1.1 - Life Proces

1
CHAPTER
LIFE PROCESS
“INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC”

The life processes can be defined as the maintenance processes or activities needed to make any
organisms alive. In other words, we can say that the maintenance processes are needed to prevent
damage and breakdown in any living organism.
The basic necessity of some of the life processes, to be discussed in detail in this chapter, are discussed
in brief:
• Nutrition • Respiration • Transportation • Excretion
NUTRITION
Every type of physical work (walking of animals, working of machines or automobiles) is possible
only with the help of energy which is supplied with the help of fuel or food. Even during sleeping,
we always need energy to carry out our vital activities like heart beating and breathing etc. In our
body, the energy is supplied by the food we eat daily. Then two questions arise :
The food or nutrients are the chemical substances

which provides energy after digestion. The nutrients
can also be defined as the substances that act as
energy source and provide raw materials for the
biosynthesis of required constituents of living
organisms.
 Functions of Nutrients
For any living organism, the nutrients perform following functions :
(i) Growth and development
(ii) For obtaining energy to carry out various life processes
(iii) To develop resistance against diseases
(iv) To repair damaged and old worn out cells
 Definition : The term nutrition is derived from the word nutrient. The process of intake of food, its
digestion, absorption and distribution to different parts is called nutrition. Nutrition can also be
defined in some more simplified ways as :
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UG–1 & 2, Concorde Complex, Above OBC Bank. R.C. Dutt Road., Alkapuri Vadodara. 390007
Class - 10 LIFE PROCESS
• It is defined as the process of acquiring food material and changing it into simple
absorbable form with the help of biochemical reactions.
Or
• It is the process of acquiring energy and materials (directly or indirectly).
Or
It is the process by which organisms obtain energy (in the form of food) for their
growth, repair, maintenance and reproduction etc.
MODES OF NUTRTION
In all the living organisms, there are mainly two modes of nutrition depending upon the mode of
obtaining nutrients from the environment. These modes are :
1. Autotrophic Nutrition (Gk. Auto – self + troph – nutrition) or self nutrition
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition (GK. Hetero – different + troph – nutrition) or nutrition derived from some
other or different means.
1. Autotrophic Nutrition
In this mode of nutrition, the living organisms manufacture their food on their own with the help of
photosynthesis or chemosynthesis. They are also called self-feeders or photosynthesizers or
chemosynthesizers or autotrophs, for example, plants, bacteria and cyanobacteria (BGA).
• The autotrophs always prepare their food (organic) with the help of some inorganic materials
like carbon dioxide, water and some minerals with the help of photosynthesis (manufacturing
of food in presence of light) or chemosynthesis (manufacturing of food with the help of some
simple molecules in absence of light).
Types of nutrition
Holozoic
Heterotrophic Saprophytic
(Animals, fungi
and some bacteira) Parasitic
Mutualistic
Nutrition
Autotrphic
(Plants and some
bacteria)
• During photosynthesis, there is need of a special pigment called chlorophyll which traps and
fixes solar energy to convert the same into chemical energy in the form of food (e.g., glucose).
2. Heterotrophic Nutrition
As the term is indicating in this mode of nutrition, the organisms obtain their food by some mode
other than the autotrophic one. The organisms carrying out heterotrophic nutrition are called
heterotrophs, for example, all animals, fungi and most prokaryotes including bacteria.
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• These organisms make use of readymade food either in the form of dead or living plants or
animals.
• The heterotrophic nutrition is a type of nutrition in which the energy is derived from the intake
and digestion of the organic substances, whether of plant or animal source.
• In this mode of nutrition the complex organic food is taken inside the body through any of the
mode. This taken food is then broken down into some simple molecules with the help of digestion
process. After digestion, the simple digested food materials are absorbed for their utilization in
various forms as needed by the concerned organism.
 Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

Depending upon the mode of obtaining food, the heterotrophic nutrition is of following types :
(i) Holozoic Nutrition (ii) Saprophytic Nutrition
(iii) Parasitic Nutrition (iv) Mutualistic Nutrition
(i) Holozoic Nutrition (Holo – complete + zoon - animal)
• In this type of nutrition, all the animals including humans obtain their nourishment by ingesting
the whole food (complex organic matter in the form of plant or animal part) through mouth or
some similar structure by the process of ingestion.
• The ingested matter is subsequently digested (complex to simple molecules), absorbed in the
body and finally egested out the body e.g. all animals including vertebrates (fishes, birds,
mammals etc.) and non-vertebrates (insects, molluscs).
Depending upon the type of whole food taken or the food habit, holozoic nutrition is further of
three types :
(a) Herbivores. The animals which feed upon the plants are called herbivores, e.g.,
deer, goat, cow, rabbit and buffalo etc.
(b) Carnivores. The animals which eat flesh of other animals are called carnivores,
e.g. lion, tiger and leopard etc.
(c) Omnivores. The animals which feed upon both plant and animal sources are called
omnivores, e.g., pigs, crows, cockroaches and humans.
(ii) Saprophytic or Saprotrophic (Sapro – rotten + phyton – plant; trophos – feeder) Nutrition
• It means the organisms feed on dead and decaying organic matter (plant or animal parts). They
are also called saprophytes or saprotrophs.
• They were once regarded as plants, hence the use of suffix phyte in saprophyte. A more recent
term saprotroph avoids this problem.
• In this nutrition, the complex organic matter is first dissolved by secreting certain hydrolysing
enzymes and then the soluble matter is absorbed through the body surface.
Can you imagine what would happen if all the saprotrophs disappear from Earth ? Yes, if we take
them positively, they are the real scavangers, for example, fungi (bread mould, mushroom, yeart)
and bacteria.
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(iii) Parasitic (para - other) Nutrition

