 mg KOH/g) as
PO typically contain higher amounts of diglycerides (6–8%)
than soybean oil (2–3%).
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT OF THE
QUALITY INDEX OF OIL
Based on the physical parameters (viscosity, density, color
and foaming, etc.) and chemical parameters (oxidation,
hydrolysis and polymerization), several methods were
developed for determining the degradation of repeated
frying oil. These conventional analytical methods are highly
time-consuming and labor intensive. The following moni-
toring procedures have thus been developed for rapid analy-
sis of deep frying oil (Yaw 2013).
12
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
UV-Visible Spectroscopy
Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy is a common ana-
lytical tool for relative measure of oxidation. It is used for
measuring FFA content and quantitating values of conju-
gated dienes and trienes. The analytical signal for which the
assay is based is either the emission or absorption of radia-
tion in the UV-Vis range of the electromagnetic spectrum.
This signal may be inherent in the analyte or a result of a
chemical reaction involving the analyte (such as in colori-
metric methods). The UV-Vis portion of the electromag-
netic spectrum spans from 200 to 700 nm (Penner 2003).
The change in the ultraviolet absorption at 233 and 269 nm
are associated with the change in the conjugated dienes and
trienes, respectively, that are produced during the oxidation
of polyunsaturated fatty acid and it increases with increase
in frying time. According to Nzikou et al. (2009), low levels
of both conjugated dienes and trienes are indication of
good oxidative stability of oil and it is because of the high
percentage of monounsaturated oleic acid. The study
was carried out for soybean oil and oil mixture of
soybean : palm (6:4). The oxidation index K232 and K269 was
higher and increased more rapidly in oil mixture
(Fig. 13a,b) as compared to the soybean oil because of the
higher degradation rate of linoleic acid.
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
FTIR (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy) spectros-
copy is an excellent tool for the analysis of deep fried oil as
the intensities of the bands in the spectrum are propor-
tional to concentration. Mid-infrared spectra have been
used to characterize edible oil and fats as they differ in the
intensity and the exact frequency at which the max absor-
bance or transmittance of the band appears, according to
the nature and composition of the sample (Guillen and
Cabo 2000). Zahir et al. (2014) have analyzed the FTIR
spectra of corn and mustard oil samples and noticed a
prominent difference in the band at room temperature,
boiling point and between the same oil used for frying three
times with a piece of potato. The oil composition affects the
exact positions of the band and yields a shift when the pro-
portion of fatty acids changed. At room temperature
(Figs. 14 and 15), the band around 3,473 cm−1 assigned to
O-H stretching vibration of hydroperoxide, 3,006.8–
3,007.0 cm−1 as C-H stretching vibration of the cis double
bond (=C-H) and 2,854.7–2,925.8 cm−1 shows C-H asym-
metric and symmetric stretching vibrations of the aliphatic
CH2.
Russin and Sedman (2004) have studied simultaneously
sunflower and canola oil to monitor the extent of oxidation
by FTIR spectroscopy. They found that the small sampling
area on the cards allowed for rapid oxidation of the samples
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 13. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECIFIC EXTINCTION K232 AND THE FRYING DURING FOR SO AND MO (NZIKOU ET AL. 2009)
at lower temperatures (58C). Most of the common methods
for monitoring autoxidation and determining the oxidative
stability of edible oil use elevated temperatures (above 98C)
to accelerate the oxidation process, which often changes the
mechanism of oxidation and makes it difficult to extrapo-
late the data to ambient storage conditions. From different
oil samples, Russin and Sedman (2004) looked at the peak
height of the peroxide (ROOH) absorption band at
3,444 cm−1. The oxidation process was allowed to continue
until peroxide values were above 300 meq oxygen/kg oil. He
found that the hydroperoxide absorption band starts at
3,444 cm−1 in the spectra of oil with low PVs, but shifts to
progressively lower wave numbers as oxidation proceeds.
FIG. 14. FTIR SPECTRUM OF CORN OIL
(a) at Room Temperature (35C), (b) Boiling
Point, (c) First Frying, and (d) 3RD Frying
(Zahir et al. 2014).
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
Figure 16 shows the FTIR spectra of olive oil, corn, sun-
flower and soybean oil samples. The fingerprint region,
especially 1,300–1,000 cm−1, shows differences in the peak
areas and peak heights of the absorption bands at
1,163 cm−1 (assigned to -C-O stretching and CH bending)
and at 1,118 and 1,097 cm−1 (assigned to -C-O stretching).
