6 Nutrition in humans

‘Barbecued pork rice’ for the elderly

Special meal for the elderly Think about...

1 Why does the food we eat have
The ‘barbecued pork rice’ above is a special meal for the elderly. It is
to be digested?
made by breaking down the pork, vegetable and rice into pastes and
solidifying them. It tastes like real barbecued pork rice but its mousse- 2 How is food digested in our
body?
like texture makes it much easier for the elderly to swallow and digest.
(Answers on p. 35)

Acknowledgements and Important Notice:

All questions from the HKDSE, HKCEE and HKALE are reproduced by permission of the HKEAA.
Unauthorized use of the aforementioned questions in this electronic version is prohibited.
II Organisms and Environment
• autotroph, heterotroph
In Greek, ‘auto’ means
‘self’, ‘troph’ means
‘nutrition’ and ‘hetero’
means ‘other’.
autotroph 自養生物 autotrophic nutrition 自養營養
heterotrophic nutrition 異養營養
6– 2 parasitic nutrition 寄生式營養
6.1 Modes of nutrition
Nutrition* is a process in which organisms obtain food for energy,
growth and maintaining health. Organisms obtain their food in different
ways. For example, plants make their own food by photosynthesis.
This mode of nutrition is called autotrophic nutrition* and plants are
autotrophs*.
Most of the organisms cannot make their own food. They depend on
other organisms for food. This mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic
nutrition*. Organisms that carry out heterotrophic nutrition are called
heterotrophs*.
There are three main types of heterotrophic nutrition:
1 Holozoic nutrition*
Animals like humans carry out holozoic
nutrition. They take in complex food and
digest it inside the body.
Fig 6.1 Humans carry out holozoic nutrition
2 Saprophytic nutrition*
Many fungi (e.g. bread mould*) and bacteria
carry out saprophytic nutrition. They are bread
known as saprophytes*. They break down mould
the food outside the body and then absorb
the soluble nutrients into the body.
Fig 6.2 Bread mould carries out saprophytic nutrition
3 Parasitic nutrition*
Parasites* can be animals, plants, fungi or
bacteria. They live on or inside the body of
other organisms and obtain food from them.
For example, tapeworms* living in the small
intestine of humans, dogs or pigs and feed
on the digested food inside.
(×10)
Fig 6.3 Tapeworms carry out parasitic nutrition
bread mould 麫包霉 heterotroph 異養生物
holozoic nutrition 動物式營養 nutrition 營養 parasite 寄生物
saprophyte 腐生生物 saprophytic nutrition 腐生式營養 tapeworm 絛蟲
 6 Nutrition in humans

6.2 Process of human nutrition

Humans take in food containing large, complex molecules (e.g. starch,
proteins and lipids). These molecules have to be broken down before
our cells can use them. This is necessary because:
• The membrane of our cells is differentially permeable. Large,
complex food molecules cannot pass through. They have to be
broken down into small, soluble molecules, so that they can enter
the cells.
• The food molecules (e.g. cow proteins in beef) are structurally
different from those making up our body. Our body has to
break them down and use the small molecules to build our own
molecules (e.g. human proteins).

The nutrition in humans consists of five main processes (Fig 6.4):

food

1 Ingestion*: Food is taken in

through the mouth.

2 Digestion*: Food is broken

down into small, soluble food
molecules in our digestive
system*.

digested 3 Absorption*: The small, soluble

food
food molecules enter our
circulatory system.
4 Assimilation*: The absorbed
undigested
food food molecules are taken up by
cells for metabolism.

faeces* 5 Egestion*: The undigested

Fig 6.4 Nutrition in humans and unabsorbed materials are
removed from the body as
faeces.

absorption 吸收 assimilation 同化 digestion 消化 digestive system 消化系統 egestion 排遺 faeces 糞便 ingestion 攝食

6– 3
II Organisms and Environment

The human digestive system

Our digestive system consists of the alimentary canal and its
associated digestive glands (Fig 6.5).

• The alimentary canal is a long muscular tube that begins at the

mouth and ends at the anus. After food is taken into our mouth, it
is pushed along the alimentary canal in one direction. On the way,
food is digested and useful materials are absorbed. Undigested and
unabsorbed materials are egested through the anus.
• The digestive glands produce digestive juices*, which are released
into the alimentary canal to aid digestion.

Parts of the
alimentary canal* Digestive glands*

mouth cavity*
pharynx* salivary glands*

oesophagus*

liver*
stomach*
duodenum* pancreas*
small intestine*
ileum*

caecum*
appendix*
large intestine*
colon*
rectum*
anus*

Fig 6.5 The human digestive system

alimentary canal 消化道 anus 肛門 appendix 闌尾 caecum 盲腸 colon 結腸 digestive gland 消化腺
digestive juice 消化液 duodenum 十二指腸 ileum 迴腸 large intestine 大腸 liver 肝 mouth cavity 口腔
6– 4 oesophagus 食道 pancreas 胰 pharynx 咽 rectum 直腸 salivary gland 唾腺 small intestine 小腸 stomach 胃
 6 Nutrition in humans

6.1 Examination of the mammalian digestive system

Procedure
1 Examine the digestive system of a
dissected rat (or a human torso model).
mouth cavity
2 Identify the structures as shown in
Fig 6.6.

Practical 6.1

duodenum stomach

• Cover any exposed

wounds with sterile
dressings. caecum
• Wear disposable
gloves. colon
ileum

appendix
rectum

anus

Fig 6.6 The digestive system of a rat

1 What are the main processes of nutrition in humans?

Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation and egestion.
2 What does our digestive system consist of?
The alimentary canal: it starts from the mouth cavity, which
leads to the pharynx, the oesophagus, the stomach, the small
intestine and the large intestine. It ends at the anus.
The associated digestive glands: the salivary glands, the liver
and the pancreas.

6– 5
II Organisms and Environment

6.3 Ingestion
Nutrition in humans begins with ingestion. Ingestion is the taking in of
food through the mouth. In the mouth cavity, food is cut up into small
pieces by the teeth. The process of chewing food into small pieces is
called mastication*.

A The types of teeth

We have four types of teeth: incisors*, canines*, premolars* and
molars*. They are different in shape, and have different functions.
As shown in the figure below, the four types of teeth are arranged
symmetrically* on the left and right sides of our mouth. Their number
and arrangement are the same on the upper and lower jaws (Fig 6.7).

Incisor – biting and cutting food Canine – tearing flesh

chisel-shaped* pointed and curved

with flat sharp edges

one root one root

midline

upper jaw

The third molars of each

side of the mouth are called lower jaw
wisdom teeth*. They usually
appear between the ages of
16 and 24.

Premolar – crushing and Molar – crushing and grinding

grinding food food

broad top with cusps* broad top with cusps

(similar to premolar)

one or two roots two or three roots

Fig 6.7 The four types of teeth

canine 犬齒 chisel-shaped 鑿形的 cusp 尖突 incisor 門齒 mastication 咀嚼 molar 臼齒 premolar 前臼齒

symmetrical 對稱的 wisdom tooth 智慧齒
6– 6
 6 Nutrition in humans

DSE B Milk teeth and permanent teeth

14(IA)Q24, 18(IA)Q23
Humans have two sets of teeth. The first set is the milk teeth* which
appear during the first two years of life. Between the ages of 6 and 12,
the milk teeth fall out and are replaced by the permanent teeth*. The
permanent teeth will not be replaced if they are damaged or lost.

Dentition* refers to the type, number and arrangement of teeth in the

jaws. It can be represented by a dental formula*, which shows the
numbers of different types of teeth on each side of the upper and
lower jaws. The table below shows the dental formulae for the two sets
of teeth in humans. The total number of teeth in each set is also shown.

Milk teeth Permanent teeth

2 incisors (i) 2 molars (m) 2 incisors 2 premolars (pm)

1 canine (c) 1 canine 3 molars

X-ray photograph X-ray

showing whole set 1 canine photograph 2 incisors 2 premolars
of milk teeth showing whole set
2 incisors 2 molars of permanent teeth 1 canine 3 molars

2 1 0 2 2102 2 1 2 3 2123
Dental formula i , c , pm , m or simply i , c , pm , m or simply
2 1 0 2 2102 2 1 2 3 2123

Total number Each side of mouth: Each side of mouth:

of teeth (2 + 1 + 0 + 2) + (2 + 1 + 0 + 2) = 10 (2 + 1 + 2 + 3) + (2 + 1 + 2 + 3) = 16
Total number of teeth: Total number of teeth:
10 × 2 = 20 16 × 2 = 32

Dental formula of other mammals

Unlike humans, other animals may have different arrangements of teeth
in the upper and lower jaws. For example, the dental formula of cows is
0033 3142
and that of dogs is .
3133 3143

dental formula 齒式 dentition 齒系 milk teeth 乳齒 permanent teeth 恆齒

6– 7
II Organisms and Environment

DSE C Structure of a tooth

19(IA)Q23, 24
The four types of teeth in humans share common structures. A tooth
3D model 6.1 can be divided into three regions, the crown, the neck and the root
(Fig 6.8).

enamel*
dentine*
crown*: pulp cavity* crown
region above
the gum nerve fibres*
gums* neck
neck*:
region blood vessels
surrounded
by the gum jawbone root
periodontal
root*: membranes*
region in the
jawbone*
cementum*

Fig 6.8 The structure of a canine (left) and a molar (right)

Each tooth consists of three layers:

1 Enamel
• It is the outermost layer of the crown.

• It is non-living and is made mainly of calcium salts.