• Parasitic nutrition refers to the mode of obtaining food manufactured or synthesised by others.
• In this type of nutrition, two types of organisms are always involved. The organism that derives
its nutrition or food from another organism is called parasite. And the organisms from whom
the food is absorbed is called the host. The host can be a plant or an animal.
• A parasite lives either inside (endoparasite) or on the body (ectoparasite) of the host.
• Parasites are host specific
• Any of the parasite lives in close association with the host from which it obtains its essential
materials but the host is usually harmed. For example :
Parasite Host
Cuscuta (Amarbel) Other plants like Acacia (Kikar)
Plasmodium (a protozoan) Man
Roundworm (a worm) Man
Tapeworm (a worm) Man
Fungi Plant or animal
Bacteria Plant or animal
(iv) Mutualistic Nutrition

The mutualistic nutrition can be defined as the interdependent nutrition in which each organism is
dependent mutually on the other. For example, the lichens share mutualistic nutrition between a
fungus and a cyanobacterium or alga. The algal partner (phycobiont) manufacture the food with
the help of photosynthesis while the fungal partner (mycobiont) provides protection and also absorbs
water and mineral salts.
DRILL - 1
1. Name some activities of life processes.
2. Define nutrition.
3. Based on obtaining food, name the groups of organisms.
4. What is heterotrophic mode of nutrition ?
5. What are parasites ?
6. What are herbivores ?
7. What are carnivores ? Give some examples.
8. What are omnivores ?
9. Depending upon food habit, name the three types of holozoic animals.
10. Give some examples of organisms exhibiting parasitic mode of nutrition.
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AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS

Nutrition in plants takes place with the help of photosynthesis. Photosynthesis (Photo – light +
synthesis – manufacturing) can be defined as the process of synthesis of food with the help of
sunglight, chlorophyll, carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) and water (H 2 O). Due to the occurrence of
photosynthesis, the plants are said to be autotrophs. Photosynthesis is the most important biological
process on which all living organisms depend for their food requirements directly or indirectly. This
process also provides us oxygen for breathing. The overall equation of photosynthesis is given below:
The glucose formed by photosynthesis helps the plants to meet requirement of energy for their
various activities. The manufacturing of glucose by the plants takes place in two phases, that is,
light reaction and dark reaction which occur in presence or absence of light respectively.
 Photosynthetic Pigments Trap Solar Energy

In order to photosynthesize, plants must convert the energy in sunlight to a form in which it can be
used to synthesize carbohydrate (glucose). Thus the plants convert light energy to chemical energy.
The plants make use of a small part (visible range) of the incident solar radiation. Although the
plants make use of sunlight as a natural source of light for photosynthesis but artificial sources of
sufficiently high intensity may also carry out photosynthesis.
The sunlight energy is captured by complex, organic, photoreceptor molecules called chlorophylls
and carotenoids which are present in the green or coloured parts of the plants. These pigments are
contained in the cell organelles called chloroplasts. When we observe the transverse section of a leaf
under the microscope, we can easily see the mesophyll cells full of green dots. These green dots are
the green plastids called chloroplasts which are the actual sites of photosynthesis.
 The chlorophyll molecules are mainly present in the leaves, but may also be present in small quantities
on stems and green branches. There are different types of chlorophyll molecules like chlorophyll a,
b, c and d. Chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b are the main pigments present in green plants. They
absorb mainly blue and red region of visible light.
 Carotenoids act as accessory pigments as they transfer the absorbed light energy to chlorophyll a.
They absorb mainly blue and green region of visible light and reflect orange and yellow colours.
Due to their reflected colours, they are also called orange-yellow pigments.
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 Why do plants look green ? The plants appear green because chlorophyll of plants (particularly
chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b, the two main pigments in plants) absorbs blue and red light of the
white sunlight and reflects green, unless masked by other pigments.
 Site of Photosynthesis – Chloroplasts

Plastids are characteristic of plant cells.
They are organelles bounded by a double
membrane. There are several types of
plastids in plant cells, e.g., chloroplasts
(green plastids), chromoplasts (coloured
plastids other than green), leucoplasts
(colourless plastids).
The chloroplasts (Fig.) consist of the two

membranes, outer and inner, surrounding
a central fluid-filled stroma. Suspended in
the stroma are thylakoids which are
the membrane discs that form 25-paise coin like stacks or grana. Individual grana are interconnected
by tubes of thylakoid membrane. The photosynthetic pigments are arranged in the grana so that
they can be oriented to capture as much light energy as possible.
 Raw Materials of Photosynthesis – Carbon Dioxide and Water

