PS 2237: Introduction to International Relations

Essay assignment

Can China rise peacefully? Why do you say so? Discuss with reference
to relevant IR theories learnt in this course and substantiate with
empirical evidence.

Alan Tao Bai Lun

A0217802L

Tutorial group D1

Word count: 2077 words

1
Introduction

In 1990, China’s GDP was 360 billion USD1, approximately 6% of the US’s 5.963 trillion USD

GDP2. In 2020, China’s GDP was 14.723 trillion USD3, more than 70% of the US’s 20 trillion

USD4. China’s military budget has undergone a similar increase, ballooning from an almost

negligible 10 billion USD in 1990 to 261 billion in 2019 5, a 26-time increase. The US military

budget has grown from 325 billion in 1990 to 731 billion in 2019 6, slightly over two times.

Furthermore, China is expected to continue growing at a rapid pace, with some studies

suggesting it could become the world’s biggest economic power as early as 2028 7. From

1990 to today, China has risen from near irrelevance to become the second richest country

in the world. Simultaneously however, this was an extraordinarily peaceful rise, as China has

not fought any wars since 19798. Whether China can continue rising peacefully in the future

is thus the question this essay will try to answer. I will argue that China cannot rise

peacefully because of two main reasons: Firstly, the structure of international relations and

the shifting balance of power will necessitate war eventually as China continues rising.

Secondly, the intersubjective definitions China and the US have of each other reduces

mutual trust and pushes the two countries into a hostile relationship, increasing risks of war.

1
World Bank, “GDP (Current US$) - China,” Data, 2020,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN.
2
World Bank, “GDP (Current US$) - United States,” Data, 2020,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US.
3
World Bank, “GDP (Current US$) - China,” Data, 2020,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN.
4
World Bank, “GDP (Current US$) - United States,” Data, 2020,
https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US.
5
Macro trends, “China Military Spending/Defense Budget 1989-2022,” MacroTrends, 2020,
https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/military-spending-defense-budget.
6
Macro trends, “U.S. Military Spending/Defense Budget 1960-2022,” MacroTrends, 2020,
https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/USA/united-states/military-spending-defense-budget.
7
BBC, “Chinese Economy to Overtake Us 'by 2028' Due to Covid,” BBC News (BBC, December 26, 2020),
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-55454146.
8
Economic times, “Wars That People's Republic of China Fought,” The Economic Times, 2009,
https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/special-report/wars-that-peoples-republic-of-china-fought/
articleshow/5357547.cms?from=mdr.

2
Structure of international arena

China’s economic and military development over the past few decades have dramatically

increased its overall power. According to the Lowy institute, China now ranks as the second

most powerful country in Asia, right behind America 9. Furthermore, their data shows China

consistently rising in power over the years with only a slight dip in 2021 10. Due to China’s

massive population, it is very likely that its continued rise will make it the most powerful

country in Asia. Due to the structure of the international arena states find themselves in,

this rise will necessitate war.

The international arena is structured in a state of anarchy, with no hierarchal force keeping

states in line. While the United Nations (UN) is supposed to in theory “maintain

international peace and security”11, its structure12 and lack of an army13 mean that it is

incapable of acting as the top of the hierarchy. States can thus rely only on themselves for

security and to preserve their sovereignty. In this kind of world, states can never truly trust

the motivations of other states and constantly worry about their own security.

Before 2012, China had a very moderate and conservative foreign policy best summarized

by Deng Xiaoping’s “hide your strength, bide your time, never take the lead” 14. This means

that China was operating through the lens of defensive realism, preserving security by

9
Lowy Institute, “Map,” Lowy Institute Asia Power Index, 2021, https://power.lowyinstitute.org/.
10
ibid
11
United Nations, “What Is the Purpose or Role of the United Nations? - Ask Dag!,” United Nations (United
Nations, 2022), https://ask.un.org/faq/176175.
12
Somini Sengupta, “The United Nations Explained: Its Purpose, Power and Problems,” The New York Times
(The New York Times, September 18, 2016), https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/19/world/what-is-united-
nations-un-explained.html.
13
United Nations, “Does the United Nations Have an Army? - Ask Dag!,” United Nations (United Nations, 2022),
https://ask.un.org/faq/177270.
14
Kevin Rudd, “A New Sinology for a New Period,” Asia Society, December 10, 2017,
https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/new-sinology-new-period.