• It is the hardest tissue in our body. It protects the tooth from
wearing down as a result of chewing.
• Around the roots, it is replaced by cementum. The cementum
attaches the tooth to the jawbone through the periodontal
membrane.

dentine 2 Dentine
• It is a bone-like substance containing a large amount of calcium
salts, but is not as hard as the enamel.
• It is a living tissue containing strands of living cytoplasm (Fig 6.9).

(×250) 3 Pulp cavity

bone-like living
substance cytoplasm
Fig 6.9 Structure of dentine
• It contains living cells, blood vessels and nerve fibres.
• The blood vessels supply oxygen and nutrients to the tooth, and
remove wastes from it.
• The nerve fibres can detect temperature and pressure.

cementum 牙骨質 crown 齒冠 dentine 牙本質 enamel 琺瑯質 gum 齒齦 jawbone 顎骨 neck 齒頸
nerve fibre 神經纖維 periodontal membrane 牙周膜 pulp cavity 髓腔 root 齒根
6– 8

Visit the following website
and learn more about
dental diseases like tooth
decay* and periodontal
disease*, and how they
can be prevented.
https://www.toothclub.
gov.hk/en/en_adu_01.
html
periodontal disease 牙周病
6 Nutrition in humans
Tooth implant
The permanent teeth will not be replaced
if they are damaged or lost. Missing teeth
may affect chewing, making eating less artificial
enjoyable. Tooth implant is one of the crown
ways to replace missing teeth.
metal
During a tooth implant, the dentist drills base
a hole in the jawbone and places a metal
jawbone
base inside. The metal base serves as
an artificial root of the new tooth. An
artificial crown can then be fixed onto the Fig 6.10 How an artificial tooth
is implanted
base.
You can watch the video below to see how a tooth implant
is done:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gMycqoQrlBs
1 How is food ingested?
Food is put into the mouth cavity and masticated by the teeth.
2 What are the functions of each type of tooth?
Incisors are for biting and cutting food.
Canines are for tearing flesh.
Premolars and molars are for crushing and grinding food.
3 What is dentition?
Dentition refers to the type, number and arrangement of teeth
in the jaws.
4 What is a dental formula?
A dental formula shows the numbers of different types of teeth
on each side of the upper and lower jaws.
The dental formulae for the two sets of teeth in humans are:
Milk teeth: i 2 , c 1 , pm 0 , m 2 or 2102
2 1 0 2 2102
Permanent teeth: i 2 , c 1 , pm 2 , m 3 or 2123
2 1 2 3 2123
5 What is the structure of a tooth?
A tooth can be divided into the crown, neck and root.
Each tooth consists of three layers: the enamel, the dentine and
the pulp cavity.
tooth decay 蛀牙
6– 9
II Organisms and Environment

Watch this to prepare for

your class and answer the
6.4 Digestion
questions.
After ingestion, the food is moved along our alimentary canal and
Video & digested. Digestion occurs physically and chemically.
questions

DSE A Physical digestion and chemical digestion

12(IA)Q34, 14(IA)Q25, 26,
15(IA)Q8, 19(IA)Q25
1 Physical digestion
Physical digestion* is the breaking down of food into smaller pieces by
physical actions. It does not change the chemical structure of the food,
but it increases the surface area of the food for digestive juices to act
large piece small pieces on.
of food of food

Fig 6.11 Physical digestion The resultant food pieces in physical digestion are not yet small enough
for absorption. They must be further broken down into small molecules
by chemical digestion.

2 Chemical digestion
Chemical digestion* involves chemical reactions in which large,
complex food molecules are broken down into small, soluble
molecules. The reactions are catalysed by digestive enzymes*.

Carbohydrases, lipases and proteases are three main types of digestive

enzymes in our digestive system. They break down carbohydrates, lipids
and proteins respectively into small soluble molecules that are ready for
absorption (Fig 6.12). Small food substances like water, vitamins and
minerals do not need chemical digestion and can be absorbed directly.

carbohydrases*
e.g. starch
monosaccharides
disaccharides

glycerol
lipases*
e.g. triglycerides fatty acids

proteases*
e.g. proteins
amino acids

Fig 6.12 Chemical digestion catalysed by carbohydrases, lipases and proteases

carbohydrase 碳水化合物酶 chemical digestion 化學消化 digestive enzyme 消化酶 lipase 脂肪酶
physical digestion 物理消化 protease 蛋白酶
6– 10
 6 Nutrition in humans

Digestion mainly occurs in the mouth cavity, the stomach and the
small intestine. Fig 6.13 below shows how physical digestion and
chemical digestion are brought about in these three parts. The digestion
processes will be discussed in detail in the next few pages.

Mouth cavity
• physical digestion: chewing
(mastication)
• chemical digestion: catalysed by
enzyme in saliva*

Stomach
• physical digestion: churning*
• chemical digestion: catalysed by
enzyme in gastric juice*

Small intestine
• physical digestion: emulsification*
by bile*
• chemical digestion: catalysed by
enzymes in pancreatic juice* and
enzymes on the intestinal wall

Fig 6.13 Physical digestion and chemical digestion in three parts of the alimentary canal

Endoscopes: tools for examining the alimentary canal

Doctors can use an endoscope* to
examine the alimentary canal of patients.
A traditional endoscope consists of a flexible
tube with a camera at the end. It can be
inserted through the mouth or the anus.
Images can then be viewed on a screen.
A pill endoscope can also be used. It is a
camera contained in a capsule. After being
swallowed by a patient, it passes through
the alimentary canal and images along the Fig 6.14 A pill endoscope
alimentary canal can be viewed on a screen.

bile 膽汁 churn 劇烈攪動 emulsification 乳化 endoscope 內窺鏡 gastric juice 胃液 pancreatic juice 胰液 saliva 唾液

6– 11
II Organisms and Environment

DSE B Digestion in the mouth cavity

18(IA)Q18
In the mouth cavity, food is chewed by teeth into small pieces and mixed
with saliva. Chewing makes the food easier to swallow and increases the
surface area of the food for the action of digestive juices.

Saliva is a digestive juice produced in salivary glands. The table below

shows the substances saliva contains and their functions.

Substance Functions

Salivary amylase* It is a carbohydrase which catalyses the breakdown

of starch into maltose.
salivary amylase
starch maltose

Mucus* It is a sticky material. It helps bind food particles

together. It also moistens and lubricates the
food. These make the food easier to be chewed
and swallowed.

Water It dissolves soluble substances in the food, so that

we can taste the food.

After chewing, the tongue rolls the food into a soft mass called a bolus*.
The bolus is then swallowed down the oesophagus through the pharynx.

Swallowing
The pharynx leads to both the oesophagus and the trachea. To ensure
Animation 6.1
that the bolus passes into the oesophagus, and not the trachea or the
nasal cavity, a series of events takes place during swallowing (Fig 6.15).

Before swallowing During swallowing

❶
1 The tongue rises to push the bolus
nasal cavity towards the pharynx.
soft palate* ❷ The soft palate moves up to prevent
bolus the bolus from entering the nasal cavity.

tongue ❸ The larynx rises so that the epiglottis

pharynx covers the opening to the trachea.
This prevents the bolus from entering
epiglottis* the trachea.
larynx*
oesophagus ❹ The bolus enters the oesophagus.
trachea*

Fig 6.15 The swallowing process

bolus 食團 epiglottis 會厭 larynx 喉 mucus 黏液 salivary amylase 唾液澱粉酶 soft palate 軟腭 trachea 氣管
6– 12

Fig 6.16 Structure of the oesophagus
Cross-link
The muscle layers also help
digestion by mixing the food
with digestive juices and help
absorption by increasing the
contact between intestinal
wall and digested food. You
will learn more about these
later in this chapter.
circular muscle 環肌 epithelium 上皮
6 Nutrition in humans
Peristalsis: the process of moving food from oesophagus to rectum
The wall of the alimentary canal basically consists of four layers, the
innermost epithelium, a layer of connective tissue and two layers of
muscles: circular muscles and longitudinal muscles. The muscle fibres
in the two layers of muscles are arranged in different ways (Fig 6.16).
These muscles work together in a coordinated way to push the food
along the alimentary canal.
longitudinal muscles*
• fibres arranged along
the length of the tube
circular muscles*
• fibres arranged in rings
around the tube
connective tissue
epithelium*
lumen*
Fig 6.17 Oesophagus (T.S.) (×4)
After the food is swallowed, the two muscle layers in the wall of the
oesophagus contract alternatively to produce a wave-like movement
to push the food down to the stomach. This wave-like movement of the
wall of the alimentary canal is called peristalsis (Fig 6.18).
Behind the bolus from pharynx
Circular muscles contract and
longitudinal muscles relax, causing
the lumen to become smaller. oesophagus
This squeezes the food forward.
In front of the bolus
Circular muscles relax and longitudinal bolus
muscles contract, causing the lumen
to become larger. The food can slide
through the lumen.
to stomach
Fig 6.18 How peristalsis moves the bolus along the oesophagus
Peristalsis occurs all the way along the alimentary canal, from the
oesophagus to the rectum. Mucus secreted from the digestive glands
(e.g. salivary glands) or from the walls of the alimentary canal
(e.g. intestinal wall) lubricates the passage of the food.
longitudinal muscle 縱肌 lumen 管腔
6– 13
II Organisms and Environment

Animation 6.2 C Digestion in the stomach

The stomach is a muscular bag. Its entrance is guarded by two rings of
muscles (Fig 6.19):
• cardiac sphincter: It is located at the junction of the oesophagus
and the stomach. Its contraction prevents food from flowing back
into the oesophagus.
• pyloric sphincter: It is located at the junction of the stomach and
the duodenum. It controls the release of food into the duodenum.

cardiac
sphincter*
gastric juice

gastric
glands*
pyloric circular
sphincter* muscle

longitudinal
muscle (×10)
stomach wall
Fig 6.19 Structure of the stomach

After the food enters the stomach, muscles in the stomach wall contract
to churn the food and mix it with gastric juice. Gastric juice contains:

Substance Functions

Pepsin* It is a protease which catalyses the breakdown of

proteins into peptides. It works best in an acidic
medium (about pH 2).
pepsin
proteins peptides

Hydrochloric acid* • It provides an acidic medium for the action

of pepsin.
• It kills most bacteria in food.