It is clear from the chemical equation of photosynthesis that carbon dioxide and water are two
essential raw materials of photosynthesis.
1. Carbon Dioxide
• All the plants need carbon dioxide (CO2) to form carbohydrates. The carbon dioxide is obtained
by the plants from the atmospheric air.
• In the terrestrial plants, the CO2 gas enters into the cells of leaves through tiny pores called
stomata which always remain present on the surface of leaves (fig.)
• The stomata are minute pores present in the epidermal layer of aerial parts of plants. They are
most abundant on leaves. A stoma (singular of stomata) is surrounded by two specialised
epidermal cells called guard cells. The guard cells are usually kidney or bean-shaped.
• The exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) takes place through the stomata. About 80-
90% of the total water absorbed is lost through stomata. Hence, the stomata get closed when
carbon dioxide is not needed for photosynthesis.
• The closing and opening of the stomata (fig.) is governed by guard cells. When the guard cells
swell (or become turgid) due to the entry of water, the stomata are opened. But when the guard
cells shrink (or become flaccid) due to the loss of water, the stomata get closed.
• In aquatic plants, CO2 is obtained from the water where it remains present in dissolved form.
Such plants absorb carbon dioxide in solution form, all over their surface from the surrounding
water.
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Nucleus Chloroplast
2. Water
• Water is always needed by the plants for its use during photsynthesis. The water absorbed from
the soil is carried upwards through xylem vessels upto the leaves. Mineral salts required by the
plants are also transported to different parts of the plant alongwith the water.
• Inside the chloroplasts of the leaves, the water molecules split into hydrogen and oxygen with
the help of light energy of solar light. This process is called photolysis of water.
 Mechanism of Photosynthesis or How Food is synthesized during Photosynthesis

During photosynthesis, following events occur as shown in fig.
(i) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll.
(ii) Conversion of absorbed light energy to chemical energy, i.e., ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
and NADPH2 (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydrogen) and splitting of water
molecules into hydrogen and oxygen.
(iii) Fixation or reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrates.
Light Energy  Chlorophyll
• H2O 
Light Reaction
 2H + O + Chemical energy.
2 2
Chemical Energy
• CO2 + 2H2 
Dark Re action
 [CH O] + H O
2 2
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 Overall Photosynthetic Reaction
After having a look over the above steps, series of chemical reactions at the time of
photosynthesis.
(i) Light Reaction (ii) Dark reaction
(i) Light Reaction
As indicated above, the first step is light dependent reaction and hence called light reaction.
• This step occurs inside thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts to prepare chemical energy in the
form of biologically useful forms of energy, that is, ATP and NADPH2.
• During light reaction, light energy breaks up water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen and
this process is called photolysis of water.
• Oxygen is released as a by-product of light reaction occurring during photosynthesis.
• Oxygen released during photosynthesis comes from water instead of CO2 as was earlier thought.
(ii) Dark Reaction

• The next step is light independent and hence also called dark reaction. This step takes place
both in light as well as in dark but do not require light for its occurrence.
• This reaction occurs inside stroma of chloroplasts where light energy is not captured.
• During this reaction, the chemical energy formed during light reaction (ATP and NADPH2) is
utilised for the fixation and conversion of carbon dioxide (CO2) into a simple carbohydrate, that
is, glucose.
• The glucose molecules thus formed are further converted by the cellular machinery into various
chemicals required by the plants.
Sunlight Enzyme RuBP
Chl
ADP
ATP
H2O Glucose CO2
NADPH2
NADP
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“Some of the basic differences between light and dark reactions are”
DRILL - 2
1. Name the raw materials used in photosynthesis.
2. What is source of water for photosynthesis ?
3. Write the overall reaction of photosynthesis.
4. What is photosynthesis ? Why do plants look green? Write the chemical equation of photosynthesis.
5. Draw a well labelled diagram showing electron microscopic structure of chloroplast.
6. Describe the events which occur during the process of photosynthesis.
7. Why is photosynthesis called the most important biological process ?
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NUTRITION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS
The digestive system is different in different organisms