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy has
played an ever-increasing role in the study of properties of
oil of vegetable origin (Soon 1984, 1985; Mallet et al. 1990;
Howarth and Vlahov 1996) during the last 10 years. The
13
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
molar percentages of unsaturated fatty acids in triglycerides
can be measured by comparing the peak areas of the allylic
methylenes with those of the methyl signals. The volatile
compounds of virgin olive oil have been studied by high
field (600 MHz) NMR spectroscopy (Sacchi et al. 1989).
Muhizi et al. (2009) have carried out the NMR study of
four samples of oil (sample A: staring oil, B: oil used for one
time, C: oil used for five times, D: oil used for 10 times). It
has been obtained that the signal at 2.75 ppm (zone H) was
absent from sample D, suggesting the breakdown of double
bonds of linoleic acid, leading to the formation of other
products. Further analysis of 1 H NMR spectra, at chemical
FIG. 16. FTIR SPECTRA OF OIL
14
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 15. FTIR SPECTRUM OF MUSTARD OIL
(a) at Room Temperature (35C), (b) Boiling
Point, (c) First Frying, and (d) 3rd Frying
(Zahir et al. 2014).
shifts varying between 7.2 and 10.4 ppm where signals of
carbonyl group may appear, indicated clear differences
between heated oil samples and unused ones (Fig. 17). In
addition, comparison done between samples A and D at
chemical shifts of 5.6–8.4 ppm also indicated new signals in
sample D. Zoomed zones showed new signals from all over
heated and reused oil (samples B, C and D).
Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC)
It is used to analyze the melting property of oil. Nzikou
et al. (2009) have examined the DSC (differential scanning
calorimetry) analysis of soybean oil (SO) sample before and
after 1 h of frying. The heating profile using scan rate (10C/
min) showed two major peaks at −22.54C (SOa before used)
and −23.72C (SOb after used) which were due to polyun-
saturated fatty acids and two small peaks at −5.97C (SOa)
and +2.89C (SOb), which were due to monounsaturated
fatty acids. It should be noted that the thermal behavior of
oil was not significantly affected by frying (Fig. 18).
Radial Scavenging Method
Ramadan et al. (2003) studied the antiradical properties of
vegetable oil using this method. It is possible to dissolve
polar and nonpolar lipids in the same solvent to study their
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
FIG. 17. H NMR DIFFERENCE BETWEEN UNUSED OIL AND OVERHEATED AND REUSED OIL SAMPLES (RUSSIN AND SEDMAN 2004)
radical scavenging activity. Sulieman et al. (2006) has
applied this technique to measure the antioxidant potential
of vegetable oil during frying. Fresh oil (nonpolar com-
pounds) and decomposition products of deteriorated dried
FIG. 18. THERMO GRAMS OF DIFFERENTIAL SCANNING
CALORIMETRY ANALYSIS OF OIL SAMPLES SO, (A) SOA: SOYBEAN OIL
UNUSED AND (B): SOB: SOYBEAN OIL USED AFTER 1 H OF FRYING
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
oil (polar compounds) were completely dissolved in toluene
which allowed determining the antiradical performance of
fried oil very accurately (Sulieman et al. 2006). After 16 h
frying, they reported that 85% of 2,2-diphenyl-1-
picrylhydrazyl radicals were quenched by palm olein while
sunflower and cottonseed oil samples were able to quench
77 and 72%, respectively. The stronger radical scavenging
activity of palm olein compared to sunflower and cotton-
seed oil may be due to the significant differences in the
composition of bioactive compounds and the diversity in
structural characteristics of potential antioxidants. All these
factors may contribute to the radical quenching efficiency of
vegetable oil.
Gas Chromatography
Chen et al. (2014) analyzed the TFA profiles in deep-frying
palm oil and chicken fillets with an improved gas chroma-
tography (Gc) method. The oil was heated to 150, 200 and
250C, and then a batch of 40 ± 5 g chicken fillets was added
and fried for 10 min as one frying cycle at each temperature.
In each day, the oil was continuously heated for 8 h with 48
frying cycles performed. After frying at three different tem-
peratures of 150, 200 and 250C, TFAs in frying oil samples
were analyzed and compared. A progressive decrease in the
content of both (cis) linoleic and (cis) linolenic acids was
15
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
observed throughout the frying period. The content of (cis)
linoleic acid was reduced by 10.99 and 16.21% after frying
for 8 h at 150 and 250C, respectively. The deterioration of
(cis) linolenic acid was more pronounced, with its contents
being decreased by 20.86 and 62.58%, respectively.