3
attempting to maintain their place in the system instead of riskily seeking more power 15.

Ever since Xi Jinping took over in 2012 however, the new foreign policy has been far more

assertive, exemplified in the catchphrase “Great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation” 16. This

new outlook makes mention of the Chinese people “standing up”17 and “creating a new

world”1819, and has been interpreted by academics as China seeking to return to its pre-

1800s status of dominance in Asia20. This means that China has now decided to ensure their

own security by maximising their power and attempting to secure hegemony, a policy more

in line with offensive realism21.

As such, China is now rapidly developing their power projection capabilities, with aircraft

carriers being a prime area of focus22. They have also sought to expand their economic

influence globally with the Belt and Road initiative23,while expanding their military influence

by opening up foreign military bases24. Simultaneously, they have strengthened

15
Lobell, Steven E. “Structural Realism/Offensive and Defensive Realism.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of
International Studies, March 1, 2010.
https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190846626-e-304#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%2C%20offensive,reserved%20policies%20to
%20attain%20security.
16
百度百科. “实现中华民族伟大复兴_百度百科.” 百度百科, 2022. https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%AE
%9E%E7%8E%B0%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%BC%9F%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%8D
%E5%85%B4/22168278?fromtitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%BC%9F
%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4&fromid=23209541&fr=aladdin.
17
实现了中华民族站起来的伟大梦想
18
干出了一片新天地
19
ibid
20
Allison, Graham. “What Xi Jinping Wants.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, May 31, 2017.
https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/05/what-china-wants/528561/.
21
Lobell, Steven E. “Structural Realism/Offensive and Defensive Realism.” Oxford Research Encyclopedia of
International Studies, March 1, 2010.
https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.0001/acrefore-
9780190846626-e-304#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%2C%20offensive,reserved%20policies%20to
%20attain%20security.
22
Wilson, Jake. “China's Domestic Aircraft Carrier Program: Modernization and Challenges.” Air University
(AU), 2021. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Wild-Blue-Yonder/Article-Display/Article/2842336/chinas-
domestic-aircraft-carrier-program-modernization-and-challenges/.
23
Lo, Kinling. “What Is China's Belt and Road Initiative All about?” South China Morning Post, December 10,
2020. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3113231/what-chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-
all-about.
24
Nakamura, Ryo, Ken Moriyasu, and Tsukasa Hadano. “China Has Multiple Military Basing Options in Africa,
Analysts Say.” Nikkei Asia. Nikkei Asia, December 21, 2021. https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-
relations/Indo-Pacific/China-has-multiple-military-basing-options-in-Africa-analysts-say.

4
relationships with states hostile to the US such as Iran25 and Russia26. Furthermore, they are

also expanding their political influence in traditional US sphere of influences such as Latin

America and the Caribbean27. They have also begun using their considerable economic

influence in Asia to remove US influence, as seen in the THAAD dispute with South Korea 28.

Lastly, they have significantly increased the belligerence of their foreign policy messaging

through “wolf warrior diplomacy”29, showing that China truly is over playing defence. China

is now attempting to maximise their power in the political, economic, and military spheres

both abroad and in its home region of Asia. China is thus behaving like a textbook offensive

realist revisionist power as described by Mearsheimer30.

In response, the US has adopted an explicit containment strategy against China. They have

targeted China’s economic capabilities through a trade war starting in 2018 31, restrictions on

sales of American tech to China32, and sanctions on Chinese tech companies such as

Huawei33. They have also utilised the fears of China’s neighbours to form a coalition in the

