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Journal of Food Quality ISSN 1745-4557

EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON THE OIL UPTAKE,

TEXTURAL PROPERTIES AND COOKING QUALITY OF INSTANT
FRIED NOODLES
NEELAM GULIA and BHUPENDAR SINGH KHATKAR1
Department of Food Technology, Guru Jambheshwar University of Science and Technology, Hisar, Haryana 125001, India

1
Corresponding author. ABSTRACT
TEL: 01662263313;
FAX: 01662-263313; Five processing variables comprising mixing time, dough sheet thickness, steam-
EMAIL: bskhatkar@yahoo.co.in ing time, frying temperature and frying time were investigated to determine their
effect on oil uptake, cooking quality, textural properties and overall acceptability
Received for Publication May 26, 2012
of instant fried noodles using response surface methodology. Models capable of
Accepted for Publication February 27, 2013
predicting the quality of instant noodles were derived. Processing variables were
10.1111/jfq.12029 found to play a decisive role in determining noodle quality. Higher mixing time
was found associated with improved cooked weight but was not much desirable
for noodle preparation in laboratory as it resulted in crumblier dough leading to
higher oil uptake along with an increase in cooking loss. Thinner noodles contrib-
uted to higher overall acceptability and a lower cooking time though increased oil
uptake in noodles. For best noodle quality, the optimized values were 4.0 min,
1.2 mm, 6.4 min, 142C, 2.0 min for processing variables mixing time, dough sheet
thickness, steaming time, frying temperature and frying time, respectively.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Instant noodle is the most enjoyed product not only in China, Japan, Korea and
Indonesia but in developing countries also. Preparation of instant noodles
involves many steps, which have been investigated for their effect on the quality
and acceptability of the product. Process variables have been found to be associ-
ated with the oil uptake, cooking, as well as textural quality, which are the impor-
tant parameters determining the quality of instant fried noodles. The research
implications may be utilized both by industry personnel as well as researchers to
monitor the process steps accordingly and attain a better product.

crucial effect on the appearance, eating quality, oil uptake

INTRODUCTION
Instant noodles are steamed and fried strands cut from
sheeted dough prepared by wheat (Triticum aestivum) flour,
water, common salt and a mixture of alkaline salts as the
main ingredients (Hou and Kruk 1998). Noodles have long
been a favorite and staple food among the people of China,
Japan, Korea and Indonesia (Kim 1996a; Kubomura 1998;
Shin and Kim 2003; Fu 2008). Instant noodles are currently
consumed and enjoyed worldwide because of convenience,
ease of cooking, widely acceptable taste, flavor, as well as
affordable prices (Fu 2008; Wina 2011). Preparation of
instant noodles consists of many steps like mixing, sheeting,
resting, cutting, steaming and frying, which may have a
and consumer acceptability of the resultant product (Hou
2001). Scientists have attempted to study the role of some
processing parameters; however, more of the studies have
been carried out for dry noodles, Chinese wet noodles,
instant dried noodle and spaghetti (Oh et al. 1985; Shelke
et al. 1990; Debbouz and Doetkott 1996; Guo et al. 2004;
Pronyk et al. 2008a,b). Studies done on instant noodles have
demonstrated a wide variation in the use of processing vari-
ables for preparation of instant noodles such as frying
temperature-time combination (Park and Baik 2004; Yu and
Ngadi 2004; Wu et al. 2006). Therefore, in this study, an
effort has been made to analyze the cumulative effect of
process parameters including mixing time, dough sheet

Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 181
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY
thickness, steaming time, frying temperature and frying
time on the quality attributes of instant fried noodles.
Understanding the effect of process parameters will be
crucial for controlling these factors for attaining better
noodle quality.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Materials
Commercial wheat flour obtained from the local market was
used to prepare instant noodles. The flour was analyzed for
moisture content (14.2%), ash content (0.58%), falling no.
(713 s), protein content (11.0%), dry gluten content (9.3%)
and gluten index (79.8) using approved AACC (2000)
methods. Sodium dodecyl sulphate sedimentation volume of
the flour was determined to be 41 mL according to Axford
et al. (1979). Guar gum, sodium chloride and alkaline salts,
i.e., sodium carbonate and potassium carbonate used as
ingredients during preparation of noodles were of analytical
grade from HiMedia Chemicals (Mumbai, India).
Methods
Preparation of Instant Noodles. The instant noodles
were prepared using the standardized ingredient formulation,
i.e., water, alkaline salt, guar gum and salt 30.97, 0.23, 0.28
and 1.54%, respectively. The processing conditions were
varied (Table 1) and levels were selected on the basis of previ-
ous studies (Park and Baik 2004; Yu and Ngadi 2004; Wu
et al. 2006). Response surface methodology (RSM) generated
47 different combinations of processing conditions and
noodles were processed accordingly (elaborated under
experimental design). The wheat flour (100 g, on 14% m.b.)
and water containing dissolved salts and guar gum were
mixed thoroughly using a mixer (Kitchen Aid, Benton
Harbor, MI) at medium speed. The crumbly dough obtained
was then formed into sheet using noodle machine (ATLAS,
Marcato, Italy) by passing it through roll no. 1 (3.2 mm) four
times and folding in half each time. The dough sheet formed
was divided into two halves and rested for 10 min in ziplock
pouches. The dough sheet was then passed five times through
roller unit attachment with the regulating knob set at posi-
tion no. 2 (2.5 mm), 3 (2.0 mm), 4 (1.5 mm), 5 (1.25 mm)
and 6 (1 mm), respectively, in order to attain the desired
Symbol Experimental factor Coded value Actual value
A Mixing time (min) -1 0 +1 4.0
B Dough sheet thickness (mm) -1 0 +1 1.0
C Steaming time (min) -1 0 +1 3.0
D Frying temperature (C) -1 0 +1 130.0
E Frying time (min) -1 0 +1 1.0
182
N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR
dough sheet thickness as per experiment design. The dough
sheet was again rested for 30 min in polybag to avoid any
moisture loss. The dough sheet was then cut through the
cutter attachment. The resulting noodle strands were steamed
in a preheated (100C) steamer (Rice Cooker-Ultimate,
UL-255, China). The steamed noodle strips were placed in
a wire basket and immersed in oil (Refined soya bean oil,
Nutrela Soyumm, Ruchi Soya Industries Ltd., Indore, India)
at temperature and time combination obtained using RSM
in a deep fat fryer (Friendz-FZ 591, China). The fried noodle
strips were cooled for 15 min and excess oil was drained from
the surface. The samples were then stored in plastic bags for
further analysis.
Oil Uptake. Oil uptake in noodles was analyzed according
to Approved Method 30-25 (AACC 2000) using fat extractor.
The fried noodles were uniformly ground using a pestle
mortar. Fat extraction was performed with petroleum ether
using a solvent extractor (SER148, Velp Scientifica, Usmate,
Italy). Three replications were made for each measurement
and the mean was taken for data analysis. Results of oil uptake
have been reported as % on dry basis as it provide a consistent
basis for comparison (Moreno and Bouchon 2008).
Cooking Quality. Fried instant noodle strands (10 g)
were added to 500 mL of boiling water in a beaker. The fried
instant noodles were cooked to the optimum cooking time
until the white inner core gelatinized according to the
method of Oh et al. (1983). After cooking, the noodles were
cooled in running tap water for 1 min. The drained noodles
were wiped to remove excess water from their surface, then
weighed and stored in a covered Petri plate at room tem-
perature (25C) for 5 min before the texture analysis, while
the water left after cooking along with rinsings was collected
and an aliquot of 50 mL was evaporated in oven at 100C
until constant weight to determine cooking loss. Results
have been reported as % weight loss during cooking. The
gain in noodle weight after cooking was recorded as cooked
weight according to the method of Beta and Corke (2001).
Texture Analysis. Texture measurements were carried
out using Texture Analyser (Stable Micro Systems TA-XT 2i,
Godalming, U.K.). The instrument was calibrated using 5 kg
load cell and the distance was 15 mm. The settings were as
follows: mode setting was on texture profile analysis; pretest
TABLE 1. LEVELS OF EXAMINED PROCESSING
VARIABLES ACCORDING TO BOX–BEHNKEN
8.0 12.0 RSM DESIGN
1.2 1.5
5.0 7.0
140.0 150.0
1.5 2.0
Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR
speed, test speed and post-test speed were set to 2.0, 3.0
and 3.0 mm/s respectively; distance was 1 mm; trigger type
was set on auto 5 g; and the probe compression plate of
45 mm ¥ 30 mm was used. Five noodle strands were
arranged completely flat and as closely as possible to each
other. Three measurements were taken for each sample
using fresh sub samples for replications within 15 min after