Aladedunye and Przybylski (2009) have reported the
decrease of 13.3% in linoleic acid and 47.1% in linolenic
acid when fresh canola oil was heated at 215C for 7 days. In
the case of trans isomers, small changes were observed in
their formation at lower frying temperatures (≤200C, 8 h).
However, when comparing the relative percentage of TFAs
during the frying sessions at a higher temperature of 250C,
a clear increase in TFAs with 18 carbon atoms was observed.
The total contents of trans C18:2 isomers in frying oil were
significantly increased with an increase in the length of deep
frying time (P < 0.05). The final concentrations of total
trans C18:2 in fried palm oil was 3.64 mg/g at 250C, which
was increased by 53.02%.
It has been suggested that the ratio of linoleic acid to pal-
mitic acid (C18:2/C16:0) can be used for the evaluation of
oil deterioration (Normand et al. 2001). A progressive
decrease in this ratio with the frying time was observed
during frying, and this reduction was more apparent at
higher frying temperatures. The value decreased about 6.3,
9.72 and 26.52% during frying at 150, 200 and 250C,
respectively. This implies that frying at higher temperatures
could induce more polyunsaturated fatty acids deteriora-
tion. The results were consistent with previous works by
Aladedunye and Przybylski (2009) where they found a sig-
nificant decrease in the ratio during frying. They also
reported that the decrease in this ratio was 1.2 times (for
C18:2/C16:0) and 1.9 times (for C18:3/C16:0) higher in oil
heated at 215C as compared to 185C.
High Performance Liquid Chromatography
The suitability of different commercial olive oil categories
for domestic frying was investigated by Casal et al. (2010).
In this study, the oil samples were taken every 3 h of frying
from each fryer in order to study the tocopherols and
tocotrienol composition using HPLC (high performance
liquid chromatography) on a silica gel column. They found
that the contents of tocopherols and tocotrienol were found
to be decreased as the frying time progressed. Prior to
frying, all olive oil samples presented variable amount of
total vitamin E from 139 mg/kg to 189 mg/kg, mainly
tocopherols. The monovarietal olive oil samples (Cerretani
et al. 2005) presented lower vitamin E amount which is an
important factor for antioxidant capacity and thus oil per-
formances. Vitamin E degraded sharply in olive oil samples,
being practically inexistent after 3 to 6 h of frying. When
compared to vegetable oil, the tocopherols degraded at a
faster rate in olive oil.
16
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are grateful to Dr B.K.Mishra from Sampalpur
University, Burla, Odisha and Mrs E.B. Hazarika, Central
Institute of Technology, Kokrajhar for their interest on the
subject, their precious advices and helpful discussions. P K
Nayak is indebted to the Tezpur University, Assam and IIT-
Guwahati, Assam for their continuous support.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.
REFERENCES
ABDULKARIM, S.M., LONG, K., LAI, O.M., MUHAMMAD,
S.K.S. and GHAZALI, H.M. 2005. Some physico-chemical
properties of Moringa oleifera seed oil extracted using solvent
and aqueous enzymatic methods. Food Chem. 93, 253–263.
ABRAMOVIC, H. and KLOFUTAR, C. 1998. The temperature
dependence of dynamic viscosity for some vegetable oils. Acta
Chim. Slov. 45, 69–77.
AL-KAHTANI, H.A. 1991. Survey of quality of used frying oils
from restaurants. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 68, 857–862.
ALADEDUNYE, F.A. and PRZYBYLSKI, R. 2009. Degradation
and nutritional quality changes of oil during frying. J. Am. Oil
Chem. Soc. 86, 149–156.
ALADEDUNYE, F.A. and PRZYBYLSKI, R. 2013. Frying stability
of high oleic sun flower oils as affected by composition of
tocopherols isomers and linoleic acid content. Food Chem.
141, 2373–2378.
ALI, M.A., NOURUDDEEN, Z.B., MUMAHAD, I.I., LATIP, R.A.
and OTHMAN, N.H. 2013. Effect of Microbial heating on the
quality characteristics of canola oil in presence of palm olein.
Acta Sci. Pol. Technol. Aliment. 12, 241–251.
ALLENDORF, M.E. 2010. A thesis on application of a handheld
portable infrared sensor to monitor oil quality, Ohio State
University, Ohio.
ARAVINDAN, R., ANBUMATHI, P. and VIRUTHAGIRI, T.
2007. Lipase application in food industry. Ind. J. Biotechnol.
6, 141–158.
ATINAFU, D.G. and BODEMO, B. 2011. Estimation of total free
fatty acid and cholesterol content in some commercial edible
oils in Ethiopia, Bahir DAR. J. Cereals Oilseeds 2, 71–76.