Mucus It protects the stomach wall from being

digested by the pepsin or being damaged by the
hydrochloric acid.

After a few hours in the stomach, the food becomes a creamy liquid
called chyme*. The pyloric sphincter then relaxes to release the food,
a little at a time, into the duodenum. This prevents overloading of the
duodenum and allows time for digestion in the duodenum.

cardiac sphincter 賁門括約肌 chyme 食糜 gastric gland 胃腺 hydrochloric acid 氫氯酸 pepsin 胃蛋白酶
pyloric sphincter 幽門括約肌
6– 14
 6 Nutrition in humans

6.2 Investigation of the action of pepsin

Introduction
A milk agar plate can be used to study the action of pepsin. It is white in Practical 6.2
colour because it contains a milk protein. If the milk protein is broken down,
a clear zone will be observed.

Procedure

• The cork borer is very sharp. Handle it with care.

• Cover any exposed wounds with sterile dressings.
• Wear disposable gloves.
• Dilute hydrochloric acid is corrosive. Avoid contact with skin.

1 Heat the end of a cork borer in a Bunsen flame and allow it

to cool. cork borer

2 Gently press the borer down into the milk-agar plate to make
three wells. Replace the lid as quickly as possible. Label the
wells A, B and C on the side of the Petri dish. well
milk-agar plate
3 Use a clean dropper to fill up the wells with the solution
mixtures shown below.

1 cm3 pepsin solution

+
A
1 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid

1 cm3 boiled pepsin solution 1 cm3 distilled water

+ +
1 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid 1 cm3 dilute hydrochloric acid
C B

4 Replace the lid. Incubate the plate at 35 °C for one hour.

5 Observe any clear zone formed around the wells of the milk-agar plate.

Results and discussion

• A clear zone is observed around well A. Pepsin in well A diffuses to the milk-agar and helps the
breakdown of the milk protein.

• No clear zone is observed around well B. It shows that any clear zone formed around well A is due
to the presence of pepsin.
• No clear zone is observed around well C. It shows that any clear zone formed around well A is due
to the enzymatic action of pepsin.

6– 15
II Organisms and Environment

Gastroesophageal reflux disease

In some people, the cardiac sphincter does not close completely after food enters the stomach. The
acidic contents of the stomach may flow back to the oesophagus, causing damage to the oesophagus.
This results in symptoms like a burning sensation in the chest. This condition is called gastroesophageal
reflux disease* (GERD).
Patients suffering from GERD should avoid eating two to three hours before sleeping. This is because
after eating, the gastric glands release more gastric juice. Also, the oesophagus and the stomach are at
the same level when we are sleeping. These all increase the chance of gastric reflux.

The cause of gastric ulcer

Gastric ulcer* is a disease in which the
stomach wall becomes damaged and bleeds.
For many years, doctors believed that it was
caused by excessive acid secretion in the
stomach.
In the 1980s, Dr Barry Marshall observed that
a kind of bacteria called Helicobacter pylori*
was present in the stomach of ulcer patients.
He hypothesized that this bacteria was the
cause of gastric ulcers. He treated his patients
with antibiotics*, which were chemicals that Fig 6.20 Dr Barry Marshell
kill bacteria. Many of his patients recovered
rapidly.
However, Marshall’s discovery was only widely accepted about 20 years
later. This was because many doctors were subjectively affected by
the concept that bacteria cannot grow well in acidic conditions of the
stomach. Marshell was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
in 2005 for the discovery of H. pylori.

Which of the following aspects of nature of science is/are demonstrated

in the discovery of the cause of gastric ulcer? Put a ‘✓’ in the correct box.
a Interpretation of observations is guided by our prior
understanding of other theories and concepts.
b Science is affected by social and cultural factors.
c Scientific knowledge is tentative and subject to change.

antibiotic 抗生素 gastric ulcer 胃潰瘍 gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) 胃酸倒流 Helicobacter pylori 幽門螺旋菌

6– 16

DSE
12(IB)Q10, 15(IA)Q7,
16(IA)Q7, 17(IA)Q2–4,
18(IB)Q8
Gallstones
When substances in bile
harden, they may form
gallstones* that block
the bile duct. Learn more
about the formation of
gallstones and their effect
on health at:
http://www.nlm.nih.gov/
medlineplus/gallstones.
html
bile pigment 膽色素 bile salt 膽鹽
6 Nutrition in humans
D Digestion in the small intestine
The chyme from the stomach contains partially digested food. The
digestion of food is completed in the small intestine. The small intestine
includes the duodenum and the ileum.
When the chyme enters the duodenum, various secretions are released
into the duodenum (Fig 6.21). Contraction of the muscles in the
intestinal wall helps mix food with the digestive juices to aid digestion.
liver
gall 1 bile
bladder
stomach
chyme
3 intestinal juice*
pancreas
2 pancreatic juice
duodenum
Fig 6.21 The digestive juices released from different digestive glands into the duodenum
1 Bile
Bile is a green alkaline fluid produced continuously by the liver. It
is temporarily stored in the gall bladder and is released through the
bile duct into the duodenum when the chyme enters the duodenum. It
contains no digestive enzyme. Bile contains:
Substance Functions
Bile salts* They emulsify lipids into small droplets (a kind
of physical digestion). This facilitates chemical
digestion by increasing the surface area of lipids for
lipase to act on.
Bile pigments* They do not take part in digestion. They are
waste products formed from the breakdown of
haemoglobin from red blood cells. They are then
excreted in faeces.
Sodium • It neutralizes the acidic chyme to protect the
hydrogencarbonate* small intestine from being damaged.
(alkaline) • It provides an alkaline medium for the action of
the enzymes in the small intestine.
gallstone 膽石 intestinal juice 腸液 sodium hydrogencarbonate 碳酸氫鈉
6– 17
II Organisms and Environment
Cross-link
Another function of the
pancreas is the production
of hormones for controlling
blood glucose level. You will
learn more about this in
Bk 2, Ch 18.
Pancreatic juice is the only
digestive juice containing
lipase in our body.
Cross-link
Refer to Ch 3 for the
functions of the membrane
proteins in cell membrane.
pancreatic amylase 胰澱粉酶
6– 18
2 Pancreatic juice
Pancreatic juice is produced by the pancreas and released through the
pancreatic duct into the duodenum. Pancreatic juice contains:
Substance Functions
Pancreatic amylase* It is a carbohydrase which catalyses the breakdown
of the remaining starch (i.e. those not digested in
the mouth cavity) into maltose.
pancreatic amylase
starch maltose
Pancreatic lipase* It catalyses the breakdown of lipids into fatty acids
and glycerol.
pancreatic lipase
lipids fatty acids + glycerol
Proteases They catalyse the breakdown of some proteins into
peptides, and some peptides into amino acids.
proteases
proteins peptides
proteases
peptides amino acids
Sodium • It neutralizes the acidic chyme.
hydrogencarbonate • It provides an alkaline medium for the action
of the enzymes in the small intestine.
Can you explain why the pancreatic cells that produce enzymes have large amounts of
? rough endoplasmic reticulum and mitochondria?
3 Intestinal juice
Intestinal juice is produced by some glands in the wall of the small
intestine. It is slightly alkaline. It mainly contains water, mucus and
sodium hydrogencarbonate. It provides an alkaline medium for the
action of enzymes.
The epithelium of the small intestine has specialized cells that have
various enzymes embedded in their cell membranes. These enzymes
include carbohydrases and proteases. Their functions are shown on
the next page.
pancreatic lipase 胰脂肪酶
 6 Nutrition in humans

Enzyme Functions

Carbohydrases They catalyse the breakdown of disaccharides into

(e.g. maltase*, monosaccharides, e.g.
sucrase* and
maltase
lactase*) maltose glucose

sucrase
sucrose glucose + fructose

lactase
lactose glucose + galactose

Proteases They catalyse the breakdown of some peptides into

amino acids.
proteases
peptides amino acids

6.3 Demonstration of the effect of bile salts on oil

Procedure
1 Add 10 drops of bile salt solution to 1 cm3 of peanut oil in a test tube. Practical 6.3

2 Stopper the test tube and shake for 10 seconds. Allow it to stand for
5 minutes. Observe any changes in the mixture.

3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 with distilled water instead of bile salt solution. Animation 6.3
Compare the appearance of the mixtures in the two test tubes.

1 cm3 peanut oil + 1 cm3 peanut oil +

10 drops bile salt 10 drops distilled
solution water shake

Results and discussion

• An emulsion* is formed in the tube with bile salt solution added. The bile salts emulsify lipids into
tiny droplets.
• Two layers of liquid are observed in the tube with distilled water added. This is a control to show
that the emulsification of lipids is due to the bile salt solution.

emulsion 乳狀物 lactase 乳糖酶 maltase 麥芽糖酶 sucrase 蔗糖酶

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II Organisms and Environment

Bile is produced by the gall bladder.

