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Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010
© 2010, INSInet Publication

Experimental Determination of the Moisture Content Pattern in Yam During Drying

A.O. Adelaja, O.S. Asemota and I.K. Oshiafi

Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria

Abstract: In this study, a forced convection solar dryer was designed, constructed and tested for the
purpose of drying yam in order to study the moisture removal pattern. Some pieces of yam fillets
weighing, 0.52kg, were dried in the dryer while an equal mass was dried in the open sun (control) and
the profiles obtained in both cases were compared. Also, evaluating the performance of the dryer; the
collector and system efficiencies of 65.6% and 54.8% were obtained respectively. The moisture content
removal of 75.0% was achieved as against 61.5% (control), indicating 13.5% difference. The percentage
of the difference in final moisture content to that obtained by dryer gave about 53.9% while the average
drying rate for the dryer was 0.0481kg/hr as against 0.0447kg/hr for open sun drying. Though the profiles
are similar in pattern, a uniform and better drying was achieved with the aid of the developed dryer.

Key words: solar energy, thermal analysis, yam, solar dryer, forced convection

INTRODUCTION employed a photovoltaic (pv) system which powers a

Yam is a widely distributed tuber crop in West
Africa. The most important species cultivated in
Nigeria are D. rotundata (white yam), D. alata (water
yam) and D. cayenensis (yellow yam). They are
important in the diet and socio-cultural life of people
in the growing region. More than 95% of the world’s
yam is produced in Africa with the remainder grown in
the West Indies, Asia and Central and South
America[1]. Nigeria contributes 68% of the world’s
output and 74% of the total production in West
Africa[2] and in 2005, of the 48.7 million tones
produced worldwide, West and Central Africa
accounted for about 94%, Nigeria being the main
producer[3]. “Yam zones” comprising Cameroun,
Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Ghana and Cote d’ Ivore
produce approximately 90% of the world output[4]. It is
an important source of Carbohydrate in the sub-Saharan
region especially in the “yam zones”[5] and contributes
over 20% of the total dietary calorie intake in the
South pacific[6]. Despite its dietary and socio-cultural
importance to people in the regions where it is grown,
it suffers a high degree of post harvest loss due to its
high water content which is between 65 and 85% of
the weight of the tuber. To preserve it from perishing,
it will require reducing the moisture content by drying.
In an attempt to dry various foodstuffs, many
researchers have developed different solar dryers.
(Abdel-Rehim and Fahmy[7] presented the design and
optimization of a cylindrical photovoltaic dryer with
dual packaged beds thermal storage for drying
medicinal herbs. Adelaja et al[8] developed a dryer that
d.c to power a dc fan that facilitates forced convection
while materials were locally sourced. Bala and
Woods[9] did considerable studies on simulation and
optimization of dryer. Bolaji and Olalusi[10] developed
a simple and inexpensive mixed-mode dryer from
locally sourced materials. Janjai et al[11] presented a
simulation model of pv ventilated system for a solar
tunnel dryer. Mathematical model for pv module and
d.c. fan were formulated. Using a computer
programme, these models were used to predict the
performance of pv-ventilated system for different
weather conditions. A pv solar dryer for small scale
application in the maize industry in Malawi, Central
Africa was developed by Mumba[12]. Although the
capital cost was high, about $900.00, it was found to
be cost effective with a payback period of less than
one year. Oosthuizen[13] attributed the low correlation
between the drying rate achieved by a flat plate
collector and the drying efficiency to failure to match
the dryer with design requirements. He also discussed
the use of a model in the selection of a design that
meet a particular set of requirements. Box type dryer
is most suitable for drying fruits and vegetable mass
between 10 and 15 kg (Sharma et al[14]). Wisniewski[15]
estimated the potentials of solar energy for drying
medicinal plants in Polish condition. He also conducted
an economic assessment on flat plate collector and
application of pv module for driving a fan connected
to a dryer. The result showed that the fan ensured a
control of the drying temperature. Wisniewski and
Pietruszko[16] developed pv driven solar heating systems
applied for drying medicinal plant in remote areas.