AZMAN, A., SHARUL, S.M., CHAN, S.X., NOORHAZLIZA,
M.K. and HMS, Q. 2012. Level of knowledge, attitude, and
practice of night market food outlet operators in Kuala
Lumpur regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil.
Med. J. Malaysia 67, 92–101.
BENSMIRA, M., JIANG, B., NSABIMANA, C. and JIAN, T.
2007. Effect of lavender and thyme incorporation in
sunflower seed oil on its resistance to frying temperatures.
Food Res. Int. 40, 341–346.
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
CASAL, S., MALHEIRO, R., SENDAS, A., OLIVEIRA, B.P. and
PEREIRA, J.A. 2010. Olive oil stability under deep-frying
conditions. Food Chem. Toxicol. 48, 2972–2979.
CERRETANI, L., BENDINI, A., ROTONDI, A., LERCKER, G.
and TOSCHI, T.G. 2005. Analytical comparison of
monovarietal virgin olive oils obtained by both a continuous
industrial plant and a low-scale mill. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.
107, 93–100.
CHATZILAZAROU, A., GORTZI, O., LALAS, S., ZOIDIS, E. and
TSAKNIS, J. 2006. Physicochemical changes of olive oil and
selected vegetable oils during frying. J. Food Lipids 13,
27–35.
CHEMAN, Y.B. and WANHUSSIN, W.R. 1998. Comparison of
the frying performance of refined, bleached and deodorized
palm oleic and coconut oil. J. Food Lipids 5, 197–210.
CHEN, W., CHIU, C.P., CHENG, W.-C., HSU, C.K. and KUO1,
M. 2013. Total polar compounds and acid values of repeatedly
used frying oils measured by standard and rapid methods. J.
Food Drug Anal. 21, 58–65.
CHEN, Y., CHEN, Y., YANG, Y., NIE, S., YANG, X., WANG, Y.,
YANG, M., CHANG, L. and XIE, M. 2014. The analysis of
tras-fatty acids profile in deep frying palm oil and chicken
fillets with an improved gas-chromatography method. Food
Control 44, 191–197.
CHOE, E. and MIN, D.B. 2007. Chemistry of deep-fat frying
oils. J. Food Sci. 72, 77–86.
CHOUDHARY, M. and GROVER, K. 2013. Effect of deep-fat
frying on physicochemical properties of rice bran oil blends.
IOSR J. Nurs. Health Sci. (IOSR-JNHS) 1, 1–10.
CHU, Y.H. and HSU, H.F. 2001. Comparative studies of
different heat treatments on quality of fried shallots and their
frying oils. Food Chem. 75, 37–42.
CLARK, W.L. and SERBIA, G.W. 1991. Safety aspects of frying
fats and oils. Food Technol. 45, 84–89.
COULTATE, T.P. 1989. “FOOD, the Chemistry of Its
Components”. Royal Society of Chemistry Paperbacks, Second
Ed.
DEBNATH, S., BHAT, K.K. and RASTOGI, N.K. 2003. Effect of
pre drying on kinetics of moisture loss and oil uptake during
deep-fat frying of chickpea flour based snack food. Food Sci.
Technol. 36, 91–96.
DEBNATH, S., RASTOGI, N.K., GOPAL KRISHNA, A.G. and
LOKESH, B.R. 2009. Oil partitioning between surface and
structure of potato slices-a kinetic study. Food Sci. Technol.
42, 1054–1058.
DEBNATH, S., RASTOGI, N.K., KRISHNA, A.G.G. and
LOKESH, B.R. 2012. Effect of frying cycles on physical,
chemical and heat transfer quality of rice bran oil during
deep-fat frying of poori: An Indian traditional fried food.
Food Bioprod. Process. 90, 249–256.
FARID, M.M. 2001. A unified approach to the heat and mass
transfer in melting, solidification, frying and different drying
processes. Chem. Eng. Sci. 56, 5419–5427.
FORMO, M.W., JUGERMANN, E., NORRIS, F.A. and
SONNTAG, N.O.V. 1979. Physical properties of fats and fatty
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
acid. In Bailey Industrial Oil and Fat Products, Vol 1, 4th Ed.
(D. Swern, ed.) pp. 177–232, John Wiley and sons, New York.
FREGA, N., MOZZAN, M. and LERCKER, G. 1999. Effect of
free fatty acids on oxidative stability of vegetable oil. J.Am Oil
Chem. Soc. 76, 325–329.
GERTZ, C., KLOSTERMANN, S. and KOCHHAR, S.P. 2000.