25
Fassihi, Farnaz, and Steven Lee Myers. “Defying U.S., China and Iran near Trade and Military Partnership.”
The New York Times. The New York Times, July 11, 2020.
https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/11/world/asia/china-iran-trade-military-deal.html.
26
CNA. “Russia and China Proclaim 'No Limits' Partnership to Stand up to US.” Citation Machine, a Chegg
service, 2022. https://www.citationmachine.net/bibliographies/2f6c75ee-f30e-4839-a0d8-12cafbcf3ac9.
27
Maginer, Mark. “China Is Outmanoeuvring Us in Latin America Region, Senators Are Warned.” South China
Morning Post, March 31, 2022. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3172667/china-
outmanoeuvring-us-latin-america-and-caribbean-senators.
28
YANG, FLORENCE WEN-TING. “Asymmetrical Interdependence and Sanction: China’s Economic Retaliation
over South Korea’s THAAD Deployment.” Issues & Studies 55, no. 04 (2019): 1940008.
https://doi.org/10.1142/s1013251119400083.
29
Palmer, Alex W. “The Man behind China's Aggressive New Voice.” The New York Times. The New York Times,
July 7, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/07/magazine/china-diplomacy-twitter-zhao-lijian.html.
30
Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, New York: W.W. Norton, 2014, pg 318-
360
31
SCMP. “What Is the US-China Trade War?” South China Morning Post, May 28, 2021.
https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3078745/what-us-china-trade-war-how-it-started-
and-what-inside-phase.
32
Martin, Eric, and Jenny Leonard. “Biden Follows Trump With Tight Curbs on U.S. Tech Sales to China.”
Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 2021. https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-15/biden-follows-
trump-with-tight-curbs-on-u-s-tech-sales-to-china.
33
Kwan, Campbell. “US President Biden Signs Law to Ban Huawei and ZTE from Receiving FCC Licences.” ZDNet.
ZDNet, November 11, 2021. https://www.zdnet.com/article/us-president-biden-signs-law-to-ban-huawei-and-
zte-from-receiving-fcc-licences/.

5
Quad34, with plans to expand this coalition to even more members35. For its own part, the US

has increased its military budget to the highest level in history – 814 billion dollars 36. It has

also upgraded its alliances with its allies, especially Japan 37 and South Korea38.

It is thus very clear that the rise of China and its concomitant power increases have

provoked a proportionate reaction from the US, creating a constantly escalating security

dilemma between the two states. Although I portray China as a revisionist power seeking

increased power and eventually hegemony, Xi Jinping has explicitly said that they are not 39.

Regardless of China’s true intentions, this bilateral security dilemma means that the logical

end result will require China to seek hegemony regardless of what it wants. As China

continues to rise even more in the future, the US will decline relatively. This will lead to the

“disequilibrium” situation Gilpin describes40, where the declining US requires ever more

resources to maintain its current position while the rising China finds change to be less and

less costly. Gilpin argues that this disequilibrium never lasts for long and is usually resolved

by war41.

34
Straits times. “Checking China: What Is the Quad Alliance?” The Straits Times, February 11, 2022.
https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/australianz/checking-china-what-is-the-quad-alliance.
35
Panda, Jagannath. “Making 'Quad plus' A Reality.” – The Diplomat. for The Diplomat, January 13, 2022.
https://thediplomat.com/2022/01/making-quad-plus-a-reality/.
36
Greve, Joan E. “Biden's Record Defense Budget Draws Progressive Ire over Spending Priorities.” The
Guardian. Guardian News and Media, April 3, 2022.
https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/apr/03/biden-record-defense-budget-progressive-spending-
priorities.
37
The Guardian. “US and Japan Draw up Joint Military Plan in Case of Taiwan Emergency – Report.” The
Guardian. Guardian News and Media, December 24, 2021.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/24/us-and-japan-draw-up-joint-military-plan-in-case-of-
taiwan-emergency-report.
38
Shin, Hyonhee, and John Smith. “U.S., S.Korea Seen Resuming Major Military Drills as N.Korea Tensions Rise.”
Reuters. Thomson Reuters, March 31, 2022. https://www.reuters.com/world/us-skorea-seen-resuming-major-
military-drills-nkorea-tensions-rise-2022-03-31/.
39
Straits Times. “Xi Says at Summit with ASEAN That China Will Never Seek Hegemony.” The Straits Times,
November 22, 2021. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/xi-says-at-summit-with-asean-that-china-
will-never-seek-hegemony.
40
Gilpin, Robert. “Hegemonic War and International Change.” War and Change in World Politics, 1981, 186–
210. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511664267.007.
41
ibid

6
This can happen in one of two ways. Firstly, the rising power can decide that the time is ripe

for war and strike directly at the reigning power when they believe it beneficial. This is

extremely unlikely to happen with China and the US due to the threat of nuclear weapons.