depending upon the feeding habit of the organism. In
unicellular organisms, whole body surface may be utilised for
obtaining the food while in case of complex multicellular
organisms, the specialised organs are found for obtaining and
processing the food.
The unicellular organisms like Amoeba and Paramoecium
consume certain bacteria, algae and minute particles of debris.
They collect their food materials either with the help of
temporary finger-like extensions of the cell surface called
pseudopodia (found in Amoeba) or with the help of hair-like
processes called cilia (found in Paramoecium). They ingest
their food by means of phagocytosis (cell eating).
In case of Paramoecium (fig.), the cell has a definite shape
and the food is taken in at a particular spot. The food is made
available to this spot with the help of movement of cilia which
are present all over the surface.
The digestion in Amoeba takes place inside the food vacuole present in the cytoplasm. Such type of
digestion is called intracellular digestion or digestion within the cell. In this type of digestion, solid
food particles are taken up into the cells by phagocytosis and then digested in food vacuoles within
the cells.
NUTRITION IN AMEOBA
 Formation of pseudopodia : When Amoeba comes in contact with a food particle, it responds by
forming a cup-shaped invagination by pseudopodia which envelopes the food material and encloses
it all around (fig.)
 Ingestion : The tips of pseudopodia (like the lips of cup) fuse with each other, together with a
variable amount of food particles and water, leading to the formation of a vacuole called food
vacuole. This process is called ingestion (fig.)
 Digestion : The vacuole then becomes surrounded by many tiny lysosomes which ultimately fuse
with its membrane and discharge their enzymatic contents into it (fig.). The enzymes are secreted at
different times so that their digestive effects are separated by time.
 Exocytosis : The soluble products of digestion are passed out into the cytoplasm from the food
vacuole. And the remaining undigested materials are passed out of the body with the help of a
process called exocytosis which occurs at any point on its surface (fig.)
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DRILL - 3
1. Describe ingestion and digestion of food in Amoeba.
2. Describe the structure of stoma.
3. Name the organs of exchange of gases found in higher groups of animals.
4. Define phagocytosis
5. Define pinocytosis.
6. Define phagosome.
7. Define circumvallation
8. Define gastriole.
HUMAN NUTRITION
For obtaining nutrition, the digestive system of human beings consists of a series of organs. All the
digestive organs help to break down complex food into simple molecules with the help of biological
catalysts called enzymes and absorb these simple nutrients are throughout the body.
 If a human adult’s digestive tract/ alimentary canal is stretched out, it would be 6 to 9 m long.
 Food enters the digestive system through the mouth and passes through the oesophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Other organs, such as the liver, further aid in the
break down of food, absorption of nutrients and elimination of undigestible materials from the
body.
Steps of nutrition in human being
• INGESTION. • DIGESTION.
• ABSORPTION. • ASSMILATION.
• EGESTION.

1. The Mouth
• In humans, digestion begins in the mouth, where both mechanical and chemical digestion occur.
The mouth quickly converts food into a soft, moist mass.
• The muscular tongue pushes the food against the teeth which cut, chop and grind the food.
• Glands in the cheek linings secrete mucus, which lubricates the food for passing through the soft
alimentary canal, making it easier to chew and swallow. Three pairs of salivary glands empty saliva
into the mouth through ducts to moisten the food. Saliva contains the enzyme salivary amylase
(ptyalin) which begins to hydrolyze (break down) starch to give sugar.
• Once food has been reduced to a soft mass, it is ready to be swallowed. The tongue pushes this
mass-called a bolus – to the back of the mouth and into the pharynx. From the pharynx, the bolus is
swallowed to the oesophagus.
2. The Oesophagus or Food Pipe

• The presence of food in the pharynx stimulates swallowing,
Oesophagus
which squeezes the food into oesophagus. The oesophagus, Circular Relaxed
muscularis
a muscular tube about 25 cm long, passes behind the trachea muscles
contract Bolus Lower
oesophageal
sphincter
(wind pipe) and heart and penetrates the diaphragm relaxes
(muscular wall between the chest and abdomen) before Relaxed
muscularis
reaching the stomach.
• Peristalsis : Food advances through the alimentary canal by
means of rhythmic muscle contractions known as peristalsis.
The process begins when circular muscles in the oesophagus
wall contract and relax (widen) one after the other, squeezing
the food downward towards the stomach.
• Food travels the length of the oesophagus in two to three seconds.

• A circular muscle called the oesophageal sphincter separates the oesophagus and the stomach. As
food is swallowed, this muscle relaxes , forming an opening through which the food can pass into
the stomach. Then the muscle contracts, closing the opening to prevent food from moving back into
the oesophagus.
3. The Stomach
• The stomach, located in the upper abdomen just below the diaphragm, towards left is a sac like
structure with strong muscular walls.
• The stomach can expand significantly to store all the food from a meal for both mechanical and
chemical processing.
INFO BIT
Gastric juice : The stomach contracts about three times per minute, churning the food and mixing
it with gastric juice. This fluid, secreted by thousands of gastric glands in the lining of the stomach,
consists of water, hydrochloric acid (HCl), an enzyme called pepsin and mucin (the main component
of mucus). Hydrochloric acid (HCl) performs the following two functions :
(i) Hydrochloric acid creates the acidic environment that pepsin needs to start breaking down
proteins.
(ii) It also kills micro-organisms that may have been ingested in the food.
We might have heard about the complaints of adults regarding acidity which occurs on excessive
release of hydrochloric acid under some abnormal conditions.
• Mucin coats the stomach, protecting it from the effects of the acid and pepsin.
• About four hours or less after a meal, food processed by the stomach, now called chyme, beings
passing a little at a time through the sphincter muscle (called pyloric sphincter) into the duodenum
which is the first portion of the small intestine.