Testing and comparing oxidative stability of vegetable oils and
fats at frying temperature. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 102,
543–551.
GHOSH, P.K., CHATTERJEE, D. and BHATTACHARJEE, P.
2012. Alternative methods of frying and antioxidant stability
in soybean oil. Adv. J. Food Sci. Technol. 4, 26–33.
GUILLEN, M.D. and CABO, N. 2000. Some of the most
significant changes in the Fourier transform infrared spectra
of edible oils under oxidative conditions. J. Sci. Food Agric.
80, 2028–2036.
GUNSTONE, F.D. 2008. Chapter 8, Oils and Fats in the Food
Industry, 1st Ed., Wiley-Blackwell., Dundee, UK.
GUPTA, M.K. 2005. Frying oils. In Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat
Products, Vol 4, 6th Ed. (F. Shahidi, ed.) pp. 1–31, John Wiley
& Sons., New Jersey.
HALLIWELL, B. and GUTTERIDGE, J.M.C. 1984. Oxygen
toxicity, oxygen radicals, transition metals and disease.
Biochem. J. 218, 1–14.
HASSANIEN, M.F.R. and SHAROBA, A.M. 2014. Rheological
characteristics of vegetable oils as affected by deep frying of
French fries. J. Food Meas. Character. 8, 171–179.
HOWARTH, O.W. and VLAHOV, G. 1996. 13C Nuclear
magnetic resonance study of cyclopropenoid triacylglycerol.
Chem. Phys. Lipids 81, 81–85.
HUBBARD, L.J. and FARKAS, B.E. 1999. A method for
determining convective heat transfer coefficient during
immersion frying. J. Food Process Eng. 22, 201–214.
IRWANDI, J., CHEMAN, Y.B. and KITTS, D.D. 2000. Synergistic
effect of rosemary and sage extracts and citric acid on fatty
acid retention of RBD palm olein during deep-fat frying. J.
Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 77, 527–533.
ISMAIL, R. 2005. Palm oil and palm olein frying applications.
Asia Pac. J. Clin. Nutr. 14, 414–419.
JORGE, N., MÁRQUEZ-RUÍZ, G., MARTÍN-POLVILLO, M.,
RUÍZ-MÉNDEZ, M.V. and DOBARGANES, M.C. 1996.
Influence of dimethylpolysiloxane addition to frying oils:
Performance of sunflower oil in discontinuous and
continuous laboratory frying. Grasas y Aceites. 47, 20–25.
KALOGEROPOULOS, N., SALTA, F.N., CHIOU, A. and
ANDRIKOPOULOS, N.K. 2007. Formation and distribution
of oxidized fatty acids during deep- and pan-frying of
potatoes. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109, 1111–1123.
KALOGIANNI, E.P., KARAPANTSIOS, T.D. and MILLER, R.
2011. Effect of repeated frying on the viscosity, density and
dynamic interfacial tension of palm and olive oil. J. Food Eng.
105, 169–179.
KASSAMA, L.A. 2003. Thesis on Pore development in food
during deep fat frying. Department of Bio-resource
Engineering, Macgill University, Canada.
17
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
KETAONA, A.D.A., CLERGE, T. and BERTRAND, N.G. 2013.
Quality of Ricinodendron heudelotii (bail.) Pierre ex pax seeds
oil as affected by heating. Int. J. Eng. Res. Sci. Technol. 2,
94–100.
KIM, J., KIM, D.N., LEE, S.H., YOO, S.H. and LEE, S. 2010.
Correlation of fatty acids composition of vegetable soil with
rheological behaviour and oil uptake. Food Chem. 118,
398–402.
LALAS, S. 2009. Quality of frying oil. In Advances in Deep-Fat
Frying of Foods (S. Sahin and S.G. Sumnu, eds) pp. 57–80,
CRC Press., Boca Raton, Florida.
LALAS, S., GORTZI, O. and TSAKNIS, J. 2006. Frying stability
of Moringa stenopetala seed oil. Plant Foods Hum. Nutr. 61,
99–108.
LAWSON, H.W. 1995. A Book on Food Oils and Fats: Technology,
Utilization, and Nutrition, Springer, New York.
LIOUMBAS, J.S., AMPATZIDIS, C. and KARAPANTSIOS, T.D.
2012. Effect of potato deep-fat frying conditions on
temperature dependence of olive oil and palm oil viscosity. J.
Food Eng. 113, 217–225.
LIST, G.R., EVANS, C.D.E., KWOLEK, W.F., WARNER, K. and
BOUNDY, B.K. 1974. Oxidation and quality of soybean oil: A
preliminary study of the anisidine test. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc.