cooking and the results have been presented as noodle hard-
ness in newton (N) obtained from the peak of the graph.
Overall Acceptability. Sensory analysis of cooked
noodles was carried out to determine the overall accep-
tability score. Five panel members trained previously for
assessing noodle characteristics using commercial noodle
samples (without including the flavorings) were selected
to conduct sensory analysis of instant noodles. Sensory
analysis was carried out using composite scoring method in
which scores were given to various quality characteristics of
the product, i.e., color (yellow – 15; amber – 10; milky – 5),
shape and appearance (smooth surface – 15; coarse surface
– 10; very coarse surface – 5), bite characteristics (very good
– 15; good – 10; poor – 5), chewiness (excellent – 15, good –
10, poor – 5), stickiness (nonsticky – 15, slightly sticky – 10,
very sticky – 5), taste (excellent – 15, good – 10, bland – 5)
and rehydration (very easy to rehydrate – 10, easy to rehy-
drate – 5, hard to rehydrate – 2). The mean total score
assigned out of 100 by panelists was averaged and used
to assess the overall acceptability of the product. Instant
noodles were cooked to their optimal cooking time prior to
assessment and presented in small sample cups labeled with
random codes. Ten samples were analyzed per day in two
batches. Blind replicates were also included to ensure proper
assessment of samples. Sensory evaluation was carried out
under white light at room temperature. Panelists were pro-
vided with water to clean their mouths between samples.
The samples were presented in random order and panelists
were asked to rate the samples on the basis of above men-
tioned anchor points for different quality attributes.
Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis. The
design and levels of factors studied are shown in Table 1. The
main advantage of using RSM was the ability to reduce
the number of experimental runs required to provide suffi-
cient information for statistically acceptable results. RSM was
chosen to build some mathematical models using Box–
Behnken design, making it possible to quantitatively interpret
and describe the relationship between process variables
and quality properties viz. oil uptake, cooking time, cooked
weight, cooking loss, hardness and overall acceptability
of instant noodles. The experiments were designed and
processed using Design Expert 8 software (Stat Ease, Inc.,
Minneapolis, MN). Experiments were conducted with five
independent variables (mixing time, dough sheet thickness,
Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY
steaming time, frying temperature and frying time) resulting
in 47 random combinations (including five center points)
according to Box–Behnken design. Responses were analyzed
using analysis of variance (ANOVA). Model obtained were
highly significant (P < 0.001) as indicated by their F values
(Table 2). Lack of fit for the response models in each case
was not significant indicating the validity of fitness of
models. Predicted equations for the responses were derived
using backward regression analysis in order to eliminate the
insignificant (P > 0.1) model terms (Table 3).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Effect of Processing Variables on the Oil
Uptake of Instant Noodles
Oil uptake during the frying process in instant noodles is
important in view that it imparts a distinct flavor, mouth-
feel and improves product acceptability. However, higher
oil uptake accounts for raising health concerns (Fu 2008).
Effect of processing variables showed a significant effect
on oil uptake of noodles, which varied from 18.8 to 26.1%
under various processing conditions used. A quadratic
model (R2 = 0.957) fitted for oil uptake was observed to be
highly significant (P < 0.001) with A, B, C, D, E, BC and D2
as significant model terms (Table 2). All the processing vari-
ables studied significantly affected the oil uptake in linear
terms (P < 0.001) along with the steaming time in interac-
tion with dough sheet thickness. However, frying tempera-
ture had a significant quadratic effect at P < 0.05. Mixing
time, frying temperature and frying time were positively
associated with oil uptake. On the contrary, dough sheet
thickness and steaming time negatively affected it (Table 3).
Krokida et al. (2000) have reported an increase in oil
content with longer frying times, especially for thinner
products, which has been related to the microstructure
developed during frying. Pinthus and Sam Saguy (1994)
have also stated that crust porosity increases with frying
time thus contributing to increased oil uptake. As evident
from the response surface graph (Fig. 1a), mixing time
slightly increased the oil uptake, while higher dough sheet
thickness considerably lowered the oil uptake. It can be con-
cluded from the graph that lower oil content in the noodle
can be achieved by practicing lower mixing time and higher
dough sheet thickness. The trend may be due to the expo-
sure of greater surface area during frying in thinner noodle
strands thereby exhibiting greater replacement of oil with
moisture removal.
Figure 1b describes the effect of frying conditions on oil
content of instant noodles prepared. It can be envisaged from
the graph that shorter frying time at lower frying tempera-
ture exhibits lower oil content in the instant noodles. On the
other hand, longer frying time at higher frying temperature
183
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR

TABLE 2. ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE FOR DIFFERENT RESPONSES STUDIED

Sourcea Oil uptake Cooking time Cooked weight Cooking loss Hardness Overall acceptability
F value
Model 27.86*** 12.13*** 28.79*** 52.65*** 63.27*** 35.88***
A 21.07*** 0.84 NS 1.30 NS 3.45 NS 21.12*** 1.25 NS
B 142.12*** 190.75*** 52.04*** 80.14*** 6.63* 94.37***
C 49.25*** 0.00 NS 0.59 NS 104.47*** 15.98*** 19.86***
D 269.81*** 1.84*** 3.57 NS 18.30*** 38.74*** 1.30 NS
E 20.29*** 0.82 NS 5.34* 59.53*** 102.74*** 84.75***
AB 0.90 NS 2.14 NS 3.08 NS 61.05*** 13.24*** 8.33**
AC 0.00 NS 0.82 NS 31.99*** 11.44** 0.18 NS 5.11*
AD 0.17 NS 3.26 NS 0.28 NS 75.11*** 5.15* 55.20***
AE 0.24 NS 0.00 NS 2.88 NS 10.05** 58.72*** 106.84***
BC 6.25* 0.00 NS 1.72 NS 19.70*** 2.33 NS 23.48***
BD 1.26 NS 0.50 NS 0.04 NS 21.63*** 0.00 NS 1.67 NS
BE 0.52 NS 1.20 NS 27.78*** 19.70*** 36.41*** 30.15***
CD 0.03 NS 1.28 NS 2.00 NS 190.54*** 249.07*** 27.93***
CE 1.96 NS 0.82 NS 1.00 NS 145.17*** 58.50*** 1.67 NS
DE 0.97 NS 4.00 NS 4.20* 6.43* 13.41*** 81.80***
A2 0.44 NS 0.06 NS 4.61* 76.07*** 12.21*** 52.85***
B2 3.41 NS 10.12* 182.79*** 21.58*** 86.80*** 30.25***
C2 0.15 NS 4.36* 119.02*** 1.14 NS 337.82*** 0.07 NS
D2 14.65*** 2.22 NS 245.73*** 78.40*** 303.71*** 48.22***
E2 1.65 NS 1.61 NS 1.25 NS 71.43*** 18.97*** 0.33 NS
Lack of fit 0.19 NS 3.20 NS 0.97 NS 1.43 NS 2.65 NS 0.14 NS
R2 0.957 0.907 0.958 0.977 0.981 0.966
Adjusted R2 0.923 0.832 0.925 0.958 0.965 0.939