4. The small Intestine and Accessory Organs like Liver and Pancreas
• Complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats as well as absorption of the digested food
occurs in the small intestine. For this very purpose, the small intestine recives the secretions of liver
and pancreas.
• This narrow, twisting tube about 2.5 cm in diameter, fills most of the lower abdomen, extending
about 6 m (= 20 ft) in length. This is the longest part of the alimentary canal which is fitted into a
compact space because of extensive coiling.
• The length of small intestine varies in different animals because of various modes of obtaining food
adopted by different animals. For example,
(i) Herbivores (grass eaters) need longer small intestine so that complex cellulose molecules could
be digested.
(ii) Carnivores (flesh eaters) like tigers and lions have a shorter small intestine because the meat can
be digested easily.
• Over a period of three to six hours, peristalsis moves chyme through the duodenum into the next
portion of the small intestine, the jejunum, and finally into the ileum, the last section of the small
intestine.
• Liver is a vital organ present in vertebrates
and some other animals. It has a wide range
of functions, including detoxification,
protein synthesis, and production of
biochemicals necessary for digestion. The
liver is necessary for survival; there is
currently no way to compensate for the
absence of liver function long term, although
liver dialysis can be used short term.
During this time, the liver (largest gland in
the alimentary canal) secretes bile into the
duodenum through the bile duct. Liver
secretes bile, which is stored in gall bladder,
and bile salts but no digestive enzymes.

 The bile performs the following functions :

(i) Bile breaks large fat globules into small droplets so that the enzymes in the small intestine can
act upon efficiently. This is similar to the emulsifying action of soaps on dirt.
(ii) Bile juice makes the acidic food, coming from the stomach, alkaline so that the pancreatic enzymes
can act upon.
• Pancreas is a gland organ in the digestive and endocrine system of vertebrates. It is both an endocrine
gland producing several important hormones, including insulin, glucagon, and somatostatin, and a
digestive organ, secreting pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes that assist the absorption
of nutrients and the digestion in the small intestine. These enzymes help to further break down the
carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids in the chyme.
Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas lying parallel ot and beneath the stomach, enters the
duodenum through the pancreatic duct. Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that break down :
(i) sugars and starches into simple sugars with the help of amylases,
(ii) fats into fatty acids and glycerol with the help of lipases, and
(iii) proteins into amino acids by trypsin.
I INFO BIT
Glands present in the intestinal walls secrete additional enzymes that finally break down
(i) starches and complex sugars into simple sugars
(ii) proteins into amino acids
(iii) fats into fatty acids and glycerol
All the simple organic molecules like amino acids, fatty acids and simple sugars are absorbed by the
small intestine.

• Villi : The small intestine’s capacity for absorption is increased by millions of fingerlike projections
called villi which line the inner walls of the small intestine. Each villus is covered with a single layer
of cells.
• Capillaries : Beneath the villi’s single layer of cells are capillaries (tiny blood vessels) of the blood
stream and the lymphatic system. These capillaries allow nutrients produced by digestion to travel
to the cells of the whole body. Simple sugars and amino acids pass through the capillaries to enter
the blood stream. Fatty acids and glycerol pass through the lymphatic system.
• Assimilation : The body cells make use of the absorbed food nutrients according to their need, for
example : for obtaining energy, building up new tissues and the repair of old ones. This process is
also called assimilation.
5 The Large Intestine

• A watery residue of indigestible food and digestive juices remains unabsorbed. This residue leaves
the ileum of the small intestine and moves by peristalsis into the large intestine, where it spends 12
to 24 hours.
• The large intestine forms an inverted U over the coils of the small intestine. It starts on the lower
right-hand side of the body and ends on the lower left-hand side. The large intestine is 1.5 to 1.8 m
(5 to 6 ft) long and about 6 cm in diameter.
• The large intestine serves the following functions :
(i) It absorbs water – about 6 litres daily as well as dissolved salts from the residue passed on by the
small intestine.
(ii) In addition, bacteria in the large intestine promote the break down of undigested materials and
make several vitamins, notably vitamin K, which the body needs for blood clotting.
• Rectum : The large intestine moves its remaining contents towards the rectum, which makes up the
final 15 to 20 cm of the alimentary canal. The rectum stores the faeces, i.e. waste material that
consists largely of undigested food, digestive juices, bacteria and muscus until elimination. Then
muscle contractions in the walls of the rectum push the faeces towards the anus. When anal
sphincters* between the rectum and anus relax, the faeces pass out of the body through defaecation.
The basic functions of various organs or regions of the digestive system are summarizes in table


Table : Functions of various organs/regions of the digestive system
S.No. Organs/Regions Functions

