Received: 1 April 2016 | Revised: 17 March 2017 | Accepted: 22 March 2017

DOI: 10.1111/jfpe.12567

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Effects of variable steaming on chemical composition, starch

characteristics, and glycemic index of basmati (Pusa Basmati
1121) rice

S.J. Kale1 | S.K. Jha2 | Prerna Nath1

1
Division of Horticultural Crop Processing,
ICAR-Central Institute of Postharvest
Engineering and Technology, Punjab,
Abohar, 152116, India
2
Division of Food Science and Post Harvest
Technology, ICAR-Indian Agricultural
Research Institute, New Delhi, 110012, India
Correspondence
Sakharam Jagan Kale, Division of
Horticultural Crop Processing, ICAR-Central
Institute of Postharvest Engineering and
Technology, Abohar, Punjab - 152116,
India.
Email: sakha_yogesh@yahoo.co.in
Abstract
Effects of variable steaming on important quality characteristics of Pusa Basamti 1121 rice were
evaluated in the study. Pre-soaked (at 658C for 345 min) paddy was steamed at variable steaming
consisted of 4 pressure levels (0–1.5 kg/cm2) and 5 steaming times (5–25 min). Steaming affected
rice quality characteristics significantly (a 5 0.05). It increased head rice yield by 12%. Starch, amy-
lose, Am/Ap ratio, crude protein, crude fats, crude fibers, and ash contents of steamed rice varied
from 63.34 to 68.24%, 22.83 to 24.40%, 0.53 to 0.58, 8.11 to 8.39%, 2.47 to 2.58%, 1.59 to
1.63%, and 0.75 to 0.77%, respectively. Peak, final, breakdown, and setback viscosities of raw rice
were 1,305, 3,995, 24, and 2,693 cP, respectively; however, their values reduced to 114, 216, 21
and 102 cP, respectively, after steaming. Starch crystallinity of raw rice was 28.49% which reduced
to 5.72% after steaming. Scanning electron microscopic images indicated that complete gelatiniza-
tion of starch was observed after steaming at 1.5 kg/cm2 for
10 min. Glycemic index of raw
PB1121 rice was 58.41 whereas that of rice steamed at 1.5 kg/cm2 for 20 min was 47.04. Based
on results, steaming at 1.5 kg/cm2 for 20 min was found more appropriate to achieve higher HRY
(54.16%) and to reduce GI considerably (47).

Practical applications
Effects of variable steaming on chemical composition, starch characteristics and GI of PB1121 rice
were evaluated in present study. Study demonstrated that steaming step alone brings considerable
alterations in the overall quality of PB1121 rice. In present times, millers and traders strongly look
for rice with higher milling yield, lower pasting viscosities (indicator of better cooking quality) and
low GI. Therefore, results of present study would be useful to the millers to produce rice with
higher HRY, improved cooking quality and lower GI. Severity of steaming parameters (i.e., steam-
ing pressure and steaming time), during parboiling, would be decided if one knows the qualitative
changes occurring in the parboiled grains.

1 | INTRODUCTION
Rice quality is determined by its inherent quality traits/characteristics.
These quality characteristics are influenced by rice genotype, environ-
mental factors as well as cultural practices (Fofana et al., 2011;
Otegbayo, Osamuel, & Fashakin, 2001). Rice varieties can be charac-
terized and differentiated using these quality characteristics which
include physical characteristics (grain dimensions, shape, density,
hardness, color, etc.), chemical composition (starch, proteins, fats,
amylose to amylopectin ratio, minerals, etc.), starch characteristics,
pasting properties, cooking qualities, etc. Nowadays, number of rice
brands are available in the market which increase the consumer’s
demand for rice of superior quality. Consumer preference for a partic-
ular rice grade depends on both intrinsic and acquired qualities.
Consumers usually prefer rice with better cooking qualities, lighter
color, length, nutritive value, etc. Hence, information about various
quality characteristics of milled rice is very important for acceptance
of a rice for specific use.
Almost all the quality characteristics are important in determining
the quality of rice; however, chemical composition and starch charac-
teristics are found more important due to their role in deciding the
overall acceptability of rice. Chemical composition of rice mainly con-
sists of starch, proteins, fats, fibers, and ash (minerals). Literature
reports that chemical composition determines the nutritional value of

J Food Process Eng. 2017;e12567. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/jfpe V