Bile is produced by the liver and temporarily stored in the gall bladder.
Bile catalyses the breakdown of lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
Bile does not contain enzymes. It emulsifies lipids into small droplets
but does not change the chemical structure of lipids.

6.4 Investigation of the action of lipase

Introduction
When lipids break down, fatty acids are formed. Fatty acids are acidic and
Practical 6.4
would cause a drop in the pH of the solution. The change in pH can be
detected by indicators like phenolphthalein*. Phenolphthalein is pink at a pH
above 10 and is colourless at a pH below 8.4.

Procedure
1 Prepare three boiling tubes (A, B and C), 1 cm3 lipase 1 cm3 distilled 1 cm3 boiled
solution water lipase solution
each containing 5 cm3 of full-cream
milk, 7 cm3 of sodium carbonate A B C
solution and 5 drops of
phenolphthalein solution.
2 Add 1 cm3 of lipase solution into
tube A, 1 cm3 of distilled water into
tube B and 1 cm3 of boiled lipase
5 cm3 full-cream milk +
solution into tube C. Mix well using 7 cm3 sodium carbonate solution +
glass rods. 5 drops phenolphthalein solution
Phenolphthalein
3 Allow the tubes to stand for 10 solution is flammable.
minutes. Observe any changes in the Use it only in the
mixtures. absence of naked
flame.

Results and discussion

• The mixture changed from pink to white in tube A. Lipids are broken down into fatty acids and
glycerol. The fatty acids cause the pH of the solution to drop.
• The mixture in tube B remains pink. This is a control to show that any colour change in the
solution in tube A is due to the presence of lipase.
• The mixture in tube C remains pink. This is a control to show that any colour change in the
solution in tube A is due to the enzymatic action of lipase.

phenolphthalein 酚酞

6– 20
 6 Nutrition in humans

Digestion of carbohydrates, lipids and proteins is completed in the

small intestine. The end products of digestion (e.g. monosaccharides,
amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol) are ready for absorption. Fig 6.22
summarizes how these food substances are digested.

Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids

starch
salivary
amylase
in saliva
Mouth
cavity

maltose disaccharides

proteins
pepsin in
gastric
juice
Stomach

peptides

pancreatic proteases in
amylase in pancreatic
lipids
pancreatic juice juice bile salts in bile
(physical digestion)

Small maltose peptides small droplets

proteases in
intestine pancreatic juice
pancreatic lipase in
carbohydrases on pancreatic juice
intestinal wall and proteases on
intestinal wall
monosaccharides amino acids fatty acids and glycerol

Fig 6.22 Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and lipids in different parts of the alimentary canal

Lipase inhibitor for obesity treatment

For some people who are seriously obese, doctors may prescribe a drug to help them to lose weight.
The drug works by inhibiting the action of pancreatic lipase. After taking the drug, some lipids in the
diet cannot be broken down and thus less lipids are absorbed. The drug can block the absorption of
about 30% of the lipids in diet.
People taking this drug may have oily and loose faeces as the unabsorbed lipids will be egested. Other
side effects include diarrhoea and abdominal pain. The drug may also decrease the absorption of
lipid-soluble vitamins, so it is advised to take vitamin supplements along with the drug.

6– 21
II Organisms and Environment

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

A student carried out an experiment to study the role of lipase and bile in lipid digestion in our body.
The set-ups he used are shown below. He monitored the change in the pH of the solutions for
60 minutes. The results are shown in the graph below.

8.5

8.0

7.5 P
water
pH Q
bath
7.0
P Q
full-cream milk + full-cream milk + 6.5
lipase solution + lipase solution +
distilled water + bile salt solution +
sodium carbonate solution sodium carbonate solution
0
20 40 60
time (min)

a State one evidence from the results showing bile salts help the lipid digestion. Explain
your answer. (2 marks)
b The student suggested that the breakdown of lipids in tube P is due to the presence of lipase.
What control is needed to test this hypothesis? What is the expected result if the hypothesis
is to be supported? (2 marks)
c Some patients may have their bile duct blocked, and need to have their gall bladder
removed. Explain how this may affect the digestion of lipids. (3 marks)

Suggested answers

a The pH of the solution in tube Q drops faster than that in tube P during
the first 20 minutes. 1
This shows that fatty acids are formed at a faster rate in the presence of
bile salts. 1
b A tube similar to tube P but with no lipase added. 1
The pH of the solution in this tube should remain unchanged. 1 Setting up
a controlled
c As the gall bladder is removed, bile produced by the liver cannot be experiment
stored. 1
Refer to p. 23.
When food enters the duodenum, insufficient amount of bile is released
for emulsifying lipids. 1
The surface area for the action of lipase decreases, thus lipids cannot be
digested efficiently. 1

6– 22
 6 Nutrition in humans

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

Setting up a controlled experiment

To show that the breakdown of lipids in tube P is due to the presence of lipase, we have to set up
a control which differs from tube P only by the presence of lipase. We have to ensure that all other
variables are kept the same. Otherwise, no valid conclusion can be drawn from the results.

P Control
full-cream milk + full-cream milk +
lipase solution + distilled water (volume equals the sum of volumes
distilled water + of lipase solution and distilled water in tube P) +
sodium carbonate solution sodium carbonate solution

If there is no breakdown of lipids in the control tube, we can conclude that the breakdown of lipids is
due to the presence of lipase but not other factors (e.g. the presence of sodium carbonate solution).

Learning through examples Skill builder Skill practice

A student set up the test tube on the right to investigate the

action of amylase. He tested for the presence of starch in the tube
using iodine test after 30 minutes and found that the
iodine solution remained brown.
starch solution +
amylase solution
Suggest a control to show each of the following.
a Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the presence of amylase. (1 mark)
b Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the enzymatic action of amylase. (1 mark)

Q16 (p. 40)

6– 23
II Organisms and Environment

1 What are physical digestion and chemical digestion?

Physical digestion is the breaking down of food into smaller pieces by physical actions. It
increases the surface area of the food for digestive juices to act on.
Chemical digestion involves chemical reactions that are catalysed by digestive enzymes.
It breaks down complex food molecules into small, soluble forms, which are ready for
absorption.
2 What is the importance of peristalsis?
Peristalsis pushes food along the alimentary canal. It helps mix the food with digestive
juices. It also help absorption by increasing the contact between intestinal wall and digested
food.
3 What are the actions of digestive juices in our digestive system?

Site of Digestive Site of Enzyme or other Action of digestive

pH
action juice production substance present juice

Mouth Saliva Salivary glands • Salivary amylase • starch → maltose 6.5–7.5

cavity • Water
• Mucus

Stomach Gastric Gastric glands • Pepsin • proteins → peptides 2.0

juice in stomach • Hydrochloric acid (acidic)
wall
• Mucus

Small Bile Liver • Bile salts • lipids → 7.6–8.6

intestine • Bile pigments small droplets (alkaline)
(Emulsification:
• Sodium
physical digestion)
hydrogencarbonate

Pancreatic Pancreas • Pancreatic • starch → maltose 8.0

juice amylase • proteins → peptides (alkaline)
• Proteases • peptides → amino
• Pancreatic lipase acids
• Sodium • lipids → fatty acids
hydrogencarbonate + glycerol

Intestinal Glands in the • Water — 8.5

juice wall of small • Mucus (alkaline)
intestine
• Sodium
hydrogencarbonate

specialized • Carbohydrases • disaccharides → —

cells on • Proteases monosaccharides
epithelium of • peptides → amino
(in the cell membrane
small intestine acids
of epithelial cells)

6– 24
 6 Nutrition in humans

Level 1
Questions 1 and 2: State whether the statements are true or false.
1 Lipase catalyses the emulsification of lipids. p. 18
2 In the mouth cavity, salivary amylase catalyses the breakdown
of starch into glucose. p. 12

3 Complete the following table by filling in the digestive juices which

contain enzymes for the digestion of these three food substances.
(3 marks)

Food substance Digestive juice(s) which help their digestion

Carbohydrates

Proteins

Lipids

p. 24

4 For each of the food substances listed in column 1, select from

column 2 one site where the chemical digestion of the food
substance begins. Put the appropriate letter in the space provided.
(3 marks)
Column 1 Column 2
Carbohydrates A Mouth cavity
Proteins B Stomach
Lipids C Duodenum
D Ileum p. 24

Level 2
5 The diagram on the right shows
part of the human digestive
system.
Which of the following X
organs produce(s) a digestive Y
juice containing an enzyme
for the digestion of lipids?
A X only
Z
B Y only
C Z only
D X and Z only p. 17–19

6– 25
II Organisms and Environment

6.5 Absorption
After the food is fully digested into small, soluble molecules, it can be
absorbed into the circulatory system through the wall of the alimentary
canal. Most of the food molecules are absorbed in the small intestine,
mainly in the ileum.

Animation 6.4 A Structure of small intestine

Our small intestine is very long. It is about 7 m long in adults. Its
structure is shown below.

The wall longitudinal circular

muscle muscle
• Circular muscles and
longitudinal muscles are
folds
present in the wall.