 Ingests food
 SSSSSGrains food and mixes it with salvia (mastication)
1. Oral cavity  Initiates digestion of carbohydrates by salivary amylase
 Forms bolus (food mass)
 Swallows bolus
 Receives bolus from oral cavity.
2. Pharynx
 Swallows bolus to oesophagus
 Transports bolus to stomach by peristalsis
3. Oesophagus
 Oesophagel sphincter restricts backflow of food
 Receives bolus from oesophagus
 Churns bolus with gastric juice to form chime.
4. Stomach
 Initiates digestion of proteins by pepsin
 Moves chyme into duodenum and prohibits backflow
 Receives chyme from stomach along with bile from
liver and pancreatic juice from pancreas.
 Breaks down chyme chemically and mechanically
5. Small Intestine  Absorbs digested nutrients
 Transports wastes to large intestine through peristalsis
 Prohibits backflow of intestinal wastes from large
intestine
 Receives undigested wastes from small intestine
 Absorbs water and electrolytes
6. Large intestine  Promotes growth of bacteria which from vitamin K
 Froms and stores faeces and expels faecal matter
through defaecation.

HOMEWORK ASSIGNMENT
ASSIGNMENT - 1
1. What process would you consider essential for mantaining life?
2. Mention the differences between autotrophic nutrition and heterotrophic nutrition.
3. Mention the role of the acid in our stomach.
4. What is the function of digestive enzymes?
5. How is the small intestine designed to absorb digested food?
6. How does Amoeba engulf its food?
7. What are two phases of Photosynthesis.
8. Name the pancreatic enzyme is effective in digesting protein.
9. Name the enzyme present in saliva breaks down starch.
10. Where does digestion of fat take place in our body?
11. State the importance of the following process occurring during Photosynthesis in plants-
(i) Emission of electrons from chlorophyll (ii) photolysis of water
12. How do each of the following factors affect the productivity in the process of Photosynthesis?
(i) Temperature (ii) Water (iii) Carbon-di-oxide
13. State the function of the following in digestive process :
(i) Bile
(ii) Bicarbonate secreted by duodenal wall
(iii) Pancreatic amylase
14. Define stomata. Draw labelled diagram of stomata. State any two functions of stomata.
15. Draw a diagram of the ‘human alimentary canal’. Label the following body parts on it :
(a) liver (b) Pancreas (c) Gall bladder (d) Duodenum
16. Name the main organs of the human digestive system in the order they participate in the process
of digestion. Describe how digestion of carbohydrates and proteins takes place in our body.
17. Define the terms ‘nutrition’ and ‘nutrients’. List two differences between ‘holozoic nutrition’ and
‘saprophytic nutrition’. Give two examples each of these two types of nutrition.
18. (a) Explain the events which take place during photosynthesis.
(b) Which test is carried out to prove the presence of starch in leaves?
19. Name the products formed after complete digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the
small intestine.
20. Define photosynthesis?
21. Describe the digestive process in the alimentary canal of Grasshopper.

ASSIGNMENT - 2
1. Which type of digestion occurs in Amoeba and Paramecium ?
2. What is food of Amoeba ?
3. Name one unicellular and omnivorous animal.
4. Name a vestigeal structure in the alimentary canal of man.
5. Give the number of different types of teeth in man.
6. State two functions of stomach in man.
7. What is source of bile juice ?
8. What are two functions of bile juice ?
9. Which type of nutrition is found in man ?
10. Where does protein digestion start in man ?
11. Define villi.
12. Name causative agent of dental caries.
13. State a preventive measure against dental caries.
14. Name the duct of parotid salivary gland.
ASSIGNMENT - 3
15. What is photosynthesis ? Why do plants look green? Write the chemical equation of photosynthesis.
16. Draw a well labelled diagram showing electron microscopic structure of chloroplast.
17. Describe the events which occur during the process of photosynthesis.
18. Why is photosynthesis called the most important biological process ?
19. Describe ingestion and digestion of food in Amoeba.
20. Discuss protein digestion in man.
21. Bile juice has no enzyme but the digestion is not proper if it is absent. Why ?
22. What is main site of absorption of digested food in man ? How is it adapted for complete absorption?
23. How do defaecation and excretion differ from each other ?
24. Give the cause and symptoms of dental caries.
25. How guard cells help in opening and closure of stoma ?
26. How does diffusion of gases occur in leaves of a plant ?
ASSIGNMENT - 4
27. What is nutrition ? How do plants get their food?
28. Give experiments that prove that CO 2 and light are necessary for the process of photosynthesis.
29. Discuss the mechanism, how food (carbohydrate) is synthesized during photosynthesis ?
30. Define various steps of the process of nutrition in the animals.
31. Enumerate the process of nutrition in a unicellular organism.
32. Draw a labelled diagram of alimentary canal of man.
33. Explain various parts of alimentary canal of man.