* Significant at P < 0.05; ** significant at P < 0.01; *** significant at P < 0.001.
a
A = mixing time, B = dough sheet thickness, C = steaming time, D = frying temperature, E = frying time.
NS, not significant.

contributed to higher oil content. This trend may be sup- TABLE 3. PREDICTED EQUATION OBTAINED FOR DIFFERENT
ported by the fact that oil uptake during frying is generally RESPONSES USING REGRESSION ANALYSIS

proportional to the amount of moisture removed from
steamed noodles, which is further dependent on frying con-
ditions (Gamble et al. 1987). Frying temperature and time are
related; however, a clear effect of oil temperature on oil
uptake has not yet been understood (Bouchon 2009) as some
reports have shown an increase in oil uptake with higher
temperature (Nonaka et al. 1977). In contrast, other reports
have suggested no significant correlation (Gamble et al. 1987)
or decreased oil uptake with higher frying temperature
(Moreira et al. 1997; Bouchon et al. 2003). Particularly for
instant noodles, Kim (1996b) has reported a slight decrease
in oil uptake with frying temperature when fried for a con-
stant frying time but our results were not consistent with his
report. Moreover, it is also important to note that with the
higher frying temperature used, there will be more moisture
loss and we will get lower moisture content in the finished
product so on dry basis oil content will appear to be more as
compared to the noodles having higher moisture content.
Moreno and Bouchon (2008) had also supported that oil
content expressed as % on dry basis provides a more consis-
tent basis for comparison.
Predicted equation for the responses in terms of coded factorsa R2
Oil uptake = 22.95 + 0.66 A - 1.58 B - 0.94 C + 2.15 D + 0.944
0.58 E - 0.65 BC - 0.29 B2 - 0.59 D2
Cooking time = 2.63 + 0.05 A + 1.36 B + 0.03 0.875
C - 0.14 D + 0.09 E + 0.35 AD - 0.39 DE + 0.43 B2 + 0.20
C2 - 0.22 E2
Cooked weight = 188.18 - 0.88 A + 5.26 B + 0.70 0.943
C - 1.46 D + 1.65 E - 2.61 AB - 8.08 AC + 7.53 BE -
2.93 DE + 1.86 A2 + 13.09 B2 + 10.45 C2 + 15.03 D2
Cooking loss = 12.35 + 0.12 A - 0.54 B - 0.63 0.976
C + 0.26 D - 0.46 E + 1.02 AB + 0.40 AC + 1.03 AD - 0.38
AE + 5.53 BC - 0.55 BD - 0.53 BE - 1.87 CD + 1.43
CE + 0.30 DE + 0.73 A2 + 0.40 B2 + 0.75 D2 - 0.65 E2
Hardness = 42.83 - 1.23 A - 0.67 B - 1.05 C - 1.59 D + 2.57 0.979
E + 2.06 AB - 1.15 AD + 3.89 AE + 3.07 BE + 9.10
CD + 3.89 CE - 1.86 DE - 1.23 A2 + 3.27 B2 - 6.56
C2 - 6.11 D2 - 1.49 E2
Overall acceptability = 67.64 + 0.45 A - 3.88 B + 1.79 0.961
C - 0.45 D + 3.56 E + 2.54 AB - 1.75 AC - 5.75 AD - 8.00
AE - 3.75 BC + 4.25 BE + 4.66 CD + 7.00 DE - 3.97
A2 + 2.86 B2 - 3.81 D2
a
A = mixing time, B = dough sheet thickness, C = steaming time,
D = frying temperature, E = frying time.