C 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. | 1 of 11
https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.12567
2 of 11 | KALE
rice (Heinemann, Fagundes, Pinto, Penteado, & Lanfer-Marquez, 2005;
Juliano, 1985; Itani, Tamaki, Arai, & Horino, 2002). It can be easily
understood that nutritional value of rice is very important as at least
half of the daily calories of the world are supplied by rice. Due to its
daily consumption, rice is considered to be one of the major source of
nutrients (Heinemann et al., 2005). Rice having higher amount of pro-
teins, fibers, vitamins, and minerals is considered to be of higher nutri-
tional value (Akhter, Muzammil, Haider, & Saleem, 2014). Starch forms
the major portion of milled rice. Starch content of rice grain varies from
60 to 75% depending on the variety (Juliano, 1993). Nature of rice
starch, crystalline or amorphous, determines its range of quality charac-
teristics. Grain hardness, head rice yield, cooking qualities, pasting
properties, rate of digestibility, etc., are mostly decided by the nature
of rice starch (Buggenhout, Brijs, Celus, & Delcour, 2013; Dutta &
Mahanta, 2012; Juliano, 1993; Kale, Jha, Jha, Sinha, & Lal, 2015;
Patindol, Newton, & Wang, 2008). Starch is composed of amylose
(linear) and amylopectin (branched) molecules. Amylose is considered
to be the key quality determinant of rice. High amylose rice has better
cooking qualities and slower digestibility (Boers, Hoorn, & Mela, 2015;
Frei, Siddhuraju, & Becker, 2003). Hence, information on chemical
composition and starch characteristics (percent amylose, crystallinity,
viscosity, etc.) is foremost important. In view of increased risk of life-
style diseases, there is increased preference for foods having low glyce-
mic index. As a general perception, rice is not considered as a food
suitable for diabetics. Therefore, millers and traders strongly look for
rice with low GI. Hence, information on GI value of a particular rice
variety/brand has also become essential in present times.
All the rice varieties differ in their quality characteristics and are
broadly categorized as aromatic and nonaromatic varieties. Basmati
varieties, produced in the Indian subcontinent, are well known aromatic
varieties having specific quality traits. Number of traditional and
improved basmati varieties are cultivated in India. Among them, Pusa
Basmati 1121 (PB1121) rice is found more popular due to its length
(8.0–8.3 mm of milled grain) and cooking qualities. Cooked length of
PB1121 rice is about 17–18 mm, considerably higher compared with
other basmati varieties (Anand, 2012). Amylose content of PB1121 rice
has been reported as 27–29% thereby indicating that it is a high amy-
lose rice (Husaini, Parray, Rather, & Sanghera, 2009; Kale et al., 2015).
Due to such high amylose content, this variety may be considered suita-
ble for diabetics. However, due to its extra length (13–15 mm of paddy
grain), PB1121 rice fetches higher amount of breakage during milling. In
order to reduce such breakage, this rice may be subjected to parboiling.
Reports show that parboiling reduces the breakage and improves the
cooking qualities as well as nutritional value of rice (Bhattacharya, 1969,
2004; Buggenhout et al., 2013; Heinemann et al., 2005). Due to this
fact, many nonbasmati varieties are being parboiled commercially.
Conventional parboiling methods involve soaking of paddy in water
followed by steaming and drying. Although, all the three steps are essen-
tial during parboiling, steaming found to be crucial as complete gelatiniza-
tion of starch is achieved through steaming process. During steaming, the
spread of water soluble substances inside the paddy grain which is begun
during soaking is continued and increases, the granular texture of starchy
ET AL.
endosperm becomes pasty, cracks in the caryopsis are sealed, endosperm
becomes compact and translucent, biological processes are inhibited, and
the enzymes are inactivated (Chakraverty, 1995). Steaming process
depends on three parameters, namely condition of the steam (either satu-
rated or superheated), pressure of the steam and steaming time (Adhikari-
tanayake & Noomhorm, 1998). Various studies reported that variations in
steaming parameters result in varied microstructural and molecular altera-
tions in the rice grain, and such steaming induced alterations further
affect the nature of starch as well as chemical composition of rice thereby
varied end products (Ayamdoo, Demuyakor, Dogbe, & Owusu, 2013;
Dutta & Mahanta, 2012; Fofana et al., 2011; Heinemann et al., 2005;
Ibukun, 2008; Lamberts et al., 2006; Lamberts, Gomand, Derycke, &
Delcour, 2009; Otegbayo et al., 2001; Parnsakhorn & Noomhorm, 2008;
Patindol et al., 2008). Therefore, it is essential to evaluate the effect of
varying steaming conditions on rice quality characteristics in order to pro-
duce a parboiled rice with better quality. Literature reveals that volumes
of literatures are available on parboiling of nonbasmati varieties. Reports
are also available on the effects of steaming step alone on quality charac-
teristics of nonbasmati varieties (Dutta & Mahanta, 2012; Ibukun, 2008;
Otegbayo et al., 2001; Patindol et al., 2008). However, very limited infor-
mation is reported on parboiling of basmati varieties of rice.
It is generally perceived that parboiling of aromatic/basmati vari-
eties is not desirable due to their aroma. However, since last few years,
some of the rice mills in India have started to parboil the basmati rice
(Marie-Vivien, Gay, & Devautour, 2005; Srinivasa et al., 2013). But, still
very few reports are found on parboiling of these varieties. Koa Dok
Mali 105 (KDML105) is a popular aromatic rice variety in Thailand.
Some of the studies were taken up to optimize the parboiling condi-
tions and to evaluate their effects on quality parameters of this variety
(Parnsakhorn & Noomhorm, 2008; Sareepuang, Siriamornpun, Wiset, &
Meeso, 2008). Few attempts have also been made to parboil selected
Pakistani basmati varieties and to study their quality characteristics
(Akhter et al., 2014; Saeed, Pasha, Anjum, Suleria, & Farooq, 2011).
However, no report is available on parboiling of Indian basmati vari-
eties. Studies on Pakistani basmati varieties revealed that like nonaro-
matic varieties, parboiling was found to be beneficial for basmati
varieties also. Hence, parboiling was found as an appropriate tool to
reduce the excessive milling breakage of PB1121 rice. It has also been
reported that aroma is less important in case of PB1121 rice, compared
with other basmati varieties (Anand, 2012). Consequently, this variety
was found more suitable for its parboiling. However, parboiling may
bring the spectrum of qualitative changes in PB1121 rice like various
nonbasmati varieties. Therefore, an attempt needs to be made to
assess the parboiling induced changes in quality characteristics of
PB1121 rice. Effects of soaking and steaming on quality of PB1121
rice need to be evaluated separately to decide the optimum soaking as
well as steaming levels during parboiling of this variety.
In our previous study (Kale et al., 2015), soaking induced changes in
chemical composition, starch characteristics and glycemic index of
PB1121 rice has been evaluated. But steaming effects on these quality
characteristics are yet to be studied. Therefore, present work was under-
taken with an objective to determine the effects of varying steaming
KALE ET AL. | 3 of 11

conditions on chemical composition, starch characteristics and glycemic
index of PB1121 rice. Severity of steaming parameters (i.e., steaming
pressure and steaming time) during parboiling can be decided if one
knows the qualitative changes occurring in the parboiled grains.
chemical composition, pasting properties, X-ray diffractograms, percent
crystallinity, SEM images, and glycemic index of raw and steamed rice
samples was determined. In this article, nonparboiled rice has been
termed as raw rice whereas parboiled rice has been termed as steamed
rice because, during experiment, only steaming step was varied keeping

2 | MATERIALS AND METHODS soaking and drying steps constant.

2.2.1 | Head rice yield (HRY)

Freshly harvested paddy (PB1121) grains were procured from the field
Raw and steamed paddy samples were dehusked using rubber roll Sheller
of ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. Paddy
(Ambala Associates, Ambala, India). Dehusking was achieved by passing
was cleaned, dried, packed, and stored at room temperature (25–358C)
the paddy samples three times through dehusker. After dehusking, head
till the experiment was conducted. Grains used for experiment were at
rice (brown rice, denoted as BR), brokens, husk, and un-husked grains
an average moisture content of 13–14% (db). The moisture content of
were weighed and their percentages on paddy basis were determined.
paddy was determined in triplicate by oven drying at 103 6 28C until a
Brown rice samples were polished (for 3–4 min) at 7–8% degrees of mill-
constant weight was reached.
ing using abrasive polisher (Ambala Associates, Ambala, India). Head rice
(polished rice, denoted as PR), brokens, and bran obtained during polishing
2.1 | Parboiling of paddy
were weighed and represented as percentages of brown rice. Head rice
Paddy samples (PB1121) of 200 6 0.5 g were soaked in 500 ml of dis- yield was calculated using percentages of head rice grains obtained at both
tilled water at 658C for 345 min, as optimized earlier (Kale, Jha, Jha, & stages and was expressed as percent head rice yield (HRY) on paddy basis.
Samuel, 2013; Kale et al., 2015), in water bath (MAC, MSW-275, Micro
2.2.2 | Chemical composition
Scientific Works (R), Delhi, India) to achieve desired moisture content
(42%, db). The soaking water was drained and soaked paddy was Chemical characteristics of raw and steamed rice namely starch, amy-