51, 17–21.
MALLET, J.F., GAYDOU, E.M. and ARCHAVLIS, A. 1990.
Determination of petroselinic acid in Umbelliflorae seed oils
by combined GC and 13C NMR spectroscopy analysis. J. Am.
Oil Chem. Soc. 67, 607–610.
MAN, C. and HUSSAIN, W. 1998. Comparison of frying and
performance of refined bleached and deodorised palm oliein
and coconut oil. J. Food Lipids 5, 197–210.
MARIANA, R.R., KIRANA, T.M. and HIDAYATI, L. 2014.
Analysis on the quality change of tempeh, catfish and fried
chicken as the effect of the repetitive used cooking oil. J. Food
Res. 3, 95–104.
MARINOVA, E.M., SEIZOVA, K.A., TOTSEVA, I.R.,
PANAYOTOVA, S.S., MAREKOV, I.N. and MOMCHILOVA,
S.M. 2012. Oxidative changes in some vegetable oils during
heating at frying temperature. Bulg. Chem. Commun. 44,
57–63.
MARMESAT, S., VELASCO, J. and DOBARGANES, M.C. 2008.
Quantitative determination of epoxy acids, keto acids and
hydroxyl acids formed in fat and oils at frying temeperature. J.
Chromatogr. A. 1211, 129–134.
MARMESAT, S., MORALES, A., VELASCO, J. and
DOBARGANES, M.C. 2010. Action and fate of natural and
synthetic antioxidants during frying. Grasas Y Aceites, 61(4),
333–340.
MASKAN, M. 2003. Change in colour and rheological behaviour
of sunflower seed oil during frying and after adsorbent
treatment of used oil. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 218,
20–25.
MELLEMA, M. 2003. Mechanisms and reduction of fat uptake
in deep-fat fried foods. Trends Food Sci. Technol. 14,
364–373.
18
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
MELTON, S.L., JAFAR, S., SYKES, D. and TRIGIANO, M.K.
1994. Review of stability measurements for frying oils and
fried food flavour. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 71, 1301–1308.
MISTRY, B. and MIN, D.B. 1992. Oxidized flavor compounds in
edible oils. Developments in Food Science (Netherlands).
MOHAMED, F.R., MOHAMED, M.A.A. and
ABD EL-RAHMAN, M.S. 2006. Correlation between
physicochemical analysis and radical scavenging activity of
vegetable oil blends as affected by frying of French fries. Eur.
J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 108, 670–678.
MUHIZI, T., GRELIER, S. and COMA, V. 2009. Synthesis and
antibacterial activity of aminodeoxyglucose derivatives against
Listeria innocua and Salmonella typhimurium. J. Agric. Food
Chem. 57, 8770–8775.
NAWAR, W. 2007. Lipids. In Fennema’s Food Chemistry, 4th Ed.
(O. Fennema, ed.) pp. 156–216, Marcel Decker., New
York.
NAZ, S., SIDDIQI, R., SHEIKH, H. and SAYEED, S.A. 2005.
Deterioration of olive, corn and soybean oils due to air, light,
heat and deep-frying. Food Res. Int. 38, 127–134.
NOR, F.M., MOHAMMED, S., IDRIS, N.A. and ISMAIL, R.
2008. Antioxidative properties of Pandanus amaryllifolius leaf
extracts in accelerated oxidation and deep frying studies. Food
Chem. 110, 319–327.
NORMAND, L., ESKIN, N.A.M. and PRZYBYLSKI, R. 2001.
Effect of tocopherols on the frying stability of regular and
modified canola oils. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 78, 369–373.
NZIKOU, J.M., MATOS, L., MOUSSOUNGA, J.E., NDANGUI,
C.B., PAMBOU-TOBI, N.P., BANDZOUZ, I.,
KIMBONGUILA, A., LINDER, M. and DESOBRY, S. 2009.
Study of oxidative and thermal stability of vegetable oils
during frying. Res. J. Appl. Sci. 4, 94–100.
OSAWA, C.C., GONÇALVES, L.A.G., GUMERATO, H.F. and
MINCAUS, F.C.M. 2012. Study of the effectiveness of the
quick tests based on physical properties for the evaluation of
used frying oil. Food Cont. 26, 525–530.
PAQUAT, C. and HAUTFENNE, A. 1987. Standard Methods for
the Analysis of Oils and Fats and Derivatives, 7th Ed., Blackwell
Scientific Publishers Ltd., Oxford.