184 Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR
a b
28.0
25.5
Oil uptake (%) o.d.b
23.0
20.5
18.0
1.5
1.4 10.0
1.3 8.0
1.1 6.0
B: Dough sheet thickness (mm) A: Mixing time (min)
1.0 4.0
FIG. 1. EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES (A) DOUGH SHEET THICKNESS AND MIXING TIME (B) FRYING TIME AND FRYING TEMPERATURE ON OIL
UPTAKE OF INSTANT NOODLES
Effect of Processing Variables on the
Cooking Quality of Instant Noodles
Cooking time, cooking loss and cooked weight are the
important parameters representing the cooking quality and
ease of preparation of instant noodles. The model obtained
for cooking time was observed to be significant (R2 = 0.907,
P < 0.001) with B, D, B2 and C2 as the main factors respon-
sible for the variation (1.15 to 5.00 min) in response. Dough
sheet thickness and frying temperature were found to
affect cooking time significantly (P < 0.001) in linear terms.
Dough sheet thickness and steaming time also exhibited
a significant (P < 0.05) quadratic effect. It was expected
because thicker noodles will take longer time for optimal
cooking. A similar trend is represented by the response
surface graph (Fig. 2a) for dough sheet thickness. In addi-
tion, mixing time had a nonsignificant effect on the cooking
time for noodles. As assessed from Table 3, frying condi-
tions, i.e., frying temperature and frying time, had a signifi-
cant effect on the cooking time as these determine the
degree of cooked portion of instant noodles. Frying also
imparts a porous texture to the noodles which facilitates
easy rehydration during cooking process. The importance
of frying conditions on cooking properties has also been
discussed by Kim (1996b).
Cooked weight was observed to be significantly
affected by B, E AC, BE, DE, A2, B2, C2 and D2 variable
terms (Table 2). Different processing variable combinations
resulted in a wide variation in cooked weight of noodles,
Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY
28.0
25.5
Oil uptake (%) o.d.b
23.0
20.5
18.0
12.0 2.0 150.0
1.8 145.0
1.5 140.0
1.3 135.0
E: Frying time (min) D: Frying temperature (C)
1.0 130.0
i.e., 183.2 to 226 g/100 g. Among the linear terms, dough
sheet thickness manifested the most significant increase in
cooked weight of noodles. It is depicted from Fig. 2b that
mixing and steaming time both contributed to an increase
in cooked weight. Although with steaming time, the cooked
weight was a bit constant for around 4 min, it increased
considerably when the noodles were steamed beyond 4 min.
It was found that when both steaming time and mixing time
were kept minimum or maximum, a lower cooked weight
was obtained. Therefore, in order to achieve a higher cooked
weight for noodles a combination of either higher mixing
time and lower steaming time or lower mixing time and
higher steaming time may be utilized. Noodle dough when
mixed for longer time becomes relatively drier in com-
parison to dough mixed for shorter time, which affects the
starch swelling properties during steaming process. The
dough/noodles with lower moisture content when steamed
for longer times may become drier, crumblier and subse-
quently have lower cooked weight. Similarly, if the noodles
have higher moisture content and steamed for lesser time,
the starch gelatinization would be insufficient which again
will contribute to a lower cooked weight. Hou (2001) has
also reported that starch undergoes greater gelatinization
and swelling during steaming when the noodle moisture
is higher, which may be linked to greater cooked weight at
extended steaming time.
As depicted in Fig. 2c, dough sheet thickness and mixing
time both resulted in a slight reduction in cooking loss.
However, at a constant mixing time, increase in dough
185
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR

a b
5.0 220.0

Cooking weight (g/100g)

4.1 210.0
Cooking time (min)

3.3 200.0

2.4 190.0

1.5 180.0

1.5 12.0 7.0 12.0

1.4 10.0 6.0 10.0
1.3
1.2 8.0 5.0 8.0
B: Dough sheet thickness (mm) 1.1 6.0 A: Mixing time (min) C: Steaming time (min) 4.0 6.0 A: Mixing time (min)
1.0 4.0 3.0 4.0
c
d

16.0
14.5
14.5
Cooking loss (%)

Cooking loss (%)

13.0
13.0

11.5 11.5

10.0 10.0

1.5 12.0 2.0 7.0

1.4 10.0 1.8 6.0
1.3 8.0 1.5 5.0
B: Dough sheet thickness (mm)1.1 6.0 E: Frying time (min) 1.3 4.0 C: Steaming time (min)
A: Mixing time (min)
1.0 4.0 1.0 3.0