steamed in autoclave (Horizontal Autoclave, Tradevel Scientific Indus- lose, Am/Ap ratio, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber, and ash content

tries, New Delhi, India) at varying steaming conditions. Steaming process were determined during study. Starch content (% db) was determined

consisted of two variables, steaming pressure (0, 0.5, 1, and 1.5 kg/cm )2 by Anthrone reagent method (Sadasivam & Manickam, 1992). Amylose

and steaming time (5, 10, 15, 20, and 25 min). Thickness of paddy layer
was kept as 1 cm during exposure to steam. Different steaming treat-
ments and their codes are presented in Table 1. Steamed paddy was
then dried up to 13–14% (db) in shed under fan. The fan was ON for
about 6–7 h in a day. Thickness of paddy layer was kept approximately
1 cm. Ambient temperature was noted between 30 and 358C. Drying
took about 3–4 days depending upon the room temperature.
2.2 | Evaluation of rice quality characteristics
Pre-soaked paddy was steamed at varying steaming conditions keeping
soaking, drying and milling operations constant and head rice yield,
content (% db) was determined using colorimetric method (Sadasivam &
Manickam, 1992). Crude protein content of rice samples was calculated
by determining the nitrogen content in each sample. Nitrogen content
was determined using Kjeltech Apparatus (Technik GmbH D-40599,
Behr Labour, Germany) based on Kjeldhal’s AACC Method (AACC Inter-
national, 2000). The protein percentage was calculated by multiplying
nitrogen with conversion factor for rice 6.25. The crude fat content of
rice sample was estimated by using Soxtech System (HT2 1045 Extrac-
tion Unit, Hoganas, Sweden) and the method suggested by AACC Inter-
national (2000). Crude fiber content of each rice sample was determined
by digesting the sample in 1.25% H2SO4 followed by 1.25% KOH solu-
tion through Labconco Fibertech (Labconco Corporation, Kansas, USA)

TA BL E 1 Coding of treatments based on varying steaming conditions

Steaming pressure (kg/cm2) Steaming time (min) Code Steaming pressure (kg/cm2) Steaming time (min) Code

0.0 5 T1 1.0 5 T11

0.0 10 T2 1.0 10 T12

0.0 15 T3 1.0 15 T13

0.0 20 T4 1.0 20 T14

0.0 25 T5 1.0 25 T15

0.5 5 T6 1.5 5 T16

0.5 10 T7 1.5 10 T17

0.5 15 T8 1.5 15 T18

0.5 20 T9 1.5 20 T19

0.5 25 T10 1.5 25 T20

4 of 11 | KALE ET AL.

as described in AACC International (2000). The ash content in each dry
sample was determined by incinerating 5 g sample in a Muffle furnace
after charring as per AACC International (2000).
2.2.3 | Pasting properties
A Rapid Visco Analyzer (RVA Starchmaster 2, Newport Scientific
Instruments, Australia) was used to evaluate the pasting properties of
rice flours as per method reported by Dutta and Mahanta (2012). Raw
and steamed (T5, T10, T15, T16, T18, and T20) rice flour suspensions of
10% w/w (total weight: 28 g) were prepared and the Rice 1 profile of
Newport Scientific instruments was used. The samples were held at
508C for 1 min, heated from 50 to 958C, held at 958C for 2.40 min and
then cooled to 508C and finally held at 508C for 1 min. Peak viscosity,
breakdown viscosity, final viscosity, and setback viscosity were noted.
and Saura-Calixto (1997) and Frei et al. (2003). Cooked rice samples
were digested for 3 h at incubation temperature 408C. Starch digestion
was carried out using enzymes, pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa
(ref. 107195, Merck) and a-amylase from porcine pancreas (ref. A-
3176, Sigma). During digestion, aliquots (1 ml) were taken from each
sample after every 30 min from 0 to 3 h. Subsequently, the total reduc-
ing sugar content of aliquots was determined by the 3,5-dinitrosalicylic
acid (DNS) reagent method (Ghose, 1987). Maltose was used to pre-
pare the standard curve. The rate of starch digestion was expressed as
the percentage of starch hydrolyzed at different time intervals (30, 60,
90, 120, and 180 min). Areas under hydrolysis curves (AUC, 0–180
min) were determined using the model described by Goni et al. (1997).
The Hydrolysis Index (HI) was calculated as the ratio of AUC for a rice
sample and the AUC for a reference sample, white bread. GI was then

2.2.4 | X-ray diffractograms and starch crystallinity estimated using following model (Frei et al., 2003).

X-ray diffractograms of flours of rice samples (raw and steamed) were GI539:711ð0:5493HIÞ
obtained using an Analytical Diffractometer (Pan Analytical, Phillips, To make the GI of PB1121 rice comparable with the GI of differ-
Holland). The diffractograms were acquired over a 2h (Bragg’s angle)
ent foods, it was converted in to the GI based on glucose by multiply-
range of 4–308 with a step size of 0.028 (Singh, Pal, Mahajan, Singh, &
ing it with a factor 0.7 (Foster-Powell, Holt, & Brand-Miller, 2002).
Shevkani, 2011). Starch crystallinity (%) was evaluated by taking the
ratio of peak area and total area obtained from the diffractograms as
2.3 | Statistical analysis
shown in equation given below (Dutta & Mahanta, 2012).
All the quality characteristics estimated during study were measured in
Area under peaks
Crystallinity ð%Þ5 3100 triplicate and the means were recorded. Duncan’s multiple range test
Total area
(DMRT) was performed to test the statistical differences in these char-
2.2.5 | Microscopic images acteristics as affected by varying steaming conditions. SPSS statistical

Microstructure of raw and steamed rice grains was obtained using software version 16.0 (SPSS, INC., Chicago, USA) was used to conduct

Scanning Electron Microscope (Zeiss EVOMA10) at 20 kV and 10 Pa. the tests. Significance was accepted at 5% level of significance

Dried grains were cut using razor blade and specimens were mounted (a 5 0.05). Correlations and regressions between different variables

on aluminum studs (Li et al., 2008). Samples were coated with 24 nm were determined using Addin software XLSTAT (version 2014.5.03).

thick coating of palladium and images were taken.
2.2.6 | Glycemic index
Glycemic Index of raw and steamed rice samples was determined by in
vitro starch digestion method as suggested by Goni, Garcia-Alonso,
The “n” value (number of observations) for steaming time was 5
whereas that for steaming pressure was 4. Correlation among variables
was represented by Pearson correlation coefficient, r (ranged from 21
to 1) whereas regression (relationship) between dependent and inde-
pendent variables was represented by coefficient of determination, R2