34. Describe the process of digestion of food components in man.

35. (a) Write three main steps which take place in the chloroplast during photosynthesis.
(b) How do stomata open and close?
(c) Which raw material is made available to plants for photosynthesis when stomata are open?
36. Write short notes on :
(i) Dental caries (ii) Heterodont condition.
1. Match the following

Group A Group B
1. Autotrophs A. Drosera
2. Heterotrophs B. Plants
3. Saprophytes C. Human being
4. Parasites D. Fungi
5. Insectivorous Plants E. Disease causing germs
F. Sea anemone
2. Match the following:
GROUP A GROUP B
1. PGA A. Electron acceptor
2. Ribulose 1, 5 diphasphate B. Reaction centres
3. ATP C. acceptor
4. PSI & PSII D. Light energy
5. NADPH E. Stable compoud
F. Unstable compound
G. Chemincal energy
3. GROUP A GROUP B
1. Stroma A. Piled up thylakoids
2. Grana B. Piled up moesophyll cells.
3. Guard cells C. Disc shaped
4. Chloroplasts D. Elongated cells
5. Palisade tissue E. Heart shaped cells
F. Kidney shaped cells
G. Colourless region.
4. GROUP A GROUP B
1. Combustion A. Pyruvic acid
2. Glycolysis B. production
3. Phosphorylation C. Mitochondria
4. Matrix D. Formation of ATP
5. Citric acid cycle E. ATP & NADP
F. Charring of sugar
G. Formation of NADP

MCQ EXERCISE - I
9. Raw materials required for the process of
1. Oxygen which is liberated during photosynthesis are :
photosynthesis comes from -
(a) CO2 and H2O
(a) Carbon di oxide
(b) Sugar and H2O
(b) Water
(c) O2 and chlorophyll
(c) Chlorophyll (d) Minerals and O2
(d) Phosphoglyceric acid 10. Photosynthesis takes place in :
2. Nine-tenth of the world photosynthesis is (a) Mitochondria (b) Chloroplast
carried out by
(c) Nucleus (d) Cytoplasm
(a) Shrubs (b) Herbs
11. Choose the event that does not occur in
(c) Trees (d) Algae photosynthesis -
3. The process of taking in CO2 by plants and (a) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll
releasing O2 is termed as
(b) Reduction of CO2 into carbohydrates
(a) Transpiration (b) Respiration (c) Conversion of light energy in to chemical
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Endosmosis energy
4. In plants during the process of photosynthesis (d) Oxidation of carbon to CO2
(a) CO2 is taken in 12. The concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is
(b) O2 is taken in approximately
(c) CO2 is taken out (1) 0.003% (2) 0.03%
(d) O2 is taken in and CO2 is given out (3) 0.30 % (4) 3.00 %
5. During respiration and photosynthesis gases 13. At very high intensities, green plants show
which are exchanged : (a) High rate of photosynthesis
(a) N2 and CO2 (b) High rate of respiration
(b) O2 and CO2 (c) Low rate of respiration
(c) CO2 and methane (d) Low rate of photosynthesi
(d) N2 and chlorine 14. Cuscutta is the example of
6. In which of the following process, the light (a) Autotrophs (b) Saprophytes
energy is converted into chemical energy
(c) Parasites (d) Insecticides
(a) Digestive action (b) Respiration
15. By which inorganic components synthesize food
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Fermentation with the help of chlorophyll and sunlight ?
7. During photosynthesis the oxygen in glucose (a) CO2, CH4 (b) CO2, H2O
comes from
(c) CH4, H2O (d) O2, H2 O
(a) Water
16. With the help of what plants synthesize
(b) Carbon di oxide carbohydrates by chlorophyll after absorbing CO2,
(c) O2 in air H2O ?
(d) Both from water and CO2 (a) Wavelength (b) Light
8. The mode of nutrition in green plants is : (c) Sunlight (d) None
(a) Parasitic (b) Saprophytic 17. Which ion is produced during photolysis of
(c) Heterotrophic (d) Autotrophic water?
(a) Carbon (b) Oxide
(c) Chloride (d) Hydrogen