FIG. 2. EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON THE COOKING QUALITY OF INSTANT NOODLES

sheet thickness enhanced the cooking loss, while at a con-
stant dough sheet thickness lower mixing time appears
to be helpful in reducing the cooking loss. It can be
accounted for the reason that longer mixing results in a
more crumbly and drier dough (because of lower moisture
content in noodle dough), which is difficult to adhere and
thus may lead to higher cooking loss. Also, thicker noodles
need more time to be cooked to their optimal point and
thus undergo a greater exposure of noodle surface to the
boiling water, which degrades its surface properties leading
to higher cooking loss. It has been observed that cooking
time ranged from 5 min for thicker noodles to only 1 min
and 15 s for the thinner noodles. Figure 2d showed that
there was a considerable decrease in cooking loss with
longer frying and steaming time. This might be due to the
reason that both steaming and frying time contribute
toward the structure formation in noodles as a result of
gelatinization of starch and denaturation of proteins, thus
higher values of both lead to greater structural integrity
and lower cooking loss.
Effect of Processing Variables on the
Textural Properties of Instant Noodles
A firm and elastic bite is preferred for instant noodles
(Kim 1996b; Kubomura 1998; Hou 2001). Hardness of
cooked instant noodles ranged from 22.4 to 49.2 N and
was observed to be significantly affected by A, C, D, E, AB,
BE, CD CE and DE terms at P < 0.001, whereas B and AD
affected the response significantly at P < 0.05 (Table 2). In
the linear terms, all processing variables were found to
be negatively associated with hardness except frying time
(Table 3). Frying induces changes in physical as well as
chemical properties of food including gelatinization of

186 Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY

a b

42.5 72.5

Overall acceptability
35.0 65.0
Hardness (N)

27.5 57.5

20.0 50.0

2.0 7.0 2.0 1.5

1.8 6.0 1.8 1.4
1.5 5.0 1.5 1.3
1.3 4.0 1.3 1.1 B: Dough sheet thickness (mm)
E: Frying time (min) C: Steaming time (min) E: Frying time (min)
1.0 3.0 1.0 1.0

FIG. 3. EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES (A) FRYING TIME AND STEAMING TIME ON HARDNESS (B) FRYING TIME AND DOUGH SHEET THICK-
NESS ON OVERALL ACCEPTABILITY OF INSTANT NOODLES

starch, denaturation of proteins, water vaporization as well contributed toward improved noodle acceptability. This
as crust formation, which improve the textural properties may be due to the fact that thinner noodles require shorter
of fried products (Singthong and Thongkaew 2009). As cooking time as well as provided a better mouthfeel as
illustrated by the response surface interaction (Fig. 3a) compared to the thicker counterparts. Also, frying pro-
of frying time and steaming time, hardness of cooked vides unique organoleptic characteristics to the food by
noodles increased slightly up to 5 min of steaming time. enhancing its flavor, texture and appearance (Dana and
However, further steaming had a negative impact on the Saguy 2006), thus, responsible for greater acceptability of
hardness values, whereas frying time improved the hard- product.
ness of cooked noodles under constant steaming time.
Longer steaming time contribute to greater starch swelling,
Numerical Optimization of Process Variables
which might result in softer noodles. It is also evident
from the graph that higher hardness values for cooked Numerical optimization was done for obtaining the optimal
noodles can be attained at longer frying time and around levels of processing variables studied. The selection criteria
4.5 to 5.5 min of steaming. Pinthus and Sam Saguy (1994) for responses oil uptake, cooking loss and cooking time
have also stated that crust porosity linearly increase with were kept toward a lower range as higher values are not
frying time and thicker porous crust improves the hard- desirable; product overall acceptability was set toward
ness of the product. maximum, while hardness and cooked weight were kept in a
desirable higher range in order to attain solution with best
quality. It is pertinent to mention that for instant noodles,
Effect of Processing Variables on the Overall
firm and elastic noodles are desirable. As mentioned earlier
Acceptability of Instant Noodles
under effect of processing variables on textural properties,
ANOVA analysis specified that the second-order quadratic hardness values ranged from 22.4 to 49.2 N for different
model obtained for overall acceptability was significant combinations of processing variables studied. For numerical
(R2 = 0.966; P < 0.001) and also outlined the variable optimization, the preferred noodle hardness was kept
terms having a significant effect on the response (Table 2). between 35 and 45 N in order to eliminate the combina-
Overall acceptability score representing the overall quality tions providing extra soft or extra hard noodles. Four differ-
of noodles varied considerably from 52 to 80 for the differ- ent solutions were obtained, which have been mentioned
ent process variable combination. Higher mixing time, in Table 4. The solution no. 2 with optimized values
steaming time and frying time were found to be associated 4.0 min, 1.2 mm, 6.4 min, 142C, 2.0 min for processing
with greater overall acceptability score (Table 3). It was variables mixing time, dough sheet thickness, steaming
revealed from the response surface graph (Fig. 3b) that time, frying temperature and frying time, respectively, was
a lower dough sheet thickness and longer frying time selected because it had favored higher overall acceptability