TA BL E 2 Milling analysis of raw and steamed rice

Dehusking Polishing
Treatment Brown rice (%) Brokens (%) Husk (%) Un-husked (%) Polished rice (%) Brokens (%) Bran (%) HRY on paddy basis (%)

Raw 57.18 14.52 24.62 3.45 75.11 16.57 8.32 42.95a

Varying steaming pressure at constant steaming time (25 min)

T5 57.73 10.93 25.18 5.56 81.10 10.64 8.26 46.82b
T10 58.99 9.56 25.62 4.45 83.54 7.79 8.67 49.28c
T15 61.23 7.21 26.83 3.92 85.21 6.76 8.03 52.17e
T20 63.13 5.73 25.63 3.06 87.15 3.21 9.64 55.02h

Varying steaming time at constant steaming pressure (1.5 kg/cm2)

T16 60.81 7.80 25.60 4.47 83.54 6.06 10.40 50.80d
T17 61.04 7.36 26.90 4.01 83.76 6.66 9.58 51.13d
T18 61.36 6.71 26.57 3.18 85.77 4.11 10.11 52.63f
T19 62.36 6.31 25.65 4.08 86.85 5.16 7.99 54.16g
T20 63.13 5.73 25.63 3.06 87.15 3.21 9.64 55.02h

Values followed by same alphabet in a column do not differ significantly (a 5 0.05).

Values for dehusking are based on paddy basis whereas values for polishing are based on brown rice basis.
KALE ET AL. | 5 of 11

TA BL E 3 Chemical composition (%) of raw and steamed rice

Treatment Starch Amylose Am/Ap Crude protein Crude fats Crude fibers Ash

Raw 73.24 6 1.92d 27.26 6 1.65d 0.59 6 0.03b 8.79 6 0.03e 2.56 6 0.03ab 1.53 6 0.04a 0.79 6 0.02a

Varying steaming pressure at constant steaming time (25 min)

T5 68.24 6 1.24c 24.40 6 0.04c 0.56 6 0.02ab 8.39 6 0.05d 2.58 6 0.03b 1.63 6 0.01c 0.77 6 0.02a
T10 66.84 6 0.17bc 23.54 6 0.13abc 0.54 6 0.01a 8.34 6 0.01cd 2.52 6 0.02ab 1.61 6 0.01bc 0.76 6 0.01a
T15 67.04 6 0.57bc 23.32 6 0.09abc 0.53 6 0.01a 8.31 6 0.02cd 2.49 6 0.03ab 1.61 6 0.01bc 0.76 6 0.01a
T20 63.34 6 0.82a 22.83 6 0.09a 0.56 6 0.01ab 8.11 6 0.02a 2.47 6 0.03a 1.59 6 0.01bc 0.75 6 0.01a

Varying steaming time at constant steaming pressure (1.5 kg/cm2)

T16 65.72 6 1.75ab 24.12 6 0.09bc 0.58 6 0.03b 8.36 6 0.05d 2.54 6 0.04ab 1.62 6 0.01bc 0.77 6 0.01a
T17 64.88 6 0.57ab 23.38 6 0.09abc 0.56 6 0.01ab 8.26 6 0.04bc 2.50 6 0.05ab 1.60 6 0.02bc 0.77 6 0.02a
T18 64.46 6 0.14a 23.08 6 0.09ab 0.56 6 0.01ab 8.18 6 0.05ab 2.49 6 0.05ab 1.59 6 0.01bc 0.76 6 0.02a
T19 64.08 6 0.57a 22.89 6 0.09a 0.56 6 0.01ab 8.16 6 0.02a 2.49 6 0.05ab 1.59 6 0.01b 0.75 6 0.02a
T20 63.34 6 0.82a 22.83 6 0.09a 0.56 6 0.01ab 8.11 6 0.02a 2.47 6 0.03a 1.59 6 0.01bc 0.75 6 0.01a

Values followed by same alphabet in a column do not differ significantly (a 5 0.05).

(ranged from 0 to 1). Principal component analysis (PCA) was per-
formed to determine the relationships between rice quality characteris-
tics and their association with steaming treatments. Addin software
XLSTAT (version 2014.5.03) was used to perform PCA.
3 | RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Total 20 steaming treatments were applied to pre-soaked paddy but
the results of selected (relevant) treatments have been presented and
discussed here.
ing from T5 (steaming at 0 kg/cm2 for 25 min) to T20 (steaming at
1.5 kg/cm2 for 25 min) decreased the broken content by almost three
times. The increased hardness (11.16–17.19 N) of grain after steaming
might be responsible for increased HRY and reduced broken content.
Such grain hardness might be imparted by gelatinization and irreversi-
ble changes in rice starch occurred during parboiling. Increase in HRY
of different rice varieties with severity of steaming has also been
reported by Arai, Rao, and Desikachar (1975), Fellers and Deissinger
(1978), Patindol et al. (2008), etc. Increase in HRY of steamed PB1121
paddy over raw PB1121 paddy was by almost 12%, which justified the
need of parboiling of this variety.

3.1 | Head rice yield

It is evident from Table 2 that brown rice obtained from raw paddy was
57.18% whereas that obtained from steamed paddy varied from 57.73
to 63.13%. At fixed steaming time, increase in steaming pressure
increased the brown rice yield by 9.35%. Similarly, increase in steaming
time at fixed steaming pressure increased the brown rice yield by
3.82%. Thus, increase in severity of steaming (either steaming time or
steaming pressure by keeping other parameter constant) increased the
brown rice yield and reduced the breakage during dehusking, which
might be due to loosening and opening of the husk during steaming.
Husk opening in few grains was noticed during steaming at higher levels
of steaming pressure. Like brown rice yield, polished rice yield (%)
showed the similar trend with severity of steaming (Table 2). It increased
when either steaming pressure or steaming time increased by keeping
other parameter fixed. On brown rice basis, polished rice obtained from
raw paddy was 75.11% whereas that obtained from steamed paddy
(T20) was found to be 87.15%, almost 12% more. Brokens (brown rice
basis) obtained from raw rice during polishing was 16.57% whereas that
obtained from steamed rice varied from 3.21 to 10.64%.
Both steaming pressure and steaming time affected the HRY
(paddy basis) of PB1121 rice significantly (a 5 0.05) (Table 2). HRY
showed a linear relationship (R2 > 0.96) with both steaming pressure
and steaming time. Increase in steaming pressure or steaming time,
keeping other parameter constant, caused the corresponding increase
in HRY (paddy basis) by 3.87 to 12.07%. Increasing the level of steam-
3.2 | Chemical composition of rice
It is evident from previous section (Section 3.1) that steaming (parboil-
ing) increased the HRY of PB1121 rice by almost 12% and found bene-
ficial. However, it might have induced alterations in chemical
composition of PB1121 rice. Chemical composition of rice is an impor-
tant quality parameter of raw as well as steamed rice. Cooking and eat-
ing qualities of rice are generally determined by its physico-chemical
properties, particularly amylose content whereas its nutritional value is
mainly determined by the milled rice protein content (Juliano, 1993).
In present study, starch content of raw PB1121 rice was estimated
as 73.24%. It is evident from Table 3 that starch content of PB1121
decreased (6.82–13.52%) after steaming at all treatments. It exhibited
a linear relationship with steaming pressure (R2 5 0.79) and steaming
duration (R2 5 0.98). Decrease in starch content might be due to the
leaching of starch during soaking and formation of amylose-lipid com-
plexes during hydrothermal process (Derycke et al., 2005; Sareepuang
et al., 2008). It can also be noted that, though, starch content
decreased during soaking, as reported in our previous study (Kale et al.,
2015), due to leaching and formation of amylose-lipid complexes,
steaming also reduced the starch content further. Higher reduction at
severe steaming treatments indicated that, although, there was no
leaching during steaming, starch gelatinization and formation of
amylose-lipid complexes at these treatments might have made starch
molecules less extractable during its estimation.
6 of 11 | KALE ET AL.