The second case is much more likely and much harder to avoid. Due to the aforementioned

security competition, it becomes very likely that China develops security and economic

arrangements with great parts of the world. Since the US already has such arrangements in

many countries42, two opposing blocs covering vast portions of the world will be created.

Even if both the US and China do not wish for war to occur, this structure dramatically

increases the risk that small crises can escalate into major wars. A very similar situation was

actually one of the major causes of the first world war43. Graham Allison has termed this

phenomenon the “Thucydides trap” and showed that 12 out of 16 cases where a rapidly

rising power threatened to displace the reigning hegemon in the last 500 years resulted in

war44. As such, China and the US will very likely go to war because of the structure of the

international arena and the changing balance of power between China and the US.

Intersubjective definitions

However, constructivist critics will argue that solely using structure to determine outcomes

is overly deterministic and reduces the agency of states themselves. Constructivists such as

Wendt do not disagree with basic assumptions about anarchy, but they do believe that it

does not necessarily lead to the conclusions structural realists say will happen. As Wendt

42
Haddad, Mohammed. “Infographic: History of US Interventions in the Past 70 Years.” Infographic News | Al
Jazeera. Al Jazeera, September 10, 2021. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/10/infographic-us-military-
presence-around-the-world-interactive#:~:text=Nearly%20half%20of%20all%20US,south%20of%20the
%20capital%20Seoul.
43
Little, Becky. “How a Regional Conflict Escalated into World War I.” History.com. A&E Television Networks,
February 4, 2022. https://www.history.com/news/regional-conflict-world-war-i-beginning.
44
Allison, Graham Tillett. Destined for War Can America and China Escape Thucydides's Trap? Melbourne,
Victoria: Scribe, 2020, pg 49-87

7
writes: “If the United States and Soviet Union decide that they are no longer enemies, the

cold war is over”45. For constructivists, state interests depend on the intersubjective

definitions they have of each other. It is thus possible to escape the “self-help” security

environment that neorealism prescribes. For example, the EU should not be able to exist in

a purely neorealist world due to its unique supranational structure 46. Constructivists would

therefore reject the argument that the US and China are necessarily headed for war just

because of the changing balance of power between China and the US.

It is certainly true that intersubjective definitions are important in determining state choices

in the anarchic international system and can even prevent hegemonic wars. For example,

Portugal and Spain avoided war in the late fifteenth century even though Spain was rapidly

rising and threatening to displace Portugal as the reigning hegemon. This was due to the

intervention of the pope and both states’ intersubjective definitions of each other as good

Catholic kingdoms47. Unfortunately, the intersubjective definitions that the US and China

have developed about each other reduces trust and forces them into the competitive

neorealist self-help environment, dramatically increasing the chances of war.

The US since 2016 and the inauguration of President Trump has increasingly come to define

China as a systemic threat. China is now seen as a fundamental threat to democracy and

human rights while also using unfair trade tactics to win economically. On this the US has

accused China of everything from genocide in Xinjiang48 to destroying the freedom of Hong

45
Wendt, Alexander. “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics.”
International Organization 46, no. 2 (1992): 391–425. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300027764.
46
Collard-Wexler, Simon. “Integration under Anarchy: Neorealism and the European Union.” European Journal
of International Relations 12, no. 3 (2006): 397–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067349.
47
Allison, Graham Tillett. Destined for War Can America and China Escape Thucydides's Trap? Melbourne,
Victoria: Scribe, 2020, pg 217- 219
48
Wong, Edward, and Chris Buckley. “U.S. Says China's Repression of Uighurs Is 'Genocide'.” The New York
Times. The New York Times, January 19, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/19/us/politics/trump-
china-xinjiang.html.

8
Kong49. Trump’s director of national intelligence has called China “National security threat

no 1”50, while government officials have attempted to frame China as the new Soviet Union

in “the longer telegram”51. President Biden has explicitly accused China of damaging

democracy and has promised not to let them surpass the US52. President Trump was much

more straightforward, saying that the US cannot “continue to allow China to rape our

country”53 with reference to China’s trade practices and started a trade war with them

affecting hundreds of billions of dollars of goods54.