• The inner wall is highly folded.

ileum, endoscopic view

Villi (singular: villus) epithelium

villi*
• There are many finger-like
projections called villi on the lacteal*

inner wall. capillary

• Each villus has a lymph vessel* circular

muscle
called lacteal in the centre.
longitudinal
The lacteal is surrounded by a muscle
network of capillaries.
ileum wall, T.S. (×50)

Epithelium microvilli*

• The epithelium is only

one-cell thick.
• The cell membrane of the epithelial
cells
epithelial cells has a large
number of microvilli (also
called brush borders*).
electron micrograph of an
epithelial cell (×7000)

brush border 刷狀緣 lacteal 乳糜管 lymph vessel 淋巴管 microvillus 微絨毛 villus 絨毛

6– 26
 6 Nutrition in humans

DSE B Absorption of digested food in

13(IA)26, 13(IB)Q3,
15(IA)Q9 small intestine
Food molecules are absorbed from the lumen into the capillaries and
Animation 6.5
the lacteals through the epithelium by diffusion, osmosis and active
transport (Fig 6.23).

1 Water and water-soluble food 2 Lipids and lipid-soluble food

molecules molecules
water-soluble food molecules fatty acids
(e.g. monosaccharides, amino acids, and glycerol
minerals, water-soluble vitamins) lipid-soluble
water vitamins

diffusion osmosis diffusion diffusion

and active and
villus transport recombining

nucleus
capillary fine lipid
droplets
lacteal epithelial
cells

capillary capillary

lacteal lacteal

Fig 6.23 Absorption of food molecules into capillaries and lacteals

1 Water and water-soluble food molecules:

Cross-link
Hydrophilic food molecules
pass through the cell
membrane with the help of
channel proteins or carrier
proteins. Refer to Ch 3 for
the permeability of the cell
membrane.
into the capillaries
• Water-soluble food molecules, e.g. monosaccharides, amino acids,
minerals and water-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamin C) are absorbed
into the blood in the capillaries by diffusion and active transport.
• As the absorption of digested food into the blood increases the
water potential of the contents in the small intestine, water is
drawn into the blood by osmosis. In other words, absorption of
digested food in the small intestine is accompanied by absorption of
water at the same time. Over 90% of the water in food is absorbed
in the small intestine. (A small amount of water is absorbed in the
stomach and the colon.)

6– 27
II Organisms and Environment

2 Lipids and lipid-soluble food molecules:

Cross-link
Lipids and lipid-soluble
molecules are hydrophobic.
They can pass through the
phospholipid bilayer of the
cell membrane directly by
diffusion. Refer to Ch 3 for
details.
into the lacteals
• Fatty acids and glycerol enter the epithelium of the villi by
diffusion. In the epithelial cells, they recombine into fine lipid
droplets, which then enter the lymph in the lacteals of the lymphatic
system.
• Lipid-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamins A and D) are also absorbed
into the lymph in the lacteals by diffusion.

When the contents of the gut reach the end of the small intestine, most
food molecules and water have been absorbed.

Simulation of digestion and absorption in the small

6.5 intestine using dialysis tubing

Introduction
Like the inner wall of the small intestine, dialysis tubing is differentially permeable. It can be used to
simulate the processes of digestion and absorption in the small intestine.

Procedure
1 Wet a dialysis tubing by putting it into a beaker of tap water.

2 Tie a knot at one end of a dialysis tubing. Fill the tubing with equal
volumes of starch solution and amylase solution.
3 Tie the other end of the tubing. Wash the outside of the tubing with dialysis tubing
distilled water.
37 ºC distilled
4 Immerse the tubing in a boiling tube of water at 37 °C. water

5 Test the water outside the tubing immediately for starch and reducing starch and
amylase
sugars using iodine solution and Benedict’s solution respectively. mixture
Perform the same tests after one hour.

Results and discussion

• At the beginning of the experiment, neither starch nor reducing sugars are present in the water.
However, reducing sugars are detected after one hour.

• This shows that amylase helps break down starch into reducing sugars (maltose). Only the reducing
sugar molecules are small enough to pass through the dialysis tubing.

6– 28
 6 Nutrition in humans

C Adaptation of small intestine for

The foldings, villi and
microvilli increase the surface
area by over 500 times
compared to a flat lining.
Epithelial cells of the
? small intestine contain
a large number of
mitochondria. Why?
absorption
1 The small intestine is very long. This allows sufficient time for
complete digestion and absorption. On average, food spends about
5–6 hours in the small intestine.
2 The inner wall of the small intestine is highly folded. There are
many villi on the wall. Epithelial cells of the villi have a large number
of microvilli. These all increase the surface area for absorption.
3 The epithelium is very thin. It is only one-cell thick. This provides
a short distance for diffusion of food molecules into the blood.
Absorption can take place rapidly.
4 The lacteal and the network of capillaries in the villi allow the
absorbed food molecules to be carried away rapidly. As a result,
a steep concentration gradient of food molecules is maintained
across the wall of the small intestine. This increases the rate of
diffusion of food molecules.
5 Peristalsis brings the digested food molecules into close contact
with the villi for absorption. This also helps keep a steep
concentration gradient of food molecules across the wall of the
small intestine to increase the rate of diffusion of food molecules.

Level 1 Level 2
1 Which of the following food molecules are 2 Which of the following is/are the function(s)
absorbed into the capillaries in the villi of of the villi in the small intestine?
the small intestine? (1) absorb food molecules
(1) glucose (2) secrete enzymes for digestion
(2) amino acids (3) help move the food along the small
(3) fatty acids intestine
A (1) and (2) only A (1) only
B (1) and (3) only B (2) only
C (2) and (3) only C (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 27, 28 D (1) and (2) only p. 29

6– 29
II Organisms and Environment

DSE D Absorption in large intestine

18(IA)Q25
Cross-link
Obtaining enough dietary
fibre in diet can prevent
constipation. Refer to Ch 5
for the importance of dietary
fibre.
In the large intestine, the remains of the
colon
food are moved by peristalsis. Some of the
remaining water, minerals and vitamins
inside are absorbed into the blood in the
colon. The semi-solid material left in the
large intestine is called faeces. caecum
If the remains of the food pass through the appendix
colon too slowly, a larger portion of water rectum
will be absorbed, and the faeces will be hard.
Fig 6.24 Structure of the large
This may result in constipation. intestine

If they pass the colon too quickly, a larger portion of water will remain
in the faeces, resulting in diarrhoea.

1 Where does the absorption of food mainly take place?

Absorption of food mainly takes place in the ileum of the small intestine.
2 What are the routes by which digested food is absorbed?
Water-soluble food molecules (e.g. monosaccharides, amino acids, minerals and water-soluble
vitamins) are absorbed into the blood in the capillaries by diffusion and active transport.
Water is absorbed into the blood in the capillaries by osmosis.
Fatty acids and glycerol enter the epithelium of the villi by diffusion and then recombine to
form lipids. The lipids then enter the lymph in the lacteals.
Lipid-soluble vitamins are absorbed into the lymph in the lacteals by diffusion.
3 How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?

Feature of small intestine Adaptation

Very long Allows sufficient time for absorption

• Highly-folded inner wall Increase the surface area for absorption

• Numerous villi
• Numerous microvilli on
the epithelial cells

One-cell-thick epithelium Reduces the diffusion distance for absorption

Lacteals and network of Transport absorbed food molecules away from the villi rapidly, so
capillaries in villi that a steep concentration gradient is maintained for diffusion

Peristalsis Brings digested food molecules into close contact with the villi
and keeps a steep concentration gradient for diffusion

6– 30
 6 Nutrition in humans

DSE
14(IB)Q11, 15(IA)Q10
6.6 Assimilation
After absorption, the food molecules are transported to different parts
of the body for the cells to use. The uptake and use of absorbed food
molecules by cells for metabolism is called assimilation.

A Transport of absorbed food

Cross-link transported to other
parts of the body
You will learn more about
the transport system in vena cava*
humans in Bk 1B, Ch 8. aorta*
hepatic vein*
heart

liver

lymph vessel
hepatic portal
vein*
1 Water-soluble 2 Lipids and lipid-soluble
food molecules food molecules
(e.g. monosaccharides, (e.g. lipid-soluble vitamins)
amino acids, minerals and
water-soluble vitamins)

villus
in small intestine

Fig 6.25 Transport of absorbed food from the villus to different parts of the body

1 Water-soluble food molecules

After being absorbed into the capillaries of the villi, water-soluble food
molecules are carried by the blood to the liver through the hepatic
portal vein. In the liver, some food molecules are stored. Some are
processed and then carried away from the liver to the heart through
the hepatic vein and the vena cava. They are then transported to other
parts of the body through the aorta.

2 Lipids and lipid-soluble food molecules

After being absorbed into the lacteals of the villi, lipids and
lipid-soluble food molecules are carried by the lymph to the main
lymph vessel. They enter the blood near the neck region, where the
lymph vessel joins the blood vessel. They are then carried by the blood
to the heart through the vena cava, and then transported to other parts
of the body through the aorta.

aorta 大動脈 hepatic portal vein 肝門靜脈 hepatic vein 肝靜脈 vena cava 腔靜脈

6– 31
II Organisms and Environment

B Fates of the absorbed food

1 Glucose
• Glucose is broken down by respiration in cells for releasing
energy.

• Excess glucose is converted to glycogen in the liver and muscles.

Glycogen is stored in the liver and muscles. Excess glucose may also
be converted to lipids.

2 Lipids

• Lipids are used by cells to make cell membranes and some

hormones.
• Lipids act as an energy reserve. They are broken down to release
energy for cellular activities when the body is short of glycogen.
• Excess lipids are stored in the adipose tissue around the internal
organs and under the skin.