TA BL E 4 Factor loadings for chemical composition of raw and TA BL E 5 Pasting properties of raw and steamed rice
steamed rice
Peak Final Breakdown Setback
Variable Principal component 1 Principal component 2 Treatment viscosity (cP) viscosity (cP) (cP) (cP)

Starch 0.8875 0.3200 Raw 1,302 g 3,995 g 24c 2,693 g

Amylose 0.8602 0.5023 Varying steaming pressure at constant steaming time (25 min)
T5 634e 1,576e 28a 941f
Am/Ap ratio 0.4321 0.6219 T10 674f 1,596f 24c 922e
T15 251c 512c 27b 261c
Crude proteins 0.8982 0.3863
T20 114a 216a 21d 102a
Crude fats 0.9509 20.1332
Varying steaming time at constant steaming pressure (1.5 kg/cm2)
Crude fibers 20.1520 20.9615 T16 343d 633d 24c 290d
T18 183b 391b 24c 208b
Ash 0.8819 0.3519
T20 114a 216a 21d 102a

Values followed by same alphabet in a column do not differ significantly

Amylose content of raw PB1121 rice was found to be 27.26%
which indicated that it is a high amylose variety (>25%). It is evident
from the Table 3 that steaming decreased the amylose content signifi-
cantly (a 5 0.05). Amylose content showed a linear relationship with
steaming pressure (R2 5 0.94) and steaming time (R2 5 0.85). Increase
in steaming pressure and steaming time led to reduction (10.49–
16.25%) in amylose content. Such decrease in amylose might be attrib-
uted to the formation of amylose–lipid complexes during steaming
(Derycke et al., 2005). Gelatinization of starch might have contributed
to reduction of amylose content. Gelatinization causes the compaction
of starch molecules thereby making amylose less extractable.
Like amylose content, Am/Ap ratio is considered to be an important
quality parameter of rice. Literature reports that the rate of starch
digestion and hence the blood glucose level is affected by Am/Ap ratio
(Denardin, Walter, Silva, Souto, & Fagundes, 2007; Frei et al., 2003;
Van Amelsvoort & Weststrate, 1992). Therefore, this parameter may
be considered during formulation of diets for diabetics. Its value for
normal starch (reported for wheat, maize, potato, tapioca) was reported
as 0.25 (Van Amelsvoort & Weststrate, 1992). However, Am/Ap ratio of
raw PB1121 rice was found as 0.59 and it found to be decreased after
(a 5 0.05).
steaming (Table 3). Higher reduction in Am/Ap ratio was observed at
severe steaming treatments, compared with mild treatments. The
reduction in Am/Ap might be associated with the decrease in estimated
amylose content of rice during parboiling.
Steaming affected the crude protein content of PB1121 rice signif-
icantly (a 5 0.05). Raw rice had crude protein content as 8.79% but it
decreased with increase in severity of steaming. A linear relationship
was observed between crude protein content and steaming pressure
(R2 5 0.84) as well as steaming time (R2 5 0.94). Highest decrease was
observed at treatment T20 (7.74%) possibly, due to sinking of protein
bodies in the compact starchy endosperm which makes the protein
less extractable and thus lowers the estimated value (Otegbayo et al.,
2001). Otherwise, in actual sense, crude protein content of steamed
rice might be more than that of the raw rice. Rao and Juliano (1970)
also reported the decrease in crude protein content during parboiling.
Similar results have also been reported by Otegbayo et al. (2001) for
nonaromatic varieties offada and Alaso-osun and Heinemann et al.
(2005) for indica subspecies of rice. However, Akhter et al. (2014)
reported the increase (0.2%) in protein content of basmati varieties
(shaheen basmati and NIAB-IR9). Report indicates that during moisture
diffusion (soaking) process, protein bodies are diffused into the starchy
endosperm which makes them less extractable and thus lowers the
estimated value (Otegbayo et al., 2001). Thus, in true sense, protein
content of soaked/steamed rice is more, compared with that of
raw rice.
Maximum portion of fat content of rice is located in the bran layer
and germ which is removed during polishing. Hence, fat content of pol-
ished rice is always lesser than that of brown rice. In present study,
Table 3 indicates that crude fat content of raw PB1121 rice was found
as 2.56%. Steaming had significant (a 5 0.05) effect on crude fat con-
tent of PB1121 rice. Crude fat content was found to be decreased
(4.55–8.38%) with increase in either steaming pressure (at fixed steam-
ing time) or steaming time (at fixed steaming pressure). Like crude pro-
tein content, crude fats also showed a linear relationship with steaming

FIGURE 1 Scores and loadings plot of first two principal pressure (R2 5 0.94) and steaming time (R2 5 0.84). Decrease in crude
components obtained for chemical composition of raw and fat content of steamed rice with increase in severity of steaming might
steamed rice be attributed to the diffusion and rupturing of the fat globules in the
KALE ET AL. | 7 of 11