As far back as 1991, Wang Huning was already writing about the decadence and decline of

the US55. He is now on the politburo standing committee and has been identified as one of

the main ideological theorists behind modern Chinese policy since Jiang Zemin 56. Chinese

elites now increasingly identify with this definition57. China thus believes its own model

offers an alternative to the global democratic status quo58, and is exporting it to foreign

49
Egan, Lauren. “Trump Signs Hong Kong Sanctions Bill, Announces Executive Order in Escalation with China.”
NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, July 15, 2020.
https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/trump-signs-hong-kong-sanctions-bill-announces-executive-
order-escalation-n1233839.
50
Ratcliffe, John. “Opinion | China Is National Security Threat No. 1.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow Jones &
Company, December 3, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-is-national-security-threat-no-1-
11607019599.
51
Anonymous. “The Longer Telegram: Toward a New American China Strategy.” Atlantic Council, October 22,
2021. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/atlantic-council-strategy-paper-series/the-longer-
telegram/.
52
Renshaw, Jarrett, Andrea Shalal, and Michael Martina. “Biden Says China Won't Surpass U.S. as Global
Leader on His Watch.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, March 25, 2021. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-
biden-china-idUSKBN2BH2ZE.
53
Diamond, Jeremy. “Trump: 'We Can't Continue to Allow China to Rape Our Country'.” CNN. Cable News
Network, May 2, 2016. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/01/politics/donald-trump-china-rape/index.html.
54
SCMP. “What Is the US-China Trade War?” South China Morning Post, May 28, 2021.
https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3078745/what-us-china-trade-war-how-it-started-
and-what-inside-phase.
55
王沪宁. 美国反对美国. 上海, 上海: 上海文艺出版社, 1991, pg 344-390
56
Lyons, N. S. “The Triumph and Terror of Wang Huning.” Palladium, October 14, 2021.
https://palladiummag.com/2021/10/11/the-triumph-and-terror-of-wang-huning/.
57
Zheng, William. “China's Officials Play up 'Rise of the East, Decline of the West'.” South China Morning Post,
March 9, 2021. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3124752/chinas-officials-play-rise-east-
decline-west?module=inline&pgtype=article.
58
Xinhua. “Full Text: China: Democracy That Works.” Xinhua, 2021.
http://www.news.cn/english/2021-12/04/c_1310351231.htm.

9
countries59. Furthermore, China is becoming increasingly nationalistic, with a key

component of this nationalism being the “century of humiliation”, where European powers

and the US committed horrendous crimes against China and its peoples 60. The US is thus

now defined as a former imperial power who is once again dangerously close to China’s

doorstep and must thus be assiduously guarded against lest atrocities like the burning of the

summer palace occur again61.

To the US, China is now a rapacious authoritarian power hell-bent on undermining the very

fabric of democracy as it rises through unfair trade practices that also undermine global

standards of fair trade. To China, the US is a morally degenerate power in decline that still

unfortunately has the power to wreak imperial havoc on China if they should ever let their

guard down. It is thus very obvious that these two countries harbor deep distrust and

downright hostility towards each other and are thus firmly in the neorealist world I

described earlier. This hostility was on full display at the 2021 China-US Alaska meeting 62,

which has been described as the start of the new cold war63. It is thus clear that these

definitions are here to stay for the foreseeable future. The intersubjective definitions the US

and China have developed of each other reduce mutual trust significantly and is a major

factor in increasing the risk of war.

59
Young, Benjamin R. “China Is Already Exporting Authoritarianism to the Developing World.” Nikkei Asia.
Nikkei Asia, December 4, 2021. https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/China-is-already-exporting-authoritarianism-
to-the-developing-world.
60
Tischler, Mark. “China's 'Never Again' Mentality .” – The Diplomat. for The Diplomat, August 20, 2020.
https://thediplomat.com/2020/08/chinas-never-again-mentality/.
61
Bowlby, Chris. “The Palace of Shame That Makes China Angry.” BBC News. BBC, February 2, 2015.
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30810596.
62
BBC news. “US and China Trade Angry Words at High-Level Alaska Talks.” BBC News. BBC, March 19, 2021.
https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56452471.
63
Heydarian, Richard Javad. “Fireworks and Fury Set New Cold War Tone in Alaska.” Asia Times, March 23,
2021. https://asiatimes.com/2021/03/fireworks-and-fury-set-new-cold-war-tone-in-alaska/.