3 Amino acids

• Amino acids are used by cells to make different types of proteins

for growth and repair. They are also the raw materials for making
enzymes, antibodies and some hormones.

• Amino acids may be broken down to release energy when

carbohydrates and lipids stored in our body are used up (e.g. during
starvation).
• Excess amino acids cannot be stored in the body and are broken
down in the liver through deamination* (details will be discussed on
the next page).

C Roles of the liver

Can you explain The liver receives blood from the small intestine. In the liver, food
? why liver cells have molecules and other substances (e.g. alcohol) in the blood are processed
a large number of
mitochondria? or stored. Apart from this, the liver also carries out many different
metabolic reactions. Some of its functions are listed on the next page.

deamination 脫氨作用

6– 32

Cross-link
The regulation of blood
glucose level will be
discussed in detail in Bk 2,
Ch 18.
urea 尿素
6 Nutrition in humans
1 Carbohydrate metabolism
• The liver plays a key role in regulating the blood glucose level.
As too high or too low blood glucose level may affect the functioning
of the cells, it is important to regulate the blood glucose level.
a After a meal, the blood glucose level rises due to the absorption
of glucose from the small intestine into the blood. The liver
converts excess glucose to glycogen. The glycogen is stored in the
liver.
b As some glucose in blood is used by cells in respiration, the blood
glucose level falls between meals. The liver converts the stored
glycogen back to glucose and releases it into the blood.
• The liver is the main site for storage of glycogen.
2 Lipid metabolism
• The liver converts excess carbohydrates and amino acids into
lipids, which are then transported to adipose tissue and stored there.
3 Amino acid metabolism
• Excess amino acids are broken down in the liver through
deamination. The amino groups of the amino acids are removed and
converted to urea*. Urea is released into the bloodstream and most
of it is excreted in urine. The remaining parts of the amino acids are
converted to carbohydrates or lipids.
deamination
amino acid amino group + remaining part
carbohydrates or
urea
lipids
excrete in urine
• The liver synthesizes non-essential amino acids and converts
some amino acids into other amino acids.
6– 33
II Organisms and Environment

4 Breakdown of old red blood cells and storage of iron

• The liver breaks down old red blood cells and stores the iron
released from the process. The iron is used for making new red blood
cells.

5 Storage and production of vitamins

• The liver stores lipid-soluble vitamins (e.g. vitamins A and D).

• Carotene is changed to vitamin A in the liver.

6 Production of bile

• Bile, which is released into the duodenum for the emulsification of

lipids in the duodenum, is produced in liver.

7 Detoxification
• Liver cells contain enzymes which help break down certain mild
toxic substances (e.g. alcohol and drugs) in the blood into harmless
substances. This process is called detoxification*. The harmless
substances are then passed out of the body.

1 How are absorbed food molecules transported to other parts of the body?
Water-soluble food molecules

hepatic hepatic vein and

capillaries in
portal vein vena cava aorta other parts
villi of small liver heart
of the body
intestine

Lipids and lipid-soluble food molecules

main lymph vessel, blood vessel near

lacteals in
the neck region and vena cava aorta other parts
villi of small heart
of the body
intestine

2 What are the fates of the absorbed food?

Glucose: for releasing energy, or converted to glycogen or lipids for storage
Lipids: for making cell membranes and some hormones, or as energy reserves
Amino acids: for making proteins, or releasing energy when stored carbohydrates and lipids
are used up, or deaminated when in excess

detoxification 解毒

6– 34

Level 1 Level
1 Which of the following substances is/are
first transported to heart after absorbing
into the villi?
A amino acids
C vitamin A
Bacteria living in our
intestines are known as
gut flora*. They are very
important for our health.
Visit the following website
and learn more about
them.
https://www.
gutmicrobiotaforhealth.
com/en/about-gut-
microbiota-info
anal sphincter 肛門括約肌 defaecation 排糞
6 Nutrition in humans
2
2 Excess amino acids in our diet will be
A stored as proteins in the liver.
B stored under the skin.
B glucose C converted to lipids or carbohydrates.
D minerals D used to form bile. p. 32, 33
p. 31
6.7 Egestion
In the large intestine, the undigested and unabsorbed materials form the
faeces. Faeces are semi-solid waste containing dietary fibre, bacteria,
secretions from the alimentary canal, dead cells from the intestinal wall
and a small amount of water. They are brown in colour because of the
presence of bile pigments. Faeces are temporarily stored in the rectum.
At the anus, there is a ring of muscles called the anal sphincter*. When
the sphincter relaxes and the muscles of the rectum contract, faeces are
pushed out through the anus. This process of expelling faeces from the
body is called egestion or defaecation*.
Recall 'Think about...' (p. 1)
1 Large, complex food molecules have to be broken down into small, soluble
molecules, so that they can pass through the differentially permeable
membrane and enter the cells. Also, the food molecules from other organisms
have to be broken down, so that they can be used to build our own molecules.
2 Food is digested by physical actions like chewing and churning, and digested
chemically by digestive enzymes.
Suggested answers to ?
p. 18 Rough endoplasmic reticulum is the site for the synthesis of enzymes,
which are proteins. Mitochondria provide energy for the synthesis of
enzymes.
p. 29 Mitochondria provide energy for active transport of the food molecules.
p. 32 Energy is required for the high level of metabolic activities in liver cells.
Suggested answers
p. 16 a, b and c
gut flora 腸道菌羣
6– 35
II Organisms and Environment

Key terms
1 absorption 吸收 11 ingestion 攝食
2 alimentary canal 消化道 12 intestinal juice 腸液
3 assimilation 同化 13 lacteal 乳糜管
4 bile 膽汁 14 mastication 咀嚼
5 churning 劇烈攪動 15 oesophagus 食道
6 dental formula 齒式 16 pancreas 胰
7 dentition 齒系 17 pancreatic juice 胰液
8 digestion 消化 18 peristalsis 蠕動
9 egestion 排遺 19 saliva 唾液
10 emulsification 乳化 20 villus (plural: villi) 絨毛

Concept map

Nutrition

consists of

ingestion digestion absorption assimilation egestion

involves occurs
occurs in
mainly in

physical chemical small liver and

digestion digestion intestine body cells

brought
about by
brought
about by

mastication churning in emulsification of

enzymes
by teeth stomach lipids by bile salts

6– 36
 6 Nutrition in humans

Exercise DSE Bio 2019 IA Q23, 24

Directions: Questions 3 and 4 refer to the diagram
below, which shows a section of one type of tooth
Section 6.3 and its associated structures:

Level 1 W
MC
1 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q23 X

The following picture shows an X-ray Y

photograph of the dentition of a person:

MC
3 Which of the following are living tissues that
contain a large amount of calcium salt?
A W and X B W and Y
C X and Y D W, X and Y
p. 8
Which of the following dental formulae MC
correctly describes the dentition in the above 4 The number of this type of tooth in the milk
photograph? dentition is
2212 2122 A 0. B 4.
A B
2212 2122 C 8. D 12. p. 7
2131 2113
C D
2131 2113
p. 7 Section 6.4
MC
2 DSE Bio 2014 IA Q24 Level 1
MC
Which of the following dental formulae 5 DSE Bio 2016 IA Q7
best represents the dentition shown in the Which of the following organs produces
photograph of the X-ray? digestive juice that does not contain enzymes?
A liver B mouth
C stomach D pancreas
p. 17
MC
6 DSE Bio 2015 IA Q8
After eating a hamburger, chemical digestion
begins in the
A mouth cavity. B oesophagus.
2123 2132 C stomach. D small intestine.
A B
2123 2132 p. 12
3212 2312
C D
3212 2312
p. 7

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II Organisms and Environment

MC
Level 2 9 Physical digestion takes place at
MC
A 1 and 3. B 1 and 4.
7 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q18
C 3 and 4. D 1, 3 and 4. p. 11
Some people claim that we should chew food MC
for a longer time before swallowing. Which of 10 Which of the following structures are
the following statements about this claim is responsible for producing digestive juices that
incorrect? help the digestion of fat?
A This stimulates the secretion of saliva. A 2 and 5 B 2 and 6
B This moistens the food for easier C 5 and 6 D 2, 5 and 6 p. 24
swallowing.
C This provides enough time for digestion of 11 DSE Bio 2012 IB Q10
starch into glucose. In mammals, the production of bile salts is very
D This increases the surface area of the food limited at birth and during early developmental
for chemical digestion. p. 12 stages. In an investigation of the effect of bile
MC supplementation on fat digestion in piglets,
8 DSE Bio 2019 IA Q25 four groups of piglets were fed with the same
The diagram below shows a water bath with diet except that bile was added to diets in the
three test-tubes containing different mixtures: proportion of 0, 0.15%, 0.30% and 0.45%
respectively for 15 days. Faecal samples were
water collected each day for analysis and the body
bath weights of the piglets were monitored. The
at
37 °C results are shown in the table below:

(1) (2) (3)

skimmed milk skimmed milk skimmed milk
Bile level in diet (%)
+ + +
0 0.15 0.30 0.45
saliva gastric juice pancreatic juice
Average initial
Chemical digestion of food takes place in 4.90 4.46 4.65 4.52
body weight (kg)
test-tubes
Average final
A (1) and (2) only. B (1) and (3) only. 7.15 7.36 7.81 7.92
body weight (kg)
C (2) and (3) only. D (1), (2) and (3).
p. 12, 14, 18 Average dry
weight of fat in 6.52 5.81 4.65 3.78
DSE Bio 2014 IA Q25, 26 the faeces (%)