18. The by product of photosynthesis is (c) Both plants and animals
(a) CO 2 (b) Oxygen (d) None of the above
(c) Energy (d) Sugar 27. The process of photosynthesis takes place in
19. Products of photosynthesis are :– (a) Roots only
(a) Carbon dioxide and food material (b) Shoot only
(b) Carbohydrates and oxygen (c) All the cells of plant
(c) Carbon dioxide and oxygen (d) Chlorophyll containing cells only
(d) Formaldehyde and nitrogen 28. Leaves appear green because
20. From where does carnbon dioxide enter in the (a) They absorb green light
leaf ? (b) They reflect green light
(a) Epidermis (b) Cells (c) They absorb & reflect green light
(c) Stomata (d) Leaf hairs (d) They absorb green & reflects white light
21. During photosynthesis
29. First of all which organism creates oxidsing
(a) Water is reduced & CO2 is oxidized atmosphere on earth?
(b) CO2 is reduced & water is oxidized (a) Cyanobacteria (b) Photosynthesis
(c) Both CO2 & water get reduced (c) Ferns (d) Dicots
(d) Both CO2 & water get oxidized 30. Chlorophyll contains
22. It is only the green part of the plant, which takes (a) Fe (b) Mg
part in
(c) K (d) Mn
(a) Respiration (b) Transpiration
31. Chloroplasts fix :–
(c) Photosynthesis (d) Osmosis
(a) Carbon dioxide (b) Oxygen
23. Which of the following mode of nutrition does (c) Nitrogen (d) Hydrogen
a Rat have ?
32. ATP formation during photosynthesis is termed
(a) Herbivorous (b) Carnivorous
(a) Phosphorylation
(c) Omnivorous (d) Grazing (b) Photophosphorylation
24. Which of the following is not a significance of (c) Oxidative phosphorylation
photosynthesis ?
(d) Photolysis
(a) Glucose synthesis for most of consumer
33. What will be left if chlorophyll is burnt?
(b) Increase in green house effect
(a) Magnesium (b) Manganese
(c) Provides O2 for synthesis of ozone umbrella
(c) Iron (d) Sulphur
(d) Provides O2 for cell respiration.
34. Chlorophyll is present :–
25. Photosynthesis includes
(a) In the grana of chloroplasts
(a) Light phase
(b) On the surface of chloroplasts
(b) Dark phase
(c) Dispersed through out the chloroplasts
(c) Light and dark phase
(d) In the stroma of chloroplasts
(d) None of the above
35. The role of chlorophyll in photosynthesis is
26. Photosynthesis is mainly responsible for the
existence of (a) Absorption of CO2
(a) Animals of this earth (b) Absorption of light
(b) Plants on this earth (c) Absorption of light and photochemical

decomposition of water
(d) Absorption of water
36. Algae and other submerged plants bount in
water during day time and sink at night,
because
(a) They come upto enjoy some time
(b) They lose weight at night
(c) They become bouyant due to accumulation
of O2 as a result of photosynthesis
(d) They become light due to food material
accumulation
ANSWERS
1. (b) 2. (d) 3. (c) 4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (c)
7. (b) 8. (d) 9. (a) 10. (b) 11. (d) 12. (b)
13. (a) 14. (a) 15. (b) 16. (c) 17. (d) 18. (b)
19. (b) 20. (c) 21. (b) 22. (c) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (c) 26. (c) 27. (d) 28. (b) 29. (a) 30. (b)
31. (a) 32. (b) 33. (a) 34. (a) 35. (b)
36. (c)

10. Which substance of saliva destroy the harmful
MCQ EXERCISE - II
bacteria-
1. Dental formula of adult man is (a) Cerumin (b) Chyme
2,1,2, 3 2,1,2, 3 (c) Lysozyme (d) Secretin
(a) (b)
2,1,2, 3 2,1,2, 2
11. What statement is wrong about bile :-
2,1,2, 3 2,1, 3,2
(c) (d) (a) Is necessary for fat digestion
2,1,2, 4 2,1, 3,2
(b) Is stored in the gall bladder
2. The cells of the epithelial lining in the vertebrate (c) Is important only for normal digestion of
stomach are not damaged by HCl because of- sugar
(a) Mucus secretion covering the epithelium (d) None of above
(b) Neutrilizatioin of HCl by alkaline gastric 12. A person addict for alcohol gets his liver
juice. destroyed because :
(c) HCl being to dilute (a) Liver stores excess of protein
(d) Epithelium being resistant to HCl (b) Liver stores excess of fat
3. The structure which prevents entry of food into (c) Liver stores excess of starch
wind pipe during swallowing in mammals is- (d) Liver stores excess of glycogen
(a) Larynx (b) Glottis 13. Casien present in milk,which is -
(c) Epiglottis (d) Pharynx (a) bacterium (b) sugar
4. Which of the following is a common passage (c) protein (d) fat
in swallowing food and breathing 14. Amylase enzyme acts on the
(a) Pharynx (b) Larynx (a) Starch (b) Protein
(c) Glottis (d) Gullet (c) Fat (d) Cane sugar
5. Nasal chambers and buccal cavity are seperated 15. Sucrose is found in
by- (a) Milk (b) Honey
(a) By uvula (b) By palate (c) Sugarcane (d) Orange
(c) By palatine (d) None of these 16. Peristaltic movements found in different parts
6. Hydrochloric acid is secreted by the :- of alimentary canal In which one of these there
is least peristalsis-
(a) Paneth cells (b) Goblet cells
(c) Chief cells (d) Parietal cells (a) Stomach (b) duodenum
(c) rectum (d) Oesophagus
7. Ptyalin is secreted by-
17. Trypsin is secreted by-
(a) Stomach (b) Salivary gland
(c) Pancreas (d) Bile (a) Pancreas (b) Stomach
(c) Liver (d) Ileum
8. Largest gland of body
18. Which reserve a starving man first consumes-
(a) Pancreas (b) Duodenum
(c) Liver (d) Thyroid (a) Fat (b) Protein
(c) Glycogen (d) Vitamin
9. Insulin is secreted by pancreatic cells-
(a) -cells (b) -