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A Field Study on Thermal Comfort of Occupants and Acceptable Neutral

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DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11429976

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 Indoor and Built Environment
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A Field Study on Thermal Comfort of Occupants and Acceptable Neutral Temperature at the National
Museum in Malaysia
Y. H. Yau, B. T. Chew and A.Z.A. Saifullah
Indoor and Built Environment published online 5 December 2011
DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11429976

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 Original Paper
Indoor and Built Accepted: October 23, 2011
Environment Indoor Built Environ 2011;000;000:1–12

A Field Study on Thermal

Comfort of Occupants and
Acceptable Neutral
Temperature at the National
Museum in Malaysia
Y.H. Yau B.T. Chew A.Z.A. Saifullah
Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Key Words temperature range of 18–228C as recommended by

Museum E Field study E Thermal environment E Museums Australia Victoria. The mean indoor humidity
Neutral operative temperature E Energy saving was too high compared to the optimal range of 55  5%
strategy E Tropics relative humidity (RH). The mean air velocity,
0.15 ms1, in each gallery was satisfactory. Findings
of this study are very useful for designing heating,
Abstract ventilating and air-conditioning (HVAC) systems with
A field study was conducted to investigate the thermal energy-saving methodology for museum buildings in
environment and occupants’ comfort in the National tropical regions.
Museum of Malaysia. The occupants’ thermal percep-
tions in the museum were measured and characterised.
The response of the occupants has indicated that the
Nomenclature
thermal conditions inside the museum did not satisfac-
torily fulfil the ASHRAE Standard 55, because only 78%
of the occupants were satisfied with their environment. A/C ¼ Air-conditioning
Besides, actual mean vote (AMV) and predicted mean AMV ¼ Actual Mean Vote
vote (PMV) were compared. The Fanger’s model gave a aPMV ¼ Adaptive Predicted Mean Vote
neutral operative temperature of 22.28C from the PMV, ANSI ¼ American National Standard Institute
whereas the questionnaire data used in the mean ASHRAE ¼ American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
thermal sensation vote (MTSV) of the present study and Air Conditioning Engineering
gave a higher value (22.58C) for the neutral operative CAV ¼ Constant Air Volume
temperature. The preferred operative temperature was DCV ¼ Demand-Controlled Ventilation
found to be 22.38C. The minimum air temperature in DOAS ¼ Dedicated Outdoor Air System
three galleries was below the lower limit of the ET ¼ Effective Temperature

ß The Author(s), 2011. Reprints and permissions:

http://www.sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav Y.H. Yau
DOI: 10.1177/1420326X11429976 Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala
Accessible online at http://ibe.sagepub.com Lumpur, Malaysia Tel. 603-79675204, Fax 603-79675317
Figures 2 and 3 appears in colour online E-Mail yhyau@um.edu.my
Downloaded from ibe.sagepub.com at University of Texas at San Antonio on May 16, 2012
 HVAC ¼ Heating, Ventilating and Air-Conditioning
IAQ ¼ Indoor Air Quality
MRT ¼ Mean Radiant Temperature
MTSV ¼ Mean Thermal Sensation Vote
PMV ¼ Predicted Mean Vote
PPD ¼ Predicted Percent Dissatisfied
RH ¼ Relative Humidity
SET ¼ Standard Effective Temperature
TSENS ¼ Thermal Sensation Scale
T0 ¼ Operative Temperature
Introduction
The objective of temperature and climate control in a
museum is the prevention and limitation of the degrada-
tion process of the artefacts firstly, while at the same time
ensuring a pleasant environment for the occupants.
Thermal-hygrometric parameters and air ventilation effec-
tiveness are of significant importance for the indoor
microclimatic conditions of the exhibition rooms of
museum buildings. An appropriate heating, ventilating
and air-conditioning (HVAC) system is needed for precise
control of temperature, humidity and air velocity. The
HVAC system minimises fluctuations of these parameters
from their design values, in order to develop a safe and
suitable environment required for the exhibits and the
occupants. Potentially harmful variations of the microcli-
matic conditions are caused by thermal load due to
ventilated outdoor air and thermal load due to occupants
present in the exhibition spaces especially in Malaysia
[1,2], the latter being highly variable according to the
occupant numbers [3].
Malaysia is a tropical country. Therefore, museum
buildings demand the continuous cooling operation of the
air-conditioning system, almost throughout the whole year
and for 24 h a day. Consequently, the control strategies for
heating and humidification can be ignored. Sustainability
based on a socio-economic context is useful for achieving
considerable energy savings, while maintaining a good
dynamic microclimatic control [3–6].
Museum buildings are significant in their representation
of national cultural heritage and their functional char-
acter. It is difficult to establish a balance between the
necessary indoor climatic conditions for protecting the
exhibits and providing thermal comfort to the occupants,
while also showing respect to the aesthetics and the
historical significance of the buildings. In order to evaluate
the cooling loads, assessing the building’s thermal
2 Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12
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conductivity and capacity, necessary ventilation and
indoor air movement are essential [7].
Referring to Lim, Malaysia is a country where the
people have to live with a constantly hot and humid
climate [8]. Throughout the year, the temperature ranges
from 22 to 328C in the lowlands. Two distinct seasons exist
in Malaysia. The south-west monsoon creates the dry
season from May to September and the rainy season
caused by the north-east monsoon prevails from mid-
November until March. A heavy shower often accom-
panied by thunder and lightning usually lasts for about an
hour or two on a rainy day. Annual rainfall is heavy at
2,500 mm and the relative humidity (RH) level is about
80% throughout the year. It is, therefore, a necessity for
most of the museums to have an air-conditioning (A/C)
system to control the indoor air quality (IAQ) for
preservation of the artefacts.
Muzium Negara is the National Museum of Malaysia
located on Damansara Road in Kuala Lumpur. It was
built in a palatial structure. It consists of three storeys in a
structure of 109.7 m in length, 15.1 m in width and 37.6 m
in height at the central point. There are four main galleries
in the museum specializing in ethnology and natural
history. The displays are free-standing tableaux of cultural
events like weddings, festivals and costumes and also
traditional weapons, musical instruments, arts and crafts,
ceramics and flora and fauna.
Indoor environmental control is important to take care
of all of these collections. The main causes of degradation
processes of historical building and works of art are
thermal-hygrometric conditions, vertical thermal distri-
bution of air masses, air-velocity in contact with the
artefacts, IAQ, concentration of pollutants and electro-
magnetic radiation emanating from sources of artificial
and natural light [9]. Degradation can also be induced by
their synergic effects [10].
Degradation phenomena due to changes of size and
form of objects by mechanical mechanisms, chemical
reactions and proliferation of microorganisms are the
major risks to the collection of cultural heritage [3]. Hence,
all limitations must be defined at the beginning of the
design. Stable RH and operative temperature are import-
ant to prevent collections from deterioration and to
provide a suitable environment for comfort and health
of visitors.
All materials change their size due to their properties
when subjected to a change of temperature and RH.
Materials get fractured easily if the temperature is too low
and chemical processes occur more quickly at elevated
temperatures. High temperature also accelerates ageing or
Yau et al.
decay. Biological deterioration may also occur in the
collection. Lower temperature is associated with higher
RH. This improves growth conditions for microbial
organisms. Hence, caution must be taken to control the
temperature of the museum to be within a suitable range.
The most important factors with regard to damage to the
collections are the indoor temperature and RH of the
museum.
Most museums require a RH of 40–55% and a
temperature of 18–248C, with daily fluctuations of 3%
RH and 38C, respectively. A filtration design is necessary
to remove at least 50% of particulates and contaminants
in order to achieve comfort and health [11]. For general
museums, the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating
and Air Conditioning Engineering (ASHRAE) Handbook
2007 recommends a temperature range of 15–258C and a
RH of less than 60% [12].
According to Plenderleith and Werner, the museum
room temperature suitable for the occupants within the
limits of 16–258C should be determined first, and then the
RH should be decided with regard to the collections [13].
Thomson suggests an upper and lower limit of RH of 65%
and 45% for moisture-absorbing materials [14]. Ascione
[3] and Bellia [15] suggest an air temperature of 22  18C
and 50  5% RH for exhibition rooms. The Museums
Australia Victoria recommends that the temperature range
for a museum should be 18–228C [16]. Temperatures lower
than 188C put museum collections at risk. The lower level