Directions: Questions 9 and 10 refer to the diagram a How do bile salts help with fat digestion?
below, which shows the human digestive system: (2 marks)
b What was the effect of bile supplementation
on fat digestion in the above investigation?
Explain your answer. (2 marks)
c Suggest why it is important to monitor
6 the body weight of the piglets in this
investigation. (1 mark)
5 1
d Suggest an in vitro experimental method
4 2
that allows a direct measurement of the
3 digestion of fat in a laboratory. Hint (p. 41)
(3 marks)
p. 17

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 6 Nutrition in humans

12 DSE Bio 2018 IB Q8 13 a The diagram below shows the endoscopic

view of the oesophagus of a patient
A student used the following set-up to compare
suffering from gastroesophageal reflux
the fat digestion of full fat fresh milk and half
disease (GERD).
fat fresh milk:

glass rod
for stirring syringe containing 1 mL lipase
solution

test tube 5 mL milk + 7 mL alkaline solution

+ 5 drops of pH indicator X
(colourless in acidic solutions and inflamed
pink in alkaline solutions) tissue

a Write a simple word equation of fat

digestion. (2 marks)
b Two test tubes, each with a different type
of milk, were prepared. The colour of each In patients suffering from GERD, the
mixture was recorded immediately after contents of the stomach flow back to the
the addition of lipase solution, and then oesophagus, causing inflammation.
monitored until there was no more change i Name one composition in the gastric
in colour. The colours of the mixtures at juice that can cause damage to the
the beginning and the end are shown in oesophagus. (1 mark)
Diagram I and Diagram II respectively: ii Explain why the contents of the
stomach do not flow back to the
Diagram I (at the beginning)
oesophagus in normal person. (1 mark)
tube A tube B
iii Food is released into the small intestine
after digestion is completed in the
stomach. Explain why the contents of
pink
the stomach do not normally cause
damage to the small intestine. (2 marks)
b Blockage of pancreatic duct is another
Diagram II (at the end) problem of the digestive system. Patients
tube A tube B suffering from this problem often produce
oily faeces.
i With reference to the functions of
white pale pink
pancreas in digestion, explain why
patients suffering from this problem
often produce oily faeces. (3 marks)
ii Tissues of the pancreas may be digested
i What is the independent variable in in some of the patients. Explain why.
this investigation? (1 mark) (2 marks)
ii Describe the results of this p. 14, 18
investigation. (2 marks)
iii Which test tube (A or B) was the one
with full fat fresh milk? Explain your
answer. (4 marks)
p. 18

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II Organisms and Environment

Level 3 zSection 6.5

DSE Bio 2017 IA Q2–4
Level 1
Directions: Questions 14 to 16 refer to the diagram
below, which shows four test tubes prepared by a 17 DSE Bio 2013 IB Q3
student to investigate the action of a Figure A shows a section of part of the human
starch-digesting enzyme X: alimentary canal. Figure B shows another
P Q R S section of the same part with blood vessels
water stained.
bath Figure A Figure B
at 37 ºC
starch enzyme starch starch
solution X solution solution solution
and and boiled
enzyme X enzyme X
MC
14 In which of the following regions of the human
alimentary canal can enzyme X be found?
(1) mouth cavity
(2) stomach
(3) small intestine
a Which part of the alimentary canal is
A (1) and (2) only B (1) and (3) only
shown in the figures? Support your answer
C (2) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
with evidence. (2 marks)
p. 24
MC b For each of the above figures, describe one
15 The student conducted some tests on the observable feature and explain how it is
5
6 content of each test tube at the beginning related to the functioning of this part of the
and after 30 minutes. Which of the following alimentary canal.
correctly shows the results of the tests for tube i Figure A (2 marks)
R at the beginning? ii Figure B (3 marks)
Benedict’s test Iodine test Test for proteins p. 26
A negative positive positive
B negative positive negative Level 2
C positive negative negative MC

D positive negative positive 18 DSE Bio 2015 IA Q9

p. 12, 18 Which of the following combinations correctly
MC describes the absorption of water in the
16 Which of the following is not the purpose of alimentary canal?
4
the experimental design?
6
Occurs mostly in Major reason
Design Purpose A ileum it is the longest part of
A setting up to show the result of iodine the digestive tract
tube P test if starch is present
B ileum most digested food is
B setting up to show that enzyme X alone
absorbed in this region
tube Q cannot give positive result in
C large intestine its function is water
Benedict’s test
absorption
C setting up to show that enzyme X is
tube S denatured after boiling D large intestine absorption of food
D setting up to simulate the temperature has completed in this
water bath of the human body region p. 27, 30
p. 12, 18

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 6 Nutrition in humans

Level 3 Section 6.6

19 The electron micrograph below shows part of
3
6 an epithelial cell on the inner surface of the Level 2
small intestine. MC
20 DSE Bio 2015 IA Q10
After absorption in the small intestine, most fat
is first transported to the
A large intestine. B pancreas.
C heart. D liver. p. 31
MC
21 Which of the following is the reason why the
liver can be regarded as a digestive gland?
X A It stores glycogen.
B It breaks down red blood cells.
C It carries out deamination.
(×8200)
D It produces bile. p. 33, 34
MC
a i Identify organelle X. (1 mark) 22 The excess carbohydrates in our diet can be
ii Explain the significance of the converted into storage forms in our body and
abundance of organelle X in this type stored
of cell. (2 marks) (1) in the liver.
b A certain kind of bacteria can cause (2) under the skin.
intestinal infection in humans. The (3) in the muscles.
diagrams below show two epithelial cells A (1) and (2) only
from two people. One of them is healthy B (1) and (3) only
and the other is infected with the bacteria. C (2) and (3) only
D (1), (2) and (3) p. 32

Level 3
23 A person had a meal containing beef and rice.
Describe how the food is digested in his body
and how his body uses the products digested.
(10 marks)
p. 10–18, 32
Healthy person Infected person
24 Explain how the metabolic reactions that occur
i State two differences in the epithelial in the liver affect the composition of blood
cells of the two persons. (2 marks) leaving the liver. (11 marks)
ii Hence, suggest how the absorption of p. 32–34
food would be affected by the bacterial
infection. (1 mark) Hint
Q11 An in vitro experiment takes place outside a
iii In the infected person, a large amount
living organism.
of unabsorbed food passes through the
large intestine. Suggest how this may
lead to diarrhoea. (3 marks)
p. 27, 29, 30

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II Organisms and Environment

Reading to learn
Read the article below and answer the questions.

Weight loss by gastric banding

Gastric banding* is a weight loss surgery. During the surgery, doctors fix a plastic band around the
upper stomach of patients.
The band divides the stomach into a smaller upper portion and a larger lower portion (Fig 6.27). Only
a narrow channel is left between the two portions. As the patients eat, the food fills up the upper
portion quickly, giving the patients a feeling of fullness. As a result, they stop eating sooner than
normal and consume less food. Also, as the band limits the rate at which food passes from the upper
to the lower portion, the feeling of fullness lasts for a longer time.

saline can be injected band

here to adjust the inner
smaller upper
diameter of the band
portion
band

larger lower
portion

Fig 6.27 How a gastric band is fixed around

Fig 6.26 Gastric band the upper stomach

After the surgery, it is necessary for the patients to change their eating habit. They have to eat slowly,
and chew the food for a longer time before swallowing. This surgery is not recommended for people
who do not limit their intake of foods like high-sugar drinks and ice cream because the surgery cannot
help them lose weight.

Questions
1 How does gastric banding help patients lose weight? (2 marks)
2 Why do the patients have to chew the food for a longer time before swallowing after the surgery? (2 marks)

3 Suggest a reason why this surgery cannot help people who do not limit their intake of foods like
high-sugar drinks and ice cream lose weight. (2 marks)

Visit the following website to watch a video about gastric banding:

https://www.ypo.education/bariatrics/laparoscopic-adjustable-gastric-banding-t197/video/

gastric banding 束胃帶手術

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Self test Time allowed: 15 minutes Total: 10 marks

Section A (1 mark each)

Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram below, which shows the transverse section of a villus of
human small intestine.

Y
X

1 Which of the following substances is/are absorbed into structure Y?

(1) amino acids
(2) lipids
(3) vitamin A
A (1) only
B (2) only
C (1) and (3) only
D (2) and (3) only

2 To which of the following organs are the substances absorbed into structure X first transported?
A heart
B liver
C stomach
D lung

Section B (8 marks)
3 Obesity can be treated with a drug called Orlistat, which is a lipase inhibitor.
a Suggest how Orlistat treats obesity. (3 marks)
b Vitamin tablets are usually prescribed to patients along with Orlistat.
i Suggest one type of vitamin that may be present in these tablets. (1 mark)
ii Explain why it is necessary to prescribe vitamin tablets containing this type of vitamin to
the patients. (2 marks)
c One of the drawbacks of using Orlistat is that the patients may gain weight after they
stop taking the drug. Suggest why. (2 marks)

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 Cross-topic exercise 2 (Chapters 1 to 6)

Multiple-choice questions Metabolism, digestive system

3 DSE Bio 2017 IA Q1
Enzyme activity, digestive system
Which of the following combinations
Directions: Questions 1 and 2 refer to the following
correctly matches the process with the type of
investigation. Samples of digestive juices X and Y
metabolism involved?
were collected from different parts of the digestive
Process Type of
system and mixed with a buffer solution of pH 8.
metabolism
A drop of each mixture was transferred to a
photographic film. The diagram below shows the A digestion of lipids in the anabolism
set-up and appearance of the film after 30 minutes. small intestine
B storage of excess energy in catabolism
Set-up the form of glycogen
C assimilation of amino acids anabolism
X Y a layer of gelatin to form muscle fibres
(a protein)
D absorption of digested food catabolism
in the small intestine

black plastic layer

Balanced diet, digestive system
4 DSE Bio 2018 IA Q25

After 30 minutes
The graph below shows the relationship
between the dietary fibre content of a meal and
the mean retention time (i.e. the duration for
which the undigested materials stay in the large
intestine) in the human body:

1 Digestive juice Y may have been collected from

mean retention
time (hours)

(1) the mouth cavity.