PENNER, M. 2003. Ultraviolet, visible and fluorescence
spectroscopy. In Food Analysis, 3rd Ed. (S.S. Nielsen, ed.) pp.
387–405, Springer Science and Business Media, NY.
PERKINS, E.G. 1967. Formation of non-volatile decomposition
products in heated fats and oils. Food Technol. 21,
611–616.
PINEDA, M.M., FERRER-MAIRAL, A., VERCET, A. and
YAGÜE, C. 2011. Physicochemical characterization of changes
in different vegetable oils (olive and sunflower) under several
frying conditions. CjTA-J. Food. 9, 301–306.
POKORNY, J. 1989. Flavour chemistry of deep fat frying in oil.
In Flavor Chemistry of Lipid Food, 1st Ed., (D.B. Min and T.H.
Smouse, eds) pp. 113–115, The American Oil Chemists’
Society, Champaign, IL.
RAMADAN, M.F., KROH, L.W. and MOERSEL, J.T. 2003.
Radical scavenging activity of black cumin (Nigella sativa L.),
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
coriander (Coriandrum sativum L.) and niger (Guizotia
abyssinica Cass.) crude seed oils and oil fractions. J. Agric.
Food Chem. 51, 6961–6969.
RANGANA, S. 2005. Handbook of Analysis and Quality Control,
2nd Ed., Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company Limited,
New delhi, India.
RAZALI, I., FAUZIAH, A. and NOR, A.I.N.I.S. 1999. Quality of
potato chips fried in palm olein and high oleic sunflower oil
during batch frying. Proceedings of the 1999 PORIM
International Palm Oil Congress. 99–103.
ROSSELL, J.B. 1983. Measurement of rancidity. In Rancidity in
Foods, 3rd Ed. (J.C. Allen and R.J. Hamilton, eds) pp. 21–45,
Applied Science Publishers, London.
RUSSIN, T.V. and SEDMAN, J. 2004. Rapid determination of
oxidative stability of edible oils by FTIR spectroscopy using
disposable IR cards. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 81, 111–116.
SACCHI, R., ADDEO, F., GUIDICIANNI, I. and PAOLILLO, L.
1989. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the
analysis of olive oils. Riv. Ital. Sostanz. Grasse. 67,
245–252.
SAMAH, S.M.A. and FYKA, E.S. 2002. Improving the frying
characteristics of cottonseed oil by blending with apricot
kernel oil. In 4th Food quality conference, Alexandria:
COMIBASSAL.
SANGLE, M.D. and DAPTARE, A.S. 2014. Studies on the
chemical properties of sunflower, sesame and groundnut oils.
Int. J. Adv. Sci. Technol. Res. 4, 568–580.
SANTOS, J.C.O. et al. 2004. Thermo analytical, kinetic, and
rheological parameters of commercial edible oils. J. Therm.
Anal. Calorim. 75, 419–428.
SANTOS, J.C.O., SANTOS, I.M.G. and SOUZA, A.G. 2005.
Effect of heating and cooling on rheological parameters of
edible vegetable oil. J. Food Eng. 67, 401–405.
SAXENA, A. 2014. Re-using cooking oil is a recipe for harmful
trans-fats, experts warns, Popular Article, Mail Online, 13th
November.
SEBASTIAN, A., GHAZANI, S.M. and MARANGONI, A.G.
2014. Quality and safety of frying oils used in restaurants.
Food Res. Int. 64, 420–423.
SEBEDIO, J.L., KAITARANTA, J., GRANDGIRARD, A. and
MALKKI, Y. 1991. Quality assessment of industrial pre-fried
French fries. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 68, 299–302.
SHAKER, M.A. 2014. Air frying a new technique for produce of
healthy fried potato strips. J. Food Nutr. Sci. 2, 200–206.
SHARAV, O., SHIM, Y.Y., OKINYO-OWITI, D.P.,
SAMMYNAIKEN, R. and REANEY, M.J.T. 2014. Effect of
cyclolinopeptides on the oxidative stability of Flaxseed oil. J.
Agric. Food Chem. 62, 88–96.
SHAROVA, A.M. and RAMADAN, M.F. 2012. Impact of frying
on fatty acid profile and rheological behaviour of some
vegetable oil. J. Food Process. Technol. 3, 161. doi:
10.4172/2157-7110.1000161.
SHUKLA, V.K.S. and BHATTACHARYA, K. 2004. Enhancing
stability of natural oils and butters with rosemary extracts.
Cosmet. Toiletries Mag. 119, 5–6.
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
DEEP FRYING OF OIL
SILVAGNI, A., FRANCO, L., BAGNO, A. and RASTRELLI, F.