Journal of Food Quality 36 (2013) 181–189 © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. 187
EFFECT OF PROCESSING VARIABLES ON NOODLE QUALITY N. GULIA and B.S. KHATKAR

TABLE 4. SUGGESTED OPTIMUM LEVELS OF

Optimum value of process variablesa Predicted response values
S. PROCESSING VARIABLES AND PREDICTED
no. A B C D E OU CT CW CL HD OA DES VALUE OF RESPONSES
1. 10.7 1.2 4.6 135 1.0 21.5 1.9 192.8 12.7 35.4 74.6 0.705
2. 4.0 1.2 6.4 142 2.0 22.1 2.3 202.8 12.3 39.2 80.0 0.576
3. 4.1 1.2 6.5 141 2.0 22.1 2.3 203.3 12.4 39.0 80.0 0.567
4. 4.0 1.2 5.9 138 2.0 22.1 2.4 196.8 13.0 39.6 74.9 0.518

a A = mixing time, B = dough sheet thickness, C = steaming time, D = frying temperature,

E = frying time.
OU, oil uptake (% o.d.b); CT, cooking time (min); CW, cooked weight (g/100 g); CL, cooking loss
(%); HD, hardness (N); OA, overall acceptability score; DES, desirability.

along with acceptable cooking quality, textural hardness and

oil uptake. Instant noodles were prepared using the opti-
mized processing conditions and actual response values
were obtained, which were found to be in a good agreement
with the predicted response values (Table 5), thus, validat-
ing the optimal levels of processing variables.
CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded from the study that process has a crucial
influence on the quality of instant noodles as indicated
by the wide variation among response values obtained
for various combination of processing variables obtained
through RSM. It was observed that higher mixing time
although reduced the steaming time, frying temperature
and frying time, but at the laboratory scale preparation of
noodles, the dough became more crumbly, and thus, not
very much desirable. Also, it was found that noodle thick-
ness is very important for determining the noodle quality
as thinner noodles had a very less cooking time and high
overall acceptability but absorbed more oil during the
noodle preparation. Therefore, the optimized values were
selected to be 4.0 min, 1.2 mm, 6.4 min, 142C, 2.0 min for
processing variables mixing time, dough sheet thickness,
steaming time, frying temperature and frying time, respec-
tively, in order to achieve good-quality noodles in terms of
oil uptake, cooking quality, textural properties, as well as
overall acceptability of the product.
TABLE 5. PREDICTED AND ACTUAL RESPONSE VALUES AT OPTIMUM
LEVEL OF PROCESSING CONDITIONS
Response Predicted value Actual value
Oil uptake (%) 22.1
Cooking time (min) 2.3
Cooked weight (%) 202.8 201.3 ⫾ 2.50
Cooking loss (%) 12.3
Hardness (N) 39.2
Overall acceptability 80.0
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