10
Conclusion

China’s rapid rise has been a truly unprecedented event in the entire history of humanity.

Although this rise has brought significant benefits to the Chinese people and many countries

of the world, it also brings with it extreme danger in the form of hegemonic war with the

US. This danger is exacerbated significantly by the deeply hostile intersubjective definitions

the US and China have now formed of each other. Unfortunately, analysis of this situation

by IR theory suggests an extremely high likelihood of war. However, the complexity of the

world is such that anything truly can happen. It is thus still entirely possible that war can be

avoided between China and the US through some unforeseen circumstance.

11
 Bibliography

Allison, Graham Tillett. Destined for War Can America and China Escape Thucydides's Trap?

Melbourne, Victoria: Scribe, 2020.

Allison, Graham. “What Xi Jinping Wants.” The Atlantic. Atlantic Media Company, May 31, 2017.

https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2017/05/what-china-wants/528561/.

Anonymous. “The Longer Telegram: Toward a New American China Strategy.” Atlantic Council,

October 22, 2021. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/content-series/atlantic-council-strategy-

paper-series/the-longer-telegram/.

BBC news. “US and China Trade Angry Words at High-Level Alaska Talks.” BBC News. BBC, March

19, 2021. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-56452471.

BBC. “Chinese Economy to Overtake Us 'by 2028' Due to Covid.” BBC News. BBC, December 26,

2020. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-china-55454146.

Bowlby, Chris. “The Palace of Shame That Makes China Angry.” BBC News. BBC, February 2, 2015.

https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30810596.

12
CNA. “Russia and China Proclaim 'No Limits' Partnership to Stand up to US.” Citation Machine, a

Chegg service, 2022. https://www.citationmachine.net/bibliographies/2f6c75ee-f30e-4839-

a0d8-12cafbcf3ac9.

Collard-Wexler, Simon. “Integration under Anarchy: Neorealism and the European Union.”

European Journal of International Relations 12, no. 3 (2006): 397–432.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1354066106067349.

Diamond, Jeremy. “Trump: 'We Can't Continue to Allow China to Rape Our Country'.” CNN. Cable

News Network, May 2, 2016. https://edition.cnn.com/2016/05/01/politics/donald-trump-

china-rape/index.html.

Economic times. “Wars That People's Republic of China Fought.” The Economic Times, 2009.

https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/special-report/wars-that-peoples-republic-of-china-

fought/articleshow/5357547.cms?from=mdr.

Egan, Lauren. “Trump Signs Hong Kong Sanctions Bill, Announces Executive Order in Escalation with

China.” NBCNews.com. NBCUniversal News Group, July 15, 2020.

https://www.nbcnews.com/politics/white-house/trump-signs-hong-kong-sanctions-bill-

announces-executive-order-escalation-n1233839.

Fassihi, Farnaz, and Steven Lee Myers. “Defying U.S., China and Iran near Trade and Military

Partnership.” The New York Times. The New York Times, July 11, 2020.

https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/11/world/asia/china-iran-trade-military-deal.html.

Gilpin, Robert. “Hegemonic War and International Change.” War and Change in World Politics,

1981, 186–210. https://doi.org/10.1017/cbo9780511664267.007.

13
Greve, Joan E. “Biden's Record Defense Budget Draws Progressive Ire over Spending Priorities.” The

Guardian. Guardian News and Media, April 3, 2022. https://www.theguardian.com/us-

news/2022/apr/03/biden-record-defense-budget-progressive-spending-priorities.

The Guardian. “US and Japan Draw up Joint Military Plan in Case of Taiwan Emergency – Report.”

The Guardian. Guardian News and Media, December 24, 2021.

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/dec/24/us-and-japan-draw-up-joint-military-

plan-in-case-of-taiwan-emergency-report.