(2) the stomach.
(3) the small intestine.
A (2) only
B (3) only dietary fibre content in the meal (%)
C (1) and (2) only
D (2) and (3) only Which of the following can be deduced from
the graph?
2 The investigation was repeated using a buffer
solution of pH 2. Only digestive juice X caused A Meals with more dietary fibre can increase
a breakdown of the gelatin layer. Which of the the bulk of the faeces.
following can be concluded? B Meals with more dietary fibre can hold
(1) Digestive juice X works best at pH 2. more water, and so soften faeces better.
(2) Digestive juice X catalyses the breakdown C Meals with less dietary fibre have more
of gelatin into amino acids. nutrients and a longer time is required for
(3) Digestive juice Y loses its function at pH 2. complete absorption.
A (1) only D Meals with less dietary fibre result in harder
B (3) only faeces due to an increased time for water
C (1) and (2) only absorption.
D (1) and (3) only

6– 44
Enzyme activity, protein structure Metabolism, digestive system
5 DSE Bio 2017 IA Q5 8 DSE Bio 2014 IA Q1
Different animals produce different maltases Which of the following is a catabolic process?
to digest maltose. The maltases produced A Conversion of glucose to glycogen
have different molecular sizes. Which of the B Absorption of glucose
following descriptions of these maltases is C Emulsification of fat
correct? D Digestion of starch
A Their active sites have similar shape.
Enzyme activity, digestive system
B Their amino acid sequences are the same.
C They have the same optimum temperature. 9 Which of the following correctly describe(s)
D They have the same three-dimensional pepsin in gastric juice?
structure. (1) It is a protein.
(2) It denatures at low pH.
Microscope, organelles, digestive system
(3) It catalyses the breakdown of proteins into
Directions: Questions 6 and 7 refer to the amino acids.
photomicrograph (left) and electron micrograph
A (1) only B (3) only
(right) below, which show the longitudinal section
C (1) and (3) only D (1), (2) and (3)
of structure X in a human small intestine and part
of a cell on the surface of X. Enzyme activity, food test
10 CE Bio 2009 II Q15
A student used the following set-up to
investigate the activity of an enzyme which
Y catalyses the hydrolysis of starch to maltose.
He wanted to find out the time required for the
completion of the enzymatic reaction.

(×70) (×7000) 1 mL reaction mixture was

taken out for testing at
one-minute intervals
Longitudinal Part of a cell on the
section of X surface of X boiling tube
reaction mixture
(enzyme solution + stach solution)
6 The actual length of organelle Y is
approximately
A 0.1 μm. Which of the following combinations correctly
B 1 μm. states the test and the observation when the
C 10 μm. enzymatic reaction has completed?
D 100 μm.
Test Observation when the
7 Cells on the surface of X contain a large enzymatic reaction has
number of organelle Y. Which of the following completed
possibly explain(s) this? A Benedict’s red precipitate started to
test appear
(1) The cell produces a large amount of
enzymes for secretion. B Benedict’s Benedict’s solution remained
test blue
(2) The cell carries out active transport to
absorb food molecules. C iodine test iodine solution started to turn
blue black
(3) Energy is needed for peristalsis.
D iodine test iodine solution remained
A (1) only B (2) only brown
C (1) and (2) only D (1), (2) and (3)

6– 45
 Short questions
Digestive system, enzyme activity, osmosis
11 Milk and dairy products are rich in lactose. In healthy individuals, digestion of lactose is catalysed by
lactase on the inner surface of the small intestine. Lactose intolerant patients produce insufficient or no
lactase in the small intestine. They may develop symptoms including diarrhoea upon intake of lactose.
a Explain why diarrhoea may result when a lactose intolerant patient takes in lactose. (3 marks)
Lactose intolerant patients can drink lactose-free milk instead of regular milk. The diagram below shows
the production process of lactose-free milk.

milk in

column (10 °C)

beads with lactase

fixed on the surface

beaker

lactose-free milk

b To inhibit bacterial growth, the milk and the column are maintained at 10 °C during the above
process. Suggest why the milk has to be passed through the column several times. (3 marks)

Digestive system, enzyme activity, nutrition in humans

12 A student carried out an experiment to study the effect of temperature on amylase activity. He prepared six
tubes of starch and six tubes of amylase. The tubes were put in water baths of different temperatures for
10 minutes and then mixed. At two-minute intervals, he transferred a drop of each mixture to an iodine
drop on a spot plate and recorded the time taken for the blue-black colour to disappear. The table below
shows the results.

Temperature (°C) Time taken for the disappearance of blue-black colour (min)
0 The blue-black colour did not disappear
20 8
40 4
60 2
80 6
100 The blue-black colour did not disappear

a Plot a graph to show the effect of temperature on amylase activity. (4 marks)

b The tubes were removed from the water baths and kept at room temperature after the investigation.
Two hours later, the student took a drop from the mixture that had been kept at 0 °C and added it to
an iodine drop. What would be observed? Explain your answer. (3 marks)
c Babies produce less amylase than adults. In the production of baby foods, amylase is often added
to the foods.
i Name one region of our digestive system in which amylase helps digest food. (1 mark)
ii Suggest how adding amylase in baby foods helps babies absorb carbohydrates. (2 marks)

6– 46
Structured questions
Enzyme activity, digestive system
13 Bile salts are major constituents of bile. A student carried out an investigation into the effect of bile salts
on the digestion of lipids. She prepared two tubes (X and Y). Each tube contained 2 cm3 of sodium
hydrogencarbonate, 5 cm3 of full cream milk and a few drops of phenolphthalein, which is a pH indicator.
Tube X contained bile salts, while tube Y did not. At the beginning of the investigation, 1 cm3 of lipase
solution was added to each tube. Table 1 below shows the colours of phenolphthalein at different pH, and
Table 2 shows the results of the investigation.

pH range Colour of phenolphthalein

0–8.3 colourless
8.3–10.0 very pale pink
>10.0 pink

Table 1

Colour change of the reaction mixture

Time
Tube X Tube Y
(min)
(with bile salt) (without bile salt)
0 pink pink
5 colourless pink
10 colourless pink
15 colourless colourless

Table 2

a The teacher suggested that the student should set up one more tube, which contains the same
contents as tube X but adding boiled lipase solution instead of unboiled lipase solution. State and
explain the expected result of this tube. (3 marks)

b Based on the function of bile salts, explain the results shown in Table 2. (3 marks)

c Sodium hydrogencarbonate is another component of bile. With respect to the effect of pH on

enzyme activity, state the significance of sodium hydrogencarbonate in the digestion in the
small intestine. (3 marks)
d Gallstones are hardened deposits of bile. The diagram on gall bladder
the right shows a part of the digestive system of a patient
who was diagnosed with gallstones. Suggest why the patient
discharges very pale faeces. (2 marks) bile duct
gallstone
gallstone

duodenum

6– 47
 Enzyme activity, digestive system, scientific investigation
14 AQA GCE (AS) 2014
Some mice have diabetes. The diabetes causes the blood glucose concentration to become very high after a
meal. Scientists investigated the use of an inhibitor of amylase to treat diabetes.
The scientists took 30 mice with diabetes and divided them into two groups, A and B.
• Group A was given yoghurt without the inhibitor of amylase each day.
• Group B was given yoghurt with the inhibitor of amylase each day.
Apart from the yoghurt, all of the mice were given the same food each day.
The scientists measured the blood glucose concentration of each mouse, 1 hour after it had eaten. This
was done on days 1, 10 and 20 after the investigation started. The figure below shows the scientists’
results.
Key:
400
Group A, yoghurt without
inhibitor of amylase
Group B, yoghurt with
300 inhibitor of amylase

mean blood
glucose 200
concentration
3
(mg per 100 cm )

100

0
day 1 day 10 day 20
days after the investigation started

a Group A acted as a control in this investigation. Explain the purpose of this group. (2 marks)

b Apart from the yoghurt, it was important that all of the mice were given the same food each
day. Give two reasons why it was important that all of the mice were given the same food
each day. (2 marks)

c The scientists’ hypothesis was that adding the inhibitor of amylase to the food would lead to a
lower blood glucose concentration. Use your knowledge of digestion to suggest how the addition
of the inhibitor could lead to a lower blood glucose concentration. (2 marks)
d Give one reason why these results may not support the use of the inhibitor of amylase to treat
diabetes in mice. (2 marks)

Essay
Balanced diet, nutrition in humans

15 DSE Bio 2014 IB Q11

Recently, some people have adopted a diet rich in lean meat in order to lose weight and build muscle.
They may be able to achieve these aims but there are some health problems associated with this diet.
Discuss the pros and cons of this controversial diet with regard to the nutritional needs of our body and
protein metabolism. (12 marks)

6– 48