of the temperature range is decided by the comfort of the
museum staff and visitors. It is more difficult to maintain
the recommended humidity level when the temperature is
below 108C, and there may be problems associated with
condensation. The higher the temperature level, the faster
the degradation processes. Thus, the people’s comfort and
the preservation of the collections determine the tempera-
ture range of 18–228C. The temperature of the areas
seldom visited by staff and visitors may be kept lower (in
cases where heating is required).
Besides indoor air temperature and RH, effective
outdoor air ventilation is necessary for providing a
comfortable environment for the occupants. Excessive
flow of outdoor air could lead to particle and gaseous
pollution. Furthermore, it would cause an unreasonably
high latent heat load in a humid climate and, thereby,
cause unacceptably high energy consumption. Thus, out-
side air flow should be kept to the minimum required for
supplying fresh air to the occupants and pressurizing the
collection areas. It is advisable to keep the outdoor air
flow rate lower than the maximum limit of 0.25 ms1
recommended by the ASHRAE Standard 55 [17].
Thermal Comfort Study at a Museum in Malaysia
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This research aims to provide:
. Measurement and characterization of occupants’ ther-
mal perceptions in a museum in Malaysia.
. Comparison between predicted and observed values of
the percentage of the occupants dissatisfied.
. Determination of the acceptable neutral temperature in
the museum.
. Measurement of the indoor thermal environmental
parameters by sensors.
. Determination of strategies in designing HVAC systems
with low energy consumption for a thermally comfor-
table environment expected by the occupants of
museum buildings in the tropics.
Theory on Thermal Comfort
Thermal comfort standards play a great role in building
sustainability as these are the determining factors for
energy consumption of a building’s environmental
systems. Thermal comfort is a measurement of the level
of comfort of the indoor environment as perceived by the
occupants, and gives an indication of the proportion of
occupants that notice warmth or coolness in a space. The
classical approach, called the T–RH method, of control-
ling or measuring air temperature and humidity is not
practically feasible for the assessment of the museum’s
environment. People’s thermal comfort depends on both
personal and environmental factors. The parameters that
determine indoor thermal conditions are mainly tempera-
ture and sensation indices.
Fanger created the predicted mean vote (PMV) model to
determine the thermal comfort conditions for working and
living spaces. Based on thermo-neutrality, the PMV model
expresses the mean value of the votes by a large group of
persons on a seven-point thermal scale, which describes the
thermal perceptions of the occupants. The PMV index is a
function of four environmental parameters – air tempera-
ture, partial pressure of water vapour, relative air velocity
and mean radiant temperature, and two environmental
parameters – metabolic rate and clothing insulation.
Assuming steady-state laboratory conditions in its
derivation, the PMV model makes an oversimplification
of its sensitivity to the metabolic rates and the clo-values.
Thus, thermal impressions are underestimated and the
swings of these impressions get undervalued. Transitional
spaces are excluded for thermal comfort predictions by the
PMV model as the physical conditions and the met values
are unstable and dynamic in nature [18]. The psychological
Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 3
and the behavioural adaptations in the real world are not
considered in the PMV model [19].
The PMV equation is only applicable where human
beings remain at constant conditions for a long period
with a constant metabolic rate. The PMV model does not
give good results due to inaccurate specifications of some
of its input parameters. Buratti and Ricciardi collected
data by experimental measurements with special microcli-
matic acquisition systems and also distributed a series of
specific questions to respondents. Comparison of PMV
values obtained from both the cases showed that the
information gathered from the questionnaire has a
tendency to overestimate/estimate higher discomfort con-
ditions [20]. Becker and Paciuk reported that the PMVs
calculated by the Fanger’s PMV model were markedly
lower than the actual thermal sensation votes [21].
Because of the inaccuracy of the PMV model, the
adaptive predicted mean vote (aPMV) model, based on
different conditions, was created. According to van Hoof,
there are two ways for improvement: one is the correction
or adjustment of the model itself, and the other is the
introduction of methods to increase the accuracy of input
parameters of the model [18]. Humphreys and Nicol
clarified how the variables used in the calculation of PMV
cause the difference between the actual vote and the PMV
[22].
Based on the different opinions for a warm climate
leading to disagreement between the actual mean vote
(AMV) and the PMV, Fanger and Toftum placed an
extended PMV model with the incorporation of an
‘‘expectancy factor, e’’. This mainly explains that in a
warm climate, a discrepancy occurs between the AMV and
the PMV for naturally ventilated buildings due to over-
estimation of the PMV for thermal sensation of the
occupants. Conventional heat-balance theory applied to
laboratory research gives rise to the thermal index of
PMV, which could become widely applied with the help of
this expectancy factor [23].
Besides that, Yao et al. also proposed an aPMV model,
which is expressed by Equation (1) where ‘‘’’ is termed as
the ‘‘adaptive coefficient’’ [19].
PMV
aPMV ¼ : ð1Þ
1 þ   PMV
This aPMV model explicitly describes how ISO 7730
overestimates or underestimates thermal sensation occur-
ring in the heat-balance model of PMV in warm and cool
conditions, respectively. It is a linear regression model
expressing the relationship between indoor design
4 Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12
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temperature or an acceptable range of temperature and
outdoor meteorological parameters.
Comfort zones are defined by the International
Standards ISO 7730 [24] and the ASHRAE Standard
55-92 [25] by the application of Fanger’s lab-oriented
PMV-predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD) method. The
thermal comfort standard by adaptive thermal comfort
has been claimed to be energy saving in comparison to that
by the traditional PMV–PPD-based thermal comfort [26].
This led to the update of the ASHRAE Standard 55 by the
Adaptive Comfort Standard American National Standard
Institute (ANSI)/ASHRAE 55-2004 [17].
The adaptive principle of thermal comfort requires a
field-survey for collecting data on the thermal environ-
ment as well as thermal responses of the subjects. A
statistically significant relationship between the indoor air
temperature and the indoor neutral temperature was
found by Humpreys [19]. The outdoor climate significantly
influences the prevailing indoor air temperature. The
adaptive model shows that the thermal comfort tempera-
ture is a function of the outdoor air temperature.
According to Brager and de Dear, the PMV and the
AMV established from the subjects’ responses are
complementary to each other [27], and the thermal and
non-thermal effects on occupants’ responses in real
buildings can only be estimated by creating a compromise
between both types of modelling approaches [19,26]. The
aPMV model is helpful for applying the PMV method in
various buildings with the consideration of the local
climate, culture and social backgrounds, as well as
behavioural habits, styles and so on. The aPMV model
is also useful for studying the dynamic thermal comfort set
points, which are some of the key factors that affect
building energy consumption.
Methodology
A museum preserves the displayed materials and also
provides thermal comfort to the visitors and the employees
simultaneously. With a view to measuring and character-
izing occupants’ thermal perceptions in the Muzium
Negara, the National Museum located in Kuala Lumpur
in Malaysia, a field study was conducted using a subjective
questionnaire survey and also thermal–environmental
parameter monitoring. The aim of the subjective meas-
urement was to determine the discrepancies between the
subjects’ AMV and Fanger’s equation based on PMV. The
statistical analysis led to the implementation of a practical
thermal comfort temperature.
Yau et al.
 Subjective Measurement
In the museum, 28 subjects were chosen in four
different galleries during field measurement. The partici-
pants were 8 females (28.57%) and 20 males (71.43%).
Their mean age was 23.71 years with an age range of 22–28
years. A total of five males and two females were selected
from each gallery.
The thermal–environmental survey had covered several
demographics such as name, gender, age and so on. The
ASHRAE seven-points Thermal Sensation Scale
(TSENS), current clothing garment and metabolic activity
checklist also had been included in the survey. Figure 1
shows the questionnaire on the thermal environment and
occupants’ thermal comfort that was distributed to the
subjects participating in the study. The TSENS was used
to simulate occupants’ thermal response to their environ-
ment; the scale for the rating was as follows: hot (3), warm
(2), slightly warm (1), neutral (0), slightly cool (1), cool
(2) and cold (3). Table 1 shows a descriptive summary
of the subject occupants participated in the questionnaire
in the four galleries in the National Museum. Mean
metabolism and mean insulation in each gallery were 1.7
met and 0.47 clo, respectively.
Measurement of Indoor Environment
Ambient temperature, mean radiant temperature, RH
and air velocity were used as the thermal comfort
parameters to evaluate indoor air conditions of the
museum. These variables were measured by TSI
VELOCICALC Anemometer, KANOMAX-model 2211
IAQ Monitor and Globe thermometer. Table 2 shows
equipment used for the thermal comfort measurements
with their respective functions. Measurements of these
parameters were carried out at different points in the
galleries at 1.1 m height from the floor.
A globe thermometer was used to measure the mean
radiant temperature (MRT). It has a normal dry bulb
thermometer inserted through a rubber stopper to the
centre of a matte-black copper sphere of 150 mm diameter,
whose absorptivity approaches that of the skin.
Results and Discussion
Bioclimatic, environmentally friendly and energy-con-
scious design is crucial in most museums. The sustain-
ability factors of museums can be improved by a better
exhibition of the display materials with maximum visual,
acoustic and thermal comfort and a better IAQ. A lower
energy consumption with reduced respective operational
Thermal Comfort Study at a Museum in Malaysia
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costs is preferable, but the minimization must not be given
prime importance.
The ISO 7730 awards the PMV of the occupants’
thermal sensation a higher value on the ASHRAE scale in
the warm conditions of the tropics, since the PMV model
does not account for the psychological and behavioural
adaptations in the real world. This leads to an excessive
use of A/C, thus increasing energy consumption.
The AMV was determined from the subjects’ ques-
tionnaire survey. Obviously, the neutral operative tem-
perature calculated by the AMV is higher than that
calculated by the PMV. The PMV model is, thus, not
applicable in a museum in the tropical country of
Malaysia, because a slight increase in the neutral operative
temperature could allow significant energy saving. An
acceptable neutral temperature was determined. Different
energy-saving strategies suitable for a museum in the
tropics were also discussed.
Indoor Environment
Table 3 shows statistical summaries of the indoor
measurements for the Galleries A, B, C and D in the
National Museum of Malaysia. These include air tem-
perature, radiant temperature, operative temperature, RH,
air velocity, effective temperature (ET), standard effective
temperature (SET), TSENS, PMV and PPD.
The mean air temperatures of the four sampling zones
were: 18.4, 17.7, 21.1 and 18.48C. The minimum and the
maximum air temperature in 8C of the zones were: (17.7,
19.2), (16.6, 18.7), (20.8, 21.4) and (17.8, 19.4), respect-
ively. Air temperature at certain points in Gallery A,
Gallery B and Gallery D and the mean air temperature in
Gallery B were below the lower limit of the temperature
range of 18–228C as recommended by Museums Australia
Victoria [16]. This simply indicates that in Malaysia, a
country with a warm climate, the occupants would feel a
cooler sensation, especially in Gallery B and at certain
areas of Gallery A and Gallery D. This was further
supported by the subjective questionnaire survey of
adaptive thermal comfort. Energy was used unnecessarily
to produce excessive A/C.
The mean MRT in the four galleries were 24.58C,
23.38C, 25.08C and 23.98C. The lowest MRT was 22.68C
at a point in Gallery B and the highest MRT was 25.48C at
a point in Gallery C. The minimum and the maximum RH
in the four zones were (60.9%, 63.3%), (62.3%, 68.9%),
(73.2%, 75.1%) and (65.8%, 71.8%); the mean RH were
62.6%, 65.3%, 72.4% and 69.4%, respectively. The
humidity value of Gallery A was less than 65% RH. It
was mentioned earlier that suitable thermo-hygrometric
Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 5
Fig. 1. Questionnaire used to determine the thermal environment and occupants’ thermal comfort.

6 Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 Yau et al.

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Table 1. A descriptive summary of the subject occupants participated in the questionnaire in four galleries in the National Museum
Gallery Gallery A Gallery B Gallery C Gallery D

Sample size 7 7 7 7
Gender
Male 5 5 5 5
Female 2 2 2 2
Mean age (year)
(Mean, standard deviation) (23.71, 2.71) (23.71, 2.71) (23.71, 2.71) (23.71, 2.71)
(Minimum, maximum) (22, 28) (22, 28) (22, 28) (22, 28)
Mean metabolism (met)
(Mean, standard deviation) (1.7, 0) (1.7, 0) (1.7, 0) (1.7, 0)
(Minimum, maximum) (1.7, 1.7) (1.7, 1.7) (1.7, 1.7) (1.7, 1.7)
Mean clothing insulation (clo)
(Mean, standard deviation) (0.47, 0.09) (0.47, 0.09) (0.47, 0.09) (0.47, 0.09)
(Minimum, maximum) (0.43, 0.68) (0.43, 0.68) (0.43, 0.68) (0.43, 0.68)

Table 2. Equipment used for thermal comfort measurements
Type of instrument Measurement
parameter/function
TSI VELOCICALC (Anemometer) Dry bulb temperature (DBT)
Air velocity
Flow rate
IAQ Monitor Dry bulb temperature
(KANOMAX-model 2211) Wet bulb temperature
CO concentration (ppm)
CO2 concentration (ppm)
Relative humidity
Absolute humidity
Dew point temperature
Globe thermometer Radiant heat temperature
conditions for artefacts and occupants require the lowest
acceptable temperature with the maximum admissible RH.
Note that the ASHRAE Handbook 2007 suggests a
temperature range of 15–258C and a RH of less than
60% for a general museum [12]. This indicates that the air
temperature measured was within the lowest acceptable
threshold limit recommended by ASHRAE [12]. However,
the RH exceeds the threshold limit recommended by the
just mentioned standard. Hence, in the examined cases, it
is clear that the strategy of the lowest acceptable
temperature with the maximum possible RH is used to
design the HVAC system in the National Museum.
Hong Kong has a warm and humid climate. Thus,
buildings there require cooling throughout almost the
whole year [28]. The indoor design temperature and RH in
a modern museum in Hong Kong are 24  18C and
55  5% [28]. According to Ascione [3] and Bellia [15], the
RH should be 50  5% RH for exhibition rooms. Ambient
RH must never fall below 40–65% irrespective of the
HVAC system and the seasons [15]. With a temperature
4208C, RH 4 65% intensifies the development of mycete
colonies and promotes the life cycle of harmful insects.
Energy savings of 40% can be obtained by changing the
indoor RH range from 50  2% to 50  10% [3]. The
limiting values of RH for summer conditions in a museum
environment according to ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55
are 50% and 65% [17].
Only the RH of Gallery A is permissible with a great
reservation, while the other galleries have significantly too
high RH, thus potentially damaging the artefacts. It is
obvious that the A/C system of the museum is not
functioning properly in terms of humidity control. It is
recommended to keep a control of the indoor RH of the
National Museum of the tropical country, Malaysia, at
55  5% in order to achieve moderate preservation of the
display materials, comfort of the occupants and rational
use of energy.
The mean air velocities of the four zones measured were
0.14, 0.14, 0.15 and 0.15 ms1. These are within the
acceptable range of 0.10–0.25 ms1 for a museum as
recommended by ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55 [17]. The
average air velocities suitable for the artwork conservation
and the occupants’ thermal comfort lie within the range of
0.1–0.15 ms1 [29]. Air velocity of less than 0.15 ms1 is
considered as low-air-movement [30]. Huh et al. showed
that low air flow rates with RH below the upper comfort
limit allow for less energy consumption [31]. The mean air
velocities of the four zones are fairly acceptable.
Thermal Sensation
Figure 2 indicates the distribution of frequency for
TSENS responses. Figure 3 is the comparative illustra-
tion of TSENS response frequency of the four galleries

Thermal Comfort Study at a Museum in Malaysia Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 7

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Table 3. Statistical summaries of indoor measurements
Gallery Gallery A Gallery B Gallery C Gallery D

Mean air temperature (8C)

(Mean, standard deviation) (18.4, 0.50) (17.7, 0.7) (21.1, 0.2) (18.4, 0.5)
(Minimum, maximum) (17.7, 19.2) (16.6, 18.7) (20.8, 21.4) (17.8, 19.4)
Mean radiant temperature (8C)
(Mean, standard deviation) (24.5, 0.51) (23.3, 0.5) (25.0, 0.4) (23.9, 0.9)
(Minimum, maximum) (23.5, 25.3) (22.6, 23.9) (24.1, 25.4) (22.8, 25.2)
Mean operative temperature (8C)
(Mean, standard deviation) (21.5, 0.4) (20.5, 0.5) (23.1, 0.3) (21.1, 0.6)
(Minimum, maximum) (20.8, 22.2) (19.7, 21.3) (22.4, 23.4) (20.4, 22.3)
Mean relative humidity (RH; %)
(Mean, standard deviation) (62.6, 0.83) (65.3, 1.8) (72.4, 0.6) (69.4, 1.5)
(Minimum, maximum) (60.9, 63.3) (62.3, 68.9) (73.2, 75.1) (65.8, 71.8)
Mean air velocity (ms1)
(Mean, standard deviation) (0.14,0.04) (0.14,0.07) (0.15,0.06) (0.15,0.09)
(Minimum, maximum) (0.08,0.26) (0.08,0.44) (0.05,0.35) (0.03,0.39)
Effective temperature (ET; 8C)
(Mean, standard deviation) (21.24, 0.37) (20.32, 0.49) (23.3, 0.3) (20.87, 0.89)
(Minimum, maximum) (20.7, 22.0) (19.5, 21.1) (22.7, 23.6) (18.1, 22.2)
Standard effective temperature (SET; 8C)
(Mean, standard deviation) (21.61, 0.36) (20.7, 0.5) (23.51, 0.28) (21.54, 0.83)
(Minimum, maximum) (21.0, 22.3) (19.8, 21.5) (22.9, 23.8) (20.7, 24.1)
Thermal sensation (TSENS)
(Mean, standard deviation) (0.1, 0.0) (0.12, 0.04) (0, 0) (0.1, 0)
(Minimum, maximum) (0.1) (0.2, 0.1) (0, 0) (0.1)
Predicted mean vote (PMV)
(Mean, standard deviation) (0.16, 0.19) (0.4, 0.21) (0.23, 0.14) (0.29, 0.26)
(Minimum, maximum) (0.49, 0.46) (0.97, 0.11) (0.11, 0.44) (0.82, 0.05)
Predicted percent dissatisfied (PPD; %)
(Mean, standard deviation) (6.20, 1.47) (9.08, 4.7) (6.47, 1.24) (8.11, 4.12)
(Minimum, maximum) (5, 10) (5, 25) (5, 9) (5, 19)

Fig. 2. Frequency of thermal sensation responses for the National Museum.

of the museum. Just a few occupants in the four
galleries felt cold, adding up to 4%. No one in the four
galleries reported feeling hot. The conditions described
as slightly cool, neutral and slightly warm are
considered acceptable. In all 32% of occupants of the
four galleries felt that the inside condition was
comfortable, which is neutral. In all 32% of occupants
felt slightly cool and 14% of occupants felt slightly
warm inside the galleries. Only a few occupants felt
that the indoor condition was not comfortable, includ-
ing 4% of occupants felt cold, 7% of occupants felt
cool and 11% of occupants felt warm.

8 Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 Yau et al.

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 60%
Gallery A operative temperature calculated from the MTSV by using
Gallery B Equations (2)–(5) was 22.58C. In contrast, the neutral
50%
operative temperature calculated from the PMV by using
Gallery C
Equations (6)–(9) was 22.28C. Hence, the PMV model by
40% Gallery D
Fanger is not appropriate for use in the tropics, because a
% of Observation

Total slight difference of 0.38C between the predicted and the

percentage
30% actual neutral temperature could save a certain amount of
energy in the HVAC system.
20%
Thermal Preference
10%
Assessment of preferred temperature was done by direct
answers to the question: ‘‘At the present time, would you
prefer a warmer, no change or cooler environment?’’[33].
0%
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
From the overall results, 43% of the respondents’ voted
ASHRAE Thermal Sensation Scale for the thermal sensation ranging from slightly cool to
Fig. 3. Comparison of the frequency of thermal sensation responses cold, while 25% of the respondents’ voted for the thermal
of different museum galleries and their total percentage.
sensation ranging from slightly warm to hot. At the same
time, 32% of the respondents felt that the current
The mean metabolism and the mean clothing insulation condition was neutral. These results show that 43% of
in each gallery was 1.7 met and 0.47 clo, respectively. The the people prefer a warmer condition, 25% of them prefer
mean metabolism, 1.7 met was higher than the value of 1.2 a cooler condition, while 32% of the people found the
met for light activity level, which is considered as standard current condition to be comfortable and there was no need
for the indoor environment of a museum [32]. Still the to change the environment.
subjects were biased to cooler sensation as the mean Simple linear regression models were developed incor-
clothing insulation, 0.47 clo was less than the standard porating temperature levels with prefer warmer or prefer
clothing level, 0.5 clo for the cooling season [32]. cooler conditions. Figure 4 shows that the intersection of
Moreover, the subjects were free to put on or take off the two fitted lines gives the preferred temperature to be
their clothes to adjust their clothing insulation during the 22.38C. This study shows that the MTSV-based neutral
questionnaire survey. operative temperature, 22.58C, in the museum building
The mean thermal sensation vote (MTSV) was as was higher than the preferred operative temperature,
shown in Equations (2)–(9): 22.38C.
For Gallery A, MTSV ¼ 0:5401T0 11:605 ð2Þ
Thermal Acceptability
For GalleryB, MTSV ¼ 0:2819T0 6:6335 ð3Þ The percentage of the total participants in the
questionnaire study, who felt that thermal conditions
For Gallery C, MTSV ¼ 1:0148T0 22:462 ð4Þ were ‘‘acceptable’’, makes up the thermal acceptability
value [33]. About 78% of the occupants found the current
For GalleryD, MTSV ¼ 0:4572T0 10:481 ð5Þ thermal environment acceptable and 22% of occupants
The PMV was: felt that the current thermal environment was not
For Gallery A, PMV ¼ 0:1602T0 3:5975 ð6Þ acceptable. Votes of 1, 0 and þ1 were in the acceptable
temperature range that denotes comfort; all other votes
For Gallery B, PMV ¼ 0:2713T0 5:9641 ð7Þ indicated discomfort [26].
According to the ASHRAE Standard 55, a thermal
For Gallery C, PMV ¼ 0:2467T0 5:4631 ð8Þ environment is considered comfortable if it is accepted by
at least 80% of the staff [17]. This study shows that 22% of
For Gallery D, PMV ¼ 0:2512T0 5:5994 ð9Þ
the occupants were dissatisfied with their environment.
where T0 indicates the operative temperature. Hence, the indoor environment of the museum can be
Solution of Equations (2)–(9) for both MTSV and PMV considered as uncomfortable.
would give the neutrality value. A zero PMV value would However, the level of comfort is a subjective matter and
denote a thermally comfortable environment. The neutral may differ from one person to another depending upon

Thermal Comfort Study at a Museum in Malaysia Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 9

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Fig. 4. Calculation of preferred temperature.
Fig. 5. Calculation of neutral temperature of Gallery A.
their opinion and individual perception. The
ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2004 on ‘‘Thermal
Environmental Conditions for Human Occupancy’’ is the
basis of the work presented in this section. Besides this, a
well-designed HVAC system needs to control temperature,
humidity, air motion and radiant sources within specified
limits with the consideration of non-environmental factors,
such as the occupants’ activity level and dress.
Comparison Between Predicted Indices and Observed
Data
Figures 5–8 show that there was a difference between
the PMV value and the MTSV value for the four different
galleries in the museum. The reason is that the heat-
balance of the occupants in the museum was being
adjusted by other parameters, such as clothing and activity
level. People react in different ways to restore their
10 Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12
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Fig. 6. Calculation of neutral temperature of Gallery B.
comfort if they feel uneasy with the thermo-hygrometric
condition. These behavioural adjustments are not con-
sidered in the PMV model. Furthermore, in the field
studies, determination of the occupants’ activity level and
insulation due to clothing are not accurately possible.
Behavioural, physiological and psychological adjustments
are not considered in a realistic sense.
Energy-saving Strategies
All A/C systems are the preferable solution in order
to achieve optimal microclimatic conditions, especially
ambient RH, for museums. Two types of A/C systems
exist for cooling and dehumidification. One is the
traditional constant air volume (CAV) system with
separate temperature and humidity controls by cooling–
reheating, and the other is a dedicated outdoor air system
(DOAS) integrated with a CAV system. Both types of
Yau et al.

Fig. 7. Calculation of neutral temperature of Gallery C.
Fig. 8. Calculation of neutral temperature of Gallery D.
systems recover the sensible and latent heat of the exhaust
air by adopting enthalpy recovery devices to reduce energy
consumption [34]. The DOAS-integrated system is more
efficient than the CAV system with regard to reheating if
energy consumption is compared. It consumes 60% less
power than the CAV system. The fresh air flow rate is
regulated by occupant-based demand-controlled ventila-
tion (DCV) [35].
The best performance in RH control is obtained with a
system including desiccant wheels, in case that variation of
indoor RH greatly affects the artefacts. It is expensive, but
an innovative technique that decreases the related equip-
ment costs. The use of DCV is recommended when the
sensitivity of the artefacts to RH is insignificant, as it has
the lowest payback value. Intermediate features are
presented by the system with the enthalpy wheels.
In addition to the energy-saving strategies applicable to
the National Museum of Malaysia, passive cooling can be
Thermal Comfort Study at a Museum in Malaysia
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introduced simultaneously through the implementation of
surrounding plantation, which will keep the outdoor
environment cooler. Besides, a green roof garden could
be planted on the top of the museum, which in this way
would absorb less solar heat and thus reduce the cooling
load for the A/C, consuming less energy.
Environmental and energy targets in a museum include
the reduction of energy consumption and CO2 emissions
by applying advanced energy features. Renewable energy
may be integrated in museum buildings for the enhance-
ment of comfort and improvement of overall quality.
Conclusions
The following conclusions are drawn concerning the
conservation of the artefacts and thermal satisfaction of
the occupants in the National Museum, Malaysia:
The occupants’ responses has indicated that the thermal
conditions did not satisfactory met the ASHRAE
Standard 55, because only 78% of the occupants were
satisfied with their environment.
The neutral operative temperature calculated by the
PMV based on the Fanger’s model was 22.28C, whereas
the MTSV of the questionnaire responses was about
22.58C. The preferred neutral temperature was approxi-
mately 22.38C.
The thermal adaptation of the people indoors is
responsible for the difference in temperature preferred.
Usually, an adaptation of the people to the thermal
environment takes place by adjustment of other par-
ameters like clothing, windows and air-recirculation fans.
The mean air temperature in Gallery B was below the
lower limit of the temperature range of 18–228C as
recommended by Museums Australia Victoria, causing
risk to the artefacts as well as creating an uncomfortably
cool environment to the occupants.
The mean humidity in three galleries was above 65%
RH, which can cause serious damage to the display
materials.
The mean air velocity in each gallery was at a
satisfactorily low-air-movement of 0.15 ms1, suitable
for considerable energy saving.
The existing HVAC system was not working satisfac-
torily during the study, requiring re-adjustment of the set-
point temperature, and to re-adjust the humidity control
to keep the indoor humidity at 55  5% RH in order to
ensure moderate energy saving at the minimum indoor air
velocity.
Indoor Built Environ 2011;000:1–12 11
 The findings of this research with the consideration of
occupants’ thermal comfort are useful in designing a low
energy consumption HVAC system for museums in
tropical countries.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Science,
Technology and Innovation, Malaysia, for the full financial
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