Haddad, Mohammed. “Infographic: History of US Interventions in the Past 70 Years.” Infographic

News | Al Jazeera. Al Jazeera, September 10, 2021.

https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2021/9/10/infographic-us-military-presence-around-the-

world-interactive#:~:text=Nearly%20half%20of%20all%20US,south%20of%20the%20capital

%20Seoul.

Heydarian, Richard Javad. “Fireworks and Fury Set New Cold War Tone in Alaska.” Asia Times,

March 23, 2021. https://asiatimes.com/2021/03/fireworks-and-fury-set-new-cold-war-tone-

in-alaska/.

Institute, Lowy. “Map.” Lowy Institute Asia Power Index, 2021. https://power.lowyinstitute.org/.

Kwan, Campbell. “US President Biden Signs Law to Ban Huawei and ZTE from Receiving FCC

Licences.” ZDNet. ZDNet, November 11, 2021. https://www.zdnet.com/article/us-president-

biden-signs-law-to-ban-huawei-and-zte-from-receiving-fcc-licences/.

Little, Becky. “How a Regional Conflict Escalated into World War I.” History.com. A&E Television

Networks, February 4, 2022. https://www.history.com/news/regional-conflict-world-war-i-

beginning.

14
Lo, Kinling. “What Is China's Belt and Road Initiative All about?” South China Morning Post,

December 10, 2020. https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3113231/what-

chinas-belt-and-road-initiative-all-about.

Lobell, Steven E. “Structural Realism/Offensive and Defensive Realism.” Oxford Research

Encyclopedia of International Studies, March 1, 2010.

https://oxfordre.com/internationalstudies/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190846626.001.000

1/acrefore-9780190846626-e-304#:~:text=On%20the%20one%20hand%2C

%20offensive,reserved%20policies%20to%20attain%20security.

Lyons, N. S. “The Triumph and Terror of Wang Huning.” Palladium, October 14, 2021.

https://palladiummag.com/2021/10/11/the-triumph-and-terror-of-wang-huning/.

Macro trends. “China Military Spending/Defense Budget 1989-2022.” MacroTrends, 2020.

https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/CHN/china/military-spending-defense-budget.

Macro trends. “U.S. Military Spending/Defense Budget 1960-2022.” MacroTrends, 2020.

https://www.macrotrends.net/countries/USA/united-states/military-spending-defense-

budget.

Maginer, Mark. “China Is Outmanoeuvring Us in Latin America Region, Senators Are Warned.”

South China Morning Post, March 31, 2022.

https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3172667/china-outmanoeuvring-us-

latin-america-and-caribbean-senators.

Martin, Eric, and Jenny Leonard. “Biden Follows Trump With Tight Curbs on U.S. Tech Sales to

China.” Bloomberg.com. Bloomberg, 2021.

15
 https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-04-15/biden-follows-trump-with-tight-

curbs-on-u-s-tech-sales-to-china.

Mearsheimer, John J. The Tragedy of Great Power Politics. New York, New York: W.W. Norton,

2014.

Nakamura, Ryo, Ken Moriyasu, and Tsukasa Hadano. “China Has Multiple Military Basing Options in

Africa, Analysts Say.” Nikkei Asia. Nikkei Asia, December 21, 2021.

https://asia.nikkei.com/Politics/International-relations/Indo-Pacific/China-has-multiple-

military-basing-options-in-Africa-analysts-say.

Palmer, Alex W. “The Man behind China's Aggressive New Voice.” The New York Times. The New

York Times, July 7, 2021. https://www.nytimes.com/2021/07/07/magazine/china-

diplomacy-twitter-zhao-lijian.html.

Panda, Jagannath. “Making 'Quad plus' A Reality.” – The Diplomat. for The Diplomat, January 13,

2022. https://thediplomat.com/2022/01/making-quad-plus-a-reality/.

Ratcliffe, John. “Opinion | China Is National Security Threat No. 1.” The Wall Street Journal. Dow

Jones & Company, December 3, 2020. https://www.wsj.com/articles/china-is-national-

security-threat-no-1-11607019599.

Renshaw, Jarrett, Andrea Shalal, and Michael Martina. “Biden Says China Won't Surpass U.S. as

Global Leader on His Watch.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, March 25, 2021.

https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-biden-china-idUSKBN2BH2ZE.