Corresponding Author: A.O. Adelaja, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Lagos, Akoka, Yaba, Lagos,
Nigeria
E-mail: ao_adelaja@yahoo.com
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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

In this study, we have developed a solar dryer in 319K, being the average of the maximum of the inlet
order to study the moisture content pattern of yam and outlet temperatures of the system during no load
during drying and compare it with the traditional test.
method of drying, (sun drying). The forced convection
solar dryer designed was evaluated for its performance Reynolds number, Re
and also compared with the traditional method.
VDh
MATERIAL AND METHOD Re  (1)

The study was carried out in October/November, 4 Ac
2008. The season was characterized by cloud cover and Where, Dh 
unpredictable weather conditions. The system set up is P
shown in figure 1. The dryer comprises three main
components namely the solar collector, the drying Nusselt number, Nu
chamber and the pv-extractor assembly. Firstly, the 1
solar collector assembly comprises the collector box, Nu  0.023Re0.8 Pr 3
(2)
absorber plate, glazing material and the heat reservoir
(a collection of granite stones painted black) set at the The following air properties were used (extracted
upper part of the collector. The drying chamber houses from Holman[22]);
the loading trays, access door and the extractor hole.
Thirdly, the pv-extractor assembly comprises the pv   1.1092kg / m3 ,
module, extractor, battery and the charge controller.
The framework is made basically from wood, painted
black on the inside except for the insulated sides and C p  1.00695kJ / kg . oC ,
the top of the solar collector which is glazed to allow
direct heating of the plate and the heat reservoir. The
battery stores excess energy during the sunshine hours   2.1552 105 kg / m.s ,
when the extractor is powered by the photovoltaic
system. At this time, the heat reservoir stores its heat
both by direct radiation from the sun and through   18.3296 106 m 2 / s ,
convection from the moving heated air passing over the
collector plate until equilibrium is reached with the
plate. During protracted cloud cover or non sunshine k  0.02777W / m. oC ,
hours, the charge controller reverses the operation of
the assembly and the extractor is being powered by the
battery while the moving air extracts some heat energy   0.25075m 2 / s , Pr  0.70382 .
from the heated plate and reservoir before getting into
the chamber. Expectedly, the plate loses its heat faster Convective coefficient of heat transfer, hc
than the reservoir which later contributes a larger
percentage of the heat energy in the chamber until Nu * k
equilibrium is reached with the environment. Table 1 hc  (3)
below shows the design considerations and assumptions Dh
while Table 2 contains the technical specifications.
Total heat loss coefficient, UL
Design Analysis: In this work we shall focus on the
thermal and drying analyses only. The structural 1
analysis of the dryer may not be necessary because it UL  (4)
is not a heavy load bearing structure. R1  R2  R3  R4
Thermal Analysis: The performance of a solar 1
collector and system is described by energy balance where, R1  ,
that indicates the distribution of incident solar energy  hco  hr  p co
into useful energy gain and various losses leading to
the calculations of the efficiencies. The thermal
analysis here follows the procedures as in Duffie and
Beckman[21]. The properties of air are evaluated at

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Table 1: Design considerations and assumptions.