FIGURE 2 X-ray diffractogram of raw (a) and steamed (b) rice

gelatinized compact starchy endosperm which made the fats less
extractable during their estimation (Otegbayo et al., 2001).
Crude fiber content of raw rice was determined as 1.53% and it
increased significantly (a 5 0.05) after steaming. Such increase might
be attributed to corresponding decrease in starch, amylose, crude pro-
tein and crude fat contents. Although, crude fiber content of raw rice
was lower than that of the steamed rice, no significant difference was
observed in the crude fiber contents of rice obtained from treatments
T10, T15, T16, T17, T18, and T20. Increase in crude fiber content (about
25.17%) with increase in steaming duration from 30 to 90 min at open
steaming has been reported by Ibukun (2008). Steaming showed no
significant (a 5 0.05) effect on ash content of rice. Ash content of raw
rice was determined as 0.79% and, although not significant, slight
decrease in it was observed after steaming at all steaming treatments.
All the steaming treatments had almost same ash content
(0.76–0.77%).
Starch, amylose, crude protein and crude fat contents were found
to be positively correlated (r > 0.7) to each other whereas crude fiber
content was found negatively correlated (r 5 20.5 to 20.6) with these
characteristics. It further revealed that steaming induced decrease in
starch, amylose, crude proteins and crude fats was associated with
increase in percentage of crude fiber content. Similar observations can
also be made from principal component analysis obtained for chemical
composition of raw and steamed PB1121 rice. Table 4 indicates that
starch, amylose, crude proteins, crude fats, and ash content were found
to be associated with Principal Component 1, which explained 60.37%
of the total variance whereas crude fiber content was found to be
associated with Principal Component 2 (27.95% variance explained) in
negative direction. Figure 1 shows that starch, amylose, Am/Ap ratio,
and crude proteins were located in the first quadrant whereas crude
fiber content was found to be located in diagonally opposite quadrant
thereby indicating the negative correlation of crude fiber content with
other quality characteristics. Results (Figure 1) also indicate that starch,
amylose, Am/Ap ratio, crude proteins, and ash content showed close
association with raw rice indicating the superiority of raw rice in terms
of chemical composition.
Values of chemical constituents estimated in present study were
found to be statistically different (a 5 0.05) from each other but, from a
practical standpoint, these differences were very small to not signifi-
cant. However, differences between chemical constituents of raw rice
and the rice steamed at any steaming condition were found practically
considerable.
3.3 | Pasting properties
Pasting behavior is a key tool to determine the nature and quality of
rice starch. Dutta and Mahanta (2012) reported that steaming (parboil-
ing) brings appreciable changes in the pasting properties of rice starch

TA BL E 6 Percent crystallinity of raw and steamed rice starch

Peak
Treatment Total area 1 2 3 4 Total peak area Crystallinity (%)

Raw 2,116.53 62.57 301.01 31.80 207.71 603.09 28.49f

T16 2,983.23 421.35 – – – 421.35 14.12e

T17 2,648.95 345.76 – – – 345.76 13.05d

T18 3,202.72 269.77 – – – 269.77 8.42c

T19 3,719.50 232.01 – – – 232.01 6.24b

T20 3,398.31 194.28 – – – 194.28 5.72a

Values followed by same alphabet in a column do not differ significantly (a 5 0.05).

8 of 11 | KALE ET AL.

FIGURE 3 Scanning electron microscopic images of raw and steamed rice under different steaming treatments

due to order–disorder transitions taking place at the molecular level.
Rice with lower viscosity values produces the firmer and nonsticky
cooked grain and vice-versa. In present study, pasting properties of
raw and steamed raw rice were determined and presented in Table 5.
It was observed that raw rice flour attained the highest values of peak
(1,302 cP), final (3,995 cP), and setback (2,693 cP) viscosity on addition
of water whereas these viscosities decreased with increase in steaming
pressure or steaming time. Values of breakdown viscosity was found to
be negative for all the rice samples which indicate that there was no
distinct peak viscosity in these rice samples. Peak viscosity, final viscos-
ity, and setback viscosity were found to be positively correlated
(r > 0.98) to each other. Highest viscosity values, in case of raw rice,
might be attributed to the crystalline nature of starch and its ability to
swell and bind more water. On the contrary, gelatinized starch of
steamed rice lost its swelling and water binding ability (Soponronnarit,
Nathakaranakule, Jirajindalert, & Taechapaorij, 2006), depending upon
the severity of steaming and hence, it could not form a paste with high
viscosities. Thus, from the results, it can be interpreted that on cooking,
raw rice will become sticky and softer whereas steamed rice will
become nonsticky and firmer.
KALE ET AL. | 9 of 11

TA BL E 7 Glycemic index of raw and steamed rice

Treatment Hydrolysis index Glycemic index (bread 5 100) Glycemic index (glucose 5 100)

Raw 79.66 83.44h 58.41h

Varying steaming pressure at constant steaming time (25 min)

T5 68.17 77.14g 53.99g
T10 64.29 75.01e 52.50e
T15 60.75 73.06d 51.14d
T20 50.49 67.43a 47.20a

Varying steaming time at constant steaming pressure (1.5 kg/cm2)

T16 66.00 75.94f 53.16f
T17 59.25 72.24c 50.57c
T18 55.68 70.28b 49.20b
T19 50.06 67.20a 47.04a
T20 50.49 67.43a 47.20a

Values followed by same alphabet in a column do not differ significantly (a 5 0.05).