Rudd, Kevin. “A New Sinology for a New Period.” Asia Society, December 10, 2017.

https://asiasociety.org/policy-institute/new-sinology-new-period.

16
SCMP. “What Is the US-China Trade War?” South China Morning Post, May 28, 2021.

https://www.scmp.com/economy/china-economy/article/3078745/what-us-china-trade-

war-how-it-started-and-what-inside-phase.

Sengupta, Somini. “The United Nations Explained: Its Purpose, Power and Problems.” The New York

Times. The New York Times, September 18, 2016.

https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/19/world/what-is-united-nations-un-explained.html.

Shin, Hyonhee, and John Smith. “U.S., S.Korea Seen Resuming Major Military Drills as N.Korea

Tensions Rise.” Reuters. Thomson Reuters, March 31, 2022.

https://www.reuters.com/world/us-skorea-seen-resuming-major-military-drills-nkorea-

tensions-rise-2022-03-31/.

Straits times. “Checking China: What Is the Quad Alliance?” The Straits Times, February 11, 2022.

https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/australianz/checking-china-what-is-the-quad-alliance.

Straits Times. “Xi Says at Summit with ASEAN That China Will Never Seek Hegemony.” The Straits

Times, November 22, 2021. https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/xi-says-at-summit-

with-asean-that-china-will-never-seek-hegemony.

Tischler, Mark. “China's 'Never Again' Mentality .” – The Diplomat. for The Diplomat, August 20,

2020. https://thediplomat.com/2020/08/chinas-never-again-mentality/.

United Nations. “Does the United Nations Have an Army? - Ask Dag!” United Nations. United

Nations, 2022. https://ask.un.org/faq/177270.

United Nations. “What Is the Purpose or Role of the United Nations? - Ask Dag!” United Nations.

United Nations, 2022. https://ask.un.org/faq/176175.

17
Wendt, Alexander. “Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics.”

International Organization 46, no. 2 (1992): 391–425.

https://doi.org/10.1017/s0020818300027764.

Wilson, Jake. “China's Domestic Aircraft Carrier Program: Modernization and Challenges.” Air

University (AU), 2021. https://www.airuniversity.af.edu/Wild-Blue-Yonder/Article-Display/

Article/2842336/chinas-domestic-aircraft-carrier-program-modernization-and-challenges/.

Wong, Edward, and Chris Buckley. “U.S. Says China's Repression of Uighurs Is 'Genocide'.” The New

York Times. The New York Times, January 19, 2021.

https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/19/us/politics/trump-china-xinjiang.html.

World Bank. “GDP (Current US$) - China.” Data, 2020.

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=CN.

World Bank. “GDP (Current US$) - United States.” Data, 2020.

https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?locations=US.

Xinhua. “Full Text: China: Democracy That Works.” Xinhua, 2021.

http://www.news.cn/english/2021-12/04/c_1310351231.htm.

YANG, FLORENCE WEN-TING. “Asymmetrical Interdependence and Sanction: China’s Economic

Retaliation over South Korea’s THAAD Deployment.” Issues & Studies 55, no. 04 (2019):

1940008. https://doi.org/10.1142/s1013251119400083.

Young, Benjamin R. “China Is Already Exporting Authoritarianism to the Developing World.” Nikkei

Asia. Nikkei Asia, December 4, 2021. https://asia.nikkei.com/Opinion/China-is-already-

exporting-authoritarianism-to-the-developing-world.

18
Zheng, William. “China's Officials Play up 'Rise of the East, Decline of the West'.” South China

Morning Post, March 9, 2021.

https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy/article/3124752/chinas-officials-play-rise-

east-decline-west?module=inline&pgtype=article.

王沪宁. 美国反对美国. 上海, 上海: 上海文艺出版社, 1991.

百度百科. “实现中华民族伟大复兴_百度百科.” 百度百科, 2022.

https://baike.baidu.com/item/%E5%AE%9E%E7%8E%B0%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E

%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%BC%9F%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4/22168278?

fromtitle=%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%BC%9F

%E5%A4%A7%E5%A4%8D%E5%85%B4&fromid=23209541&fr=aladdin.

19