2010. Thermo induced lipid oxidation of culinary oil: A
kinetic study of the oxidation products by magnetic
resonance spectroscopies. J. Phys. Chem. A. 114, 10059–10065.
SOON, N.G. 1984. High Field 13C Nuclear magnetic resonance
spectrum of the olefinic carbons of the triglycerides of
soybean oil. Lipids 19, 56–62.
SOON, N.G. 1985. High field 13C nuclear magnetic resonance
spectrum of the olifinic carbons of the tri-glycerides of palm
oil. Lipids 20, 778–782.
SON, STANDARD ORGANIZATION OF NIGERIA. 2000.
Standards for edible refined palm oil and its processed form.
4, 2–5.
SULIEMAN, M.E., EL-MAKHZANGI, A. and RAMADAN, M.F.
2006. Antiradical performance and physicochemical
characteristics of vegetable oils upon frying French fries: A
preliminary comparative study. J. Food Lipids 13, 259–276.
TAKEOKA, G.R., FULL, G.H. and DAO, L.T. 1997. The effect of
heating on the characteristics and chemical composition of
selected frying oils and fats. J. Agric. Food Chem. 45, 3244–3249.
TARLADGIS, B.G., PEARSON, A.M. and DUGAN, L.R. 1964.
Chemistry of the 2-thiobarbuturic acid test for determination
of oxidative rancidity in foods. J. Sci. Food Agric. 15, 602–607.
TARMIZI, A.H., NIRANJAN, K. and GORDON, M. 2013.
Physicochemical changes occurring in oil when atmospheric
frying is combined with post frying vacuum application. Food
Chem. 136, 902–908.
TSAKNIS, J., LALAS, S. and PROTOPAPA, E. 2002. Effectiveness
of the antioxidants BHA and BHT in selected vegetable oils
during intermittent heating. Grasas y Aceites. 53, 199–205.
URBANCIC, S., KOLAR, M.H., DIMITRIJEVI, D., DEMSAR, L.
and VIDRIH, R. 2014. Stabilization of sun flower oil and
reduction of acrylamide formation of potato with rosemary
extract during deep-fat frying. LWT – Food Sci. Technol. 57,
671–678.
URIARTE, P.S. and GUILLEN, M.D. 2010. Formation of toxic
alkyl benzenes in edible oils submitted to frying temperature.
Influence of oil composition in main components and heating
time. Food Res. Int. 43, 2161–2170.
VALDES, A.F. and GARCIA, A.B. 2006. A study of the evolution
of the physicochemical and structural characteristics of olive
and sun flower oils after heating at frying temperatures. Food
Chem. 98, 214–219.
VIEIRA, T.M.F.S. and REGITANO-D’ARCE, M.A.B. 1999.
Ultraviolet spectro photometric evaluation of corn oil
oxidative stability during microwave heating and oven test. J.
Agric. Food Chem. 47, 2203–2206.
WAI, T.W., SAAD, B. and LIM, P.B. 2009. Determination of
TOTOX value in palm olein using a F1-potentiometric
analyser. Food Chem. 11, 285–290.
WARNER, K. and MOSER, J. 2009. Frying stability of purified
Mid-oleic sunflower oil triacylglycerols and tocopherol
mixtures. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 86, 1199–1207.
WHITE, P.J. 1991. An overview of methods for measuring
changes in deep-fat frying oils. Food Technol. 45, 75–80.
19
 DEEP FRYING OF OIL
XU, X.Q., TRANCH, P.M., WHITE, K. and SALISBURY, P. 1999.
Chemical and physical analysis and sensory evaluation of six
deep frying oil. J. Am. Oil Chem. Soc. 76, 1091–1099.
YAW, O.S. 2013. A thesis on Thesis on fried oil quality
improvement and control of acrylamide formation using
whole plant extracts from Renealmia battenbergiana. Kwame
Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Department
of Food Sc. & Tech.
20
View publication stats
P.K. NAYAK ET AL.
ZAHIR, E., REHANA, S., MEHWISH, H.A. and ANJUM, Y.
2014. Study of physiochemical properties of edible oil and
evaluation of frying oil quality by Fourier transform-Infrared
(FT-IR) Spectroscopy. Arab. J. Chem.
ZHANG, Y., WU, W.Z., WU, X.Q., ZHANG, X.L. and ZHANG,
Y. 2007. Addition of antioxidant from bamboo leaves as an
effective way to reduce the formation of acryl amide in fried
chicken wings. Food Addit. Contam. 24, 242–251.
Journal of Food Biochemistry •• (2015) ••–•• © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.