3.4 | X-ray diffractograms and percent crystallinity
X-ray diffractogram patterns of any starch indicates its nature whether
it is crystalline or amorphous. Number and nature of peaks obtained in
the diffractograms also indicate the presence of certain molecules and
there extent in the starch (Dutta & Mahanta, 2012; Manful, Grimm,
Gayin, & Coker, 2008; Singh et al., 2011). In present study, X-ray dif-
fractograms of raw and steamed rice starch were obtained and pre-
sented in Figure 2. It was observed that all the rice samples showed a
typical A-shaped crystalline pattern. Similar results have also been
reported by Manful et al. (2008), Singh et al. (2011), and Dutta and
Mahanta (2012) for different rice varieties. Raw rice sample had three
major peaks with a small fourth peak. First peak was observed between
Bragg’s angle (2h) 15 and 178, second between 17 and 208, third
between 20 and 228 and fourth between 22 and 258. In contrast,
steamed rice samples (T16, T17, T18, T19, and T20) showed only one
major peak at Bragg’s angle (2h) between 18 and 21.58. Loss in number
of peaks in steamed rice samples clearly indicated that starch was
gelatinized and its structure changed from crystalline to amorphous
(Dutta & Mahanta, 2012).
It is evident from Table 6 that raw rice sample had highest crystal-
linity (28.49%) and it decreased up to 5.72% after steaming (at steam-
ing pressure of 1.5 kg/cm2 for 25 min). Decrease in percent
crystallinity of rice (var. TOX 3108) from 24.6% to 19.7% after steam-
ing (soaking at 908C followed by open steaming for 8 min) has also
been reported by Manful et al. (2008). Such decrease in percent crys-
tallinity with steaming time indicated that degree of starch gelatiniza-
tion increased as the steaming time increased. Report also indicates
that commercially parboiled rice showed percent crystallinity of 5.5%
(Manful et al., 2008).
3.5 | Microscopic images
Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) images of raw and steamed rice
samples are shown in Figure 3. It was observed that raw rice had dis-
tinct polyhedral starch granules with air gaps and cracks in-between
them whereas steamed rice samples did not show distinct starch gran-
ules and air gaps or any crack. Figure 3 also indicates that rice steamed
for 5 min at 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure (T16) underwent the partial gelatiniza-
tion as only the swallowing of starch granules was observed whereas
rice steamed for
10 min showed the complete gelatinization as starch
molecules formed a very compact, hard mass with amorphous like
structure. Therefore, it can be inferred that PB1121 paddy, when
steamed at 1.5 kg/cm2 pressure, should be steamed for
10 min to
achieve complete gelatinization of starch.
3.6 | Glycemic index (GI) of rice
Rice varieties can also be categorized on the basis their glycemic index.
Rice with lower glycemic index is considered to be of better quality.
Information on GI value of a particular rice has become essential in
recent times as consumer’s preference for low GI rice is being
increased gradually due to increased risk of lifestyle diseases. Although,
rice is considered to be a high GI food, a report on thermal treatment
of basmati varieties has shown the reduction in GI below 55, making
them low GI food (Srinivasa et al., 2013). Therefore, a systematic evalu-
ation of steaming effects on GI of PB1121 rice may prove to be useful
to millers and traders.
Therefore, in present study, raw and steamed rice were evaluated
for their GI and results obtained are presented in Table 7. During study,
GI values of raw PB1121 rice were found as 83.44 and 58.41 when
bread and glucose, respectively, were the reference samples. Thus, raw
PB1121 rice was found to be a medium GI (55–69) food. It is evident
from Table 7 that increase in severity of steaming (either steaming
pressure or steaming time) caused the decrease in GI of PB1121 rice.
Almost all the steaming treatments produced rice having GI < 55 (glu-
cose as reference sample). In other words, these treatments produced
rice with Low GI and made it suitable for diabetics. Thus, steaming (par-
boiling) found to be beneficial in terms of GI also as it could produce
the PB1121 rice with low GI.
4 | CONCLUSIONS
PB1121 was found to be high amylose rice variety and could be
steamed (parboiled) to reduce milling breakage. HRY of raw rice was
10 of 11 | KALE
found as 45.95% (paddy basis) whereas that of steamed rice varied
from 46.82 to 55.02% (paddy basis). Thus, due to steaming, HRY of
PB1121 rice increased by about 12%, which justified the need of par-
boiling of this variety. Increase in steaming severity reduced the starch,
amylose, Am/Ap ratio, crude protein and crude fat contents of PB1121
rice whereas, crude fiber content was found to be increased after
steaming. Peak, final, breakdown, and setback viscosities of raw
PB1121 rice were 1,305, 3,995, 24, and 2,693 cP, respectively; how-
ever, these viscosities decreased up to 114, 216, 21, and 102 cP after
2 A. A. (2007). Effect of amylose content of rice varieties on glycemic
steaming at treatment T20 (1.5 kg/cm for 25 min). Similarly, starch
crystallinity of raw rice was 28.49% which found to be decreased up to
5.72% after steaming at treatment T20. SEM images revealed that
PB1121 rice grains steamed for
10 min at 1.5 kg/cm2
(treatment
T17) achieved complete gelatinization of starch as starch
molecules appeared to be compact mass with amorphous like structure
at these treatments. Glycemic index of raw PB1121 rice was 58.41,
however, it reduced to 47.04 when steamed at treatment T19 (1.5 kg/
cm2 for 20 min), thereby making it a low GI food. Based on rice quality
characteristics determined during study, it was inferred that, although,
steaming at treatment T17 (1.5 kg/cm2 for 10 min) was sufficient to
achieve complete gelatinization of starch, steaming at treatment T19
(1.5 kg/cm2 for 20 min) would be more appropriate to achieve higher
HRY (54.16) and to reduce GI considerably (up to 47).
ACKNOWLEDG MENT
The authors duly acknowledge the financial support and facilities
provided by Post Graduate School, Indian Agriculture Research Insti-
tute, New Delhi, India, and the Council of Scientific and Industrial
Research, New Delhi, India.
RE FE RE NCE S
AACC International. (2000). Approved methods of the American association
of cereal chemists methods 14-50 and 44-15A (10th ed.). St. Paul,
MN: AACC.
Adhikaritanayake, T. B., & Noomhorm, A. (1998). Effect of continuous
steaming on parboiled rice quality. Journal of Food Engineering, 36,
135–143.
Akhter, M., Muzammil, H. S., Haider, Z., & Saleem, U. (2014). Changes in
physico-chemical properties of some promising lines/varieties of rice
(Oryza sativa L.) after parboiling. International Journal of Development
Research, 4(12), 2575–2580.
Anand, R. (2012). Indian basmati rice industry (pp. 1–14). New Delhi,
India: Anand R. Horizon Research.
Arai, K., Rao, S. N. R., & Desikachar, H. S. R. (1975). Studies of the effect
of parboiling on Japonica and Indica rice. Japanese Journal of Tropical
Agriculture, 19, 7–14.
Ayamdoo, J. A., Demuyakor, B., Dogbe, W., & Owusu, R. (2013). Parboil-
ing of paddy rice, the science and perceptions of it as practiced in
Northern Ghana. American Journal of Food Technology, 2(4), 13–18.
Bhattacharya, K. R. (1969). Breakage of rice during milling, and effect of
parboiling. Cereal Chemistry, 46, 478–485.
Bhattacharya, K. R. (2004). Parboiling of rice. In E. T. Champagne (Ed.),