S/N Parameters Description
1 Location Lagos, (long 3o24’, lat 6o27’N)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Drying period October- November
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Solar irradiation, Lagos (October/ November) 15.4 – 16.7 MJ/m2/day [17]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 Average relative humidity of Lagos over 10 year period 80% [18]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 Food products Yam
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6 Initial moisture content in yam 71% [19], 65-85% [20]
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 Mode of heating Indirect
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8 Number of glazing 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 Glazing slope 16.7o
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
10 Glazing Materials Glass
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
11 Loading provision Door at the back side of chamber
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
12 Number of trays 2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
13 Air outlet provision Vent at top of chamber (extractor hole)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14 Air circulation mode Forced convection
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
15 Drying capacity 10kg
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
16 Thickness of yam fillets 3 mm
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
17 Construction materials Wood, glass, mild steel sheet
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
18 Insulation used Glass fibre
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
19 Thickness of glass 4.5 mm
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 Transmittance of glass 0.81
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
21 Emissivity of cover 0.88
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
22 Emissivity of plate 0.98
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
23 Sky temperature 32 oC
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
24 Air velocity at fan speed of 750 rpm 5 m/s
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
25 Dimension of collector 1.08 x 0.76 m2
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
26 Insulator thickness 0.0125 m

Table 2: Technical Specifications.

S/N Parameters Description
1 Pv module type and rating 55Wp (RSM 50, Solar smart switch)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Solar charge controller SDRC- 10IP (12/24 V auto)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Extractor rating 12 Volts
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 Extractor speed 702 - 1012 rpm

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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of solar dryer assembly set up indicating the main components and air

1 x
R2  , R3  , I c  U L (Tave  Ta )
 hw  hr coa kin FR  (5)
I c  U L (Ti  Ta )
1 1
R4   , hc  hco , p co Collector’s efficiency, c
hco ,b  a hco

1 1 The useful energy rate:

 ,
hc ,b  a hw Qu  mu AC p Tc  Ta  (6)

or,
 T  T2 2
 T  Tco 
hr , p co 
p co p
Qu  Ac FR  I c  U L Tave  Ta  
1 1
 1
p  co useful energy gain over time
c 
Total Incident solar energy over same time period
and

 co Tco2  Ts2  Tco  Ts Tco  Ts  Qu

hr ,co  a  c  (7)
Tco  Ts Ac HR
Heat removal factor, FR Mass flow rate, m

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Qu m.h fg
m  (8)  (17)
C p (Tav  Ta ) Gcd
where, G  3600 IAc td
Volume flow rate, V
Experimental Procedure and Testing: The pv module
m was tilted such that its surface area became
V  (9) perpendicular to the rays of the sun. Five thermometers
 air were set in place to measure the ambient, Ta, entry, Ti,
plate, Tp, collector air, Tc, and chamber, Td
Drying Analysis: The drying analysis was carried out temperatures. The experiment was carried out in
in the following order: October/November, 2008. The season was characterized
Percentage moisture removed from product,  % by rain, cloud cover and fewer hours of sunshine.
The load test involved cutting 1.04kg of yam into
100(mw  md ) slices of about 3mm, washed and weighed. This was
% wet basis (10) divided into two parts, 0.52kg each. One part was
mw spread into the first tray of the chamber which had
earlier been checked for air tightness so as to avoid
Final moisture content of product, m f heat and moisture losses. The second part was spread
in the open sun. An hourly measurement of the
100   temperatures at specific locations and mass of the
m f  mi % (11) specimen was carried out between 10.00 and 17.00
100 hours each day for three days.

Amount of moisture removed, m Results: The no load test result, Table 3, reveals the
maximum, average and minimum temperatures
mw (mi  m f ) measured for Ta, Ti, Tp, Tc and Td before the specimen
m (12) was weighed and loaded into the drying chamber. The
100  m f highest temperature readings were observed at the plate
with 62oC maximum, 56.6 +/- 2.09oC average and 50oC
Quantity of heat used in evaporating moisture, Qe minimum. This was followed by the collector, dryer,
inlet and of course the ambient in that order
respectively. This is in agreement with the results
Qe  mh fg (13) obtained by Adelaja et al[8] and Bolaji and Olalusi[10].
For the load test, Table 4 shows the same
where, temperature pattern was observed around the plate as
in the case of the no load test but this time with a
h fg  4.186 x103 (597  0.56 xTd ) [23]
(14) maximum of 75oC and average of 57.04 +/- 1.81oC.
The drying chamber which of course is our focus has
Efficiency of dryer, d a maximum of 55oC. However, the 55oC limit may
have been occasioned by the extractor’s passive control
Qe over the air flow and hence the drying temperature.
d  (15) This was also reported by Mumba [12] and
Ac I Wisniewski[15]. Figures 2-4 show the profiles of the
temperatures recorded for the three days. The general
Average drying rate, mave patterns show an increase in the temperatures from
10.00 to between 12.00 and 14.00 before a decline.
m In the three figures, the highest temperatures were
mave  (16) observed between 13.00 and 14.00. These are in good
td agreement with Adelaja et al[8] and Bolaji and
Olalusi[10].
where, td = sunshine hours per day The calculated parameters used for the design and
evaluation of the system are presented in Tables 5 and
Determination of drying time, δ 6. The heat removal factor of 0.9429, useful energy