Rice: Chemistry and technology (3rd ed.; pp. 289–348). St. Paul, MN:
American Association of Cereal Chemists.
ET AL.
Boers, H. M., Hoorn, J. S. T., & Mela, D. J. (2015). A systematic review
of the influence of rice characteristics and processing methods on
postprandial glycaemic and insulinaemic responses. British Journal of
Nutrition, 114, 1035–1045.
Buggenhout, J., Brijs, K., Celus, I., & Delcour, J. A. (2013). The breakage
susceptibility of raw and parboiled rice: A review. Journal of Food
Engineering, 117, 304–315.
Chakraverty, A. (1995). Post harvest technology of cereals, pulses and oilseeds
(3rd ed.). New Delhi, India: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. PVT. Ltd.
Denardin, C. C., Walter, M., Silva, L. P. D., Souto, G. D., & Fagundes, C.
metabolism and biological responses in rats. Food Chemistry, 105,
1474–1479.
Derycke, V., Vandeputte, G. E., Vermeylen, R., De Man, W., Goderis, B.,
Koch, M. H. J., & Delcour, J. A. (2005). Starch gelatinization and amy-
lose–lipid interactions during rice parboiling investigated by tempera-
ture resolved wide angle X-ray scattering and differential scanning
calorimetry. Journal of Cereal Science, 42, 334–343.
Dutta, H., & Mahanta, C. L. (2012). Effect of hydrothermal treatment
varying in time and pressure on the properties of the parboiled rices
with different amylose content. Food Research International, 49,
655–663.
Fellers, D. A., & Deissinger, A. E. (1978). Steam treatment of rice paddy
as a means of reducing stickiness. Cereal Foods World, 23, 488.
Fofana, M., Wanvoeke, J., Manful, J., Futakuchi, K., Van Mele, P., Zossou,
E., & Bleoussi, T. M. R. (2011). Effect of improved parboiling methods
on the physical and cooked grain characteristics of rice varieties in
Benin. International of Food Research Journal, 18, 715–721.
Foster-Powell, K., Holt, S. H. A., & Brand-Miller, J. C. (2002). Interna-
tional table of glycemic index and glycemic load values: 2002. Ameri-
can Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 76(1), 5–56.
Frei, M., Siddhuraju, P., & Becker, K. (2003). Studies on the in vitro
starch digestibility and the glycemic index of six different indigenous
rice cultivars from the Philippines. Food Chemistry, 83, 395–402.
Ghose, T. K. (1987). Measurement of cellulase activities. Pure and Applied
Chemistry, 59(2), 257–268.
Goni, I., Garcia-Alonso, A., & Saura-Calixto, F. (1997). A starch
hydrolysis procedure to estimate glycemic index. Nutrition Research,
17(3), 427–437.
Heinemann, R. J. B., Fagundes, P. L., Pinto, E. A., Penteado, M. V. C., &
Lanfer-Marquez, U. M. (2005). Comparative study of nutrient compo-
sition of commercial brown, parboiled and milled rice from Brazil.
Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 18, 287–296.
Husaini, A. M., Parray, G. A., Rather, A. G., & Sanghera, G. S. (2009). Per-
formance of elite basmati rice varieties of subtropical India under
temperate valley conditions of Kashmir. International Rice Research
Notes, 0117–4185.
Ibukun, E. O. (2008). Effect of prolonged parboiling duration on proxi-
mate composition of rice. Scientific Research and Essays, 3(7), 323–
325.
Itani, T., Tamaki, M., Arai, E., & Horino, T. (2002). Distribution of amy-
lase, nitrogen, and minerals in rice kernels with various characters.
Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50(19), 5326–5332.
Juliano, B. O. (1985). Rice: Chemistry and technology (2nd ed.). St. Paul,
Minnesota, USA: American Association of Cereal Chemists.
Juliano, B. O. (1993). Rice in human nutrition. Rome: Published with the
collaboration of the International Rice Research Institute and FAO.
Kale, S. J., Jha, S. K., Jha, G. K., & Samuel, D. V. K. (2013). Evaluation
and modelling of water absorption characteristics of paddy. Journal of
Agricultural Engineering, 50(3), 29–38.
KALE ET AL.
Kale, S. J., Jha, S. K., Jha, G. K., Sinha, J. P., & Lal, S. B. (2015). Soaking
induced changes in chemical composition, glycemic index and starch
characteristics of basmati rice. Rice Science, 22(5), 227–236.
Lamberts, L., De Bie, E., Derycke, V., Veraverbeke, W. S., De Man, W.,
& Delcour, J. A. (2006). Effect of processing conditions on color
change of brown and milled parboiled rice. Cereal Chemistry, 83,
80–85.
Lamberts, L., Gomand, S. V., Derycke, V., & Delcour, J. A. (2009). Pres-
ence of amylose crystallites in parboiled rice. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry, 57(8), 3210–3216.
Li, X., Huang, K., Zhu, B., Liang, Z., Wel, L., & Luo, Y. (2008). Comparative
physicochemical properties and structure of rice containing the
sck 1 cryiac genes and its nontransgenic counterpart. Journal of Food
Science, 73(1), 64–69.
Manful, J. T., Grimm, C. C., Gayin, J., & Coker, R. D. (2008). Effect of
variable parboiling on crystallinity of rice samples. Cereal Chemistry,
85(l), 92–95.
Marie-Vivien, D., Gay, F., & Devautour, H. (2005). Delivery report on
preliminary case study: Basmati rice in India. Basmati Mission Report,
CIRAD-TERA, 1–14.
Otegbayo, B. O., Osamuel, F., & Fashakin, J. B. (2001). Effect of parboil-
ing on physico-chemical qualities of two local rice varieties in Nigeria.
Journal of Food Technology in Africa, 6(4), 130–132.
Parnsakhorn, S., & Noomhorm, A. (2008). Changes in physicochemical
properties of parboiled brown rice during heat treatment. The CIGR
E-Journal, X, 2008.
Patindol, J., Newton, J., & Wang, Y.-J. (2008). Functional properties as
affected by laboratory-scale parboiling of rough rice and brown rice.
Journal of Food Science, 73(8), 370–377.
Rao, R. S. N., & Juliano, B. O. (1970). Effect of parboiling on some
physico-chemical properties of rice. Journal of Agricultural and Food
Chemistry, 18(2), 289.
| 11 of 11
Sadasivam, S., & Manickam, A. (1992). Biochemical methods for agricul-
tural sciences (pp. 11–13). New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Limited.
Saeed, F., Pasha, I., Anjum, F. M., Suleria, H. A. R., & Farooq, M.
(2011). Effect of parboiling on physico-chemical and cooking attrib-
utes of different cultivars. International Journal of Food Safety, 13,
237–245.
Sareepuang, K., Siriamornpun, S., Wiset, L., & Meeso, N. (2008). Effect of
soaking temperature on physical, chemical and cooking properties of
parboiled fragrant rice. World Journal of Agricultural Science, 4(4),
409–415.
Singh, N., Pal, N., Mahajan, G., Singh, S., & Shevkani, K. (2011). Rice grain
and starch properties: Effects of nitrogen fertilizer application. Carbo-
hydrate Polymers, 86, 219–225.
Soponronnarit, S., Nathakaranakule, A., Jirajindalert, A., & Taechapaorij,
C. (2006). Parboiling brown rice using superheated steam fluidization
technique. Journal of Food Engineering, 75, 423–432.
Srinivasa, D., Raman, A., Meena, P., Chitale, G., Marwaha, A., & Jainani,
K. J. (2013). Glycaemic index (gi) of an indian branded thermally
treated basmati rice variety: A multi centric study. Journal of the
Association of Physicians of India, 61, 32–36.
Van Amelsvoort, J. M., & Weststrate, J. A. (1992). Amylose-amylopectin
ratio in a meal affects postprandial variables in male volunteers.
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55(3), 712–718.
How to cite this article: Kale SJ, Jha SK, Nath P. Effects of vari-
able steaming on chemical composition, starch characteristics,
and glycemic index of basmati (Pusa Basmati 1121) rice. J Food
Process Eng. 2017;00:e12567. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfpe.
12567