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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Table 3: No load test, the average, maximum and minimum temperatures recorded during no load test.
Time Ta Ti Tp Tc Td
Ave 34.60 +/-0.51 35.60 +/- 0.75 56.60 +/- 2.09 49.40 +/- 2.86 46.80 +/- 2.63
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Max 36.00 37.00 62.00 58.00 55.00
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Min 33.00 33.00 50.00 40.00 39.00
Source: analysed from data collected

Table 4: The measured temperature’s average and maximum.

Time Ta Ti Tp Tc Td
Average 33.67 +/- 0.41 35.00 +/- 0.49 57.04 +/- 1.81 49.65 +/- 1.49 44.00 +/- 1.21
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Maximum 37.00 38.50 75.00 64.00 55.00
Source: analysed from data collected

Table 5: Calculated values for design parameters.

S/N Parameters Values Data or equations used
1 Reynolds number 229539.35 (laminar) Equation (1)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Nusselt number 397.71 Equation (2)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Coefficient of heat transfer, W/m2 12.38 Equation (3)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 Total heat loss coefficient, W/m2k 1.803 Equation (4)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 Heat removal factor 0.9429 Equation (5)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6 Useful energy collected, W 391.50 Equation (6)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 Collector efficiency, % 65.59 Equation (7)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
8 Mass flow rate, kg/s 0.01944 Equation (8)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9 Volume flow rate, m3/s 0.01753 Equation (9)
Source: calculated from data provided in the equations used

Table 6: Performance evaluation of the system.

S/N Parameters Values (Solar dryer) Values (Open Sun dried) Equations used/ Data
1 Moisture removed, % 75 61.54 Equation (10)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2 Final moisture content, % 17.75 27.3 Equation (11)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
3 Amount of moisture removed, kg 0.337 0.313 Equation (12)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
4 Quantity of heat for moisture evaporation, MJ/kg 0.8088 0.7512 Equation (14)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
5 Dryer efficiency, % 54.76 Equation (13)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
6 Avearge drying rate, kg/hr 0.0481 0.0447 Equation (16)
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
7 Drying time, hrs (0.233/days)-1 (0.217/day)-1 Equation (17)
Source: calculated from data provided in the equations used

rate collected, 391.50 W, collector efficiency, 65.6%
and mass flow rate of 0.01944kg/s were obtained for
the system. The collector efficiency is greater than the
57.5% obtained by Bolaji and Olalusi[10] but lower than
80%[8,12]. For the performance evaluation of the system,
some parameters obtained from the dryer and the
control are compared. The moisture content removal
indicated a difference of about 13.5%. The percentage
of the difference in the final moisture to that obtained
by dryer gives about 53.9%. The average drying rates
are 0.0481kg/hr as against 0.0447kg/hr (control). The
drying efficiency obtained was 54.76%.
Discussion: The percentage moisture contents profiles
in figure 5 reveal that there is usually an increase in
the loss of moisture from the early hours to between
13.00 and 14.00 after which a reduction in rate is
observed. This can be attributed to low sunshine at the
early and late hours of the day, hence low heat
transfer. This explains the section of the profile
between 6.00 and 7.00, 15.00 and 16.00 and 20.00 and
21.00 drying time. The two profiles representing the
moisture content pattern of yam during drying with
solar system and open sun, show that the solar dryer is
more efficient compared to open sun drying apart from

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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Source: experimental data

Fig. 2: Recorded ambient, inlet, plate, collector and chamber temperatures for day 1.

Source: experimental data

Fig. 3: Recorded ambient, inlet, plate, collector and chamber temperatures for day 2.

the contamination and degradation associated with open
sun drying. The moisture content removed by the solar
dryer was 75% while the control was 61.54% which
translates to about 13.5% difference. Comparing the
physical appearance of the dried products the end
product of the solar dryer, figure 6a reveals a uniform
drying compared with the control, figure 6b.
Conclusion: The photovoltaic powered solar dryer
designed, constructed and tested here can function on
a continuous basis, that is, both during high intense
sunshine and non insolation hours especially during
cloudy weather. The collector and dryer efficiencies are
65.6% and 54.76% respectively, moisture content
removal of 75% and average drying rate of 0.0481kg/hr
were recorded during solar drying of yam. The
appearance of the yam as captured in figure 6a reveals
uniform and better drying as compared with open sun
drying. The efficiency of the dryer however can be
improved among other things by using a glass with
higher transmittance and a collector plate with higher
thermal diffusivity like aluminum.

1177
 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Source: experimental data

Fig. 4: Recorded ambient, inlet, plate, collector and chamber temperatures for day 3.

Source: experimental data

Fig. 5: Moisture content removal pattern in yam fillet during drying using open sun and solar dryer.

Nomenclature / Notations UL Overall convective coefficient of heat transfer,

T Temperature, oC
Re Reynolds number W/m2 K
Nu Nusselt number τ Transmittance of glass
h Coefficient of heat transfer, W/m2 ρ Density, kg/m3
I Solar insolation of collector, W/m2 α Absorptivity of collector plate
σ Stefan-Boltzmann constant
Qu Useful energy rate, W
m Mass flow rate, kg/s
Qe Heat of vapourisation, MJ
A Area of collector, m2 m Amount of moisture removed, kg
P Perimeter of collector, m Volume flow rate, m3/s

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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Fig. 6a: Yam fillets after process using solar dryer

Source: photographs taken after drying process

Fig. 6b: Yam fillets after open sun drying

υ Speed of air, m/s td Sunshine hrs (Time), s

η Efficiency, %
C p Specific heat capacity, kJ/ kg oK
FR Heat removal factor
H Rate of incidence of beam or diffuse radiation on
γ Moisture removal, % a unit area of space, W2/m4 K
δ Drying time, days

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 J. Appl. Sci. Res., 6(8): 1171-1181, 2010

Dh Hydraulic diameter for non circular tubes such as 214, The American Society of Agricultural
square ducts, m Engineers, St. Joseph, MI.
k Thermal conductivity, W/ m. oC 7. Abdel-Rehim, Z.S. and F.H. Fahmy, 1998.
Pr Prandtl number “Photovoltaic Dryer with Dual Picked Beds for
μ Coefficient of dynamic viscosity, kg/ms Drying Medical Herb”, Drying Technology, 16(3-
5): 799-811.
h fg Latent heat of vaporization, MJ/kg 8. Adelaja, A.O., B.Y. Ogunmola and P.O. Akolade,
2009. “Development of a Photovoltaic Powered
G Daily radiation, MJ Forced Convection Solar Dryer”, Advanced
Materials Research, 62-64: 543-548.
R1 Heat loss coefficient by convection & radiation 9. Bala, B.K. and J.L. Woods, 1995. Optimization of
from plate to cover, m2.K/ W a Natural Convection Solar Drying System,
R2 Convective heat loss coefficient from cover to Energy, 2(4): 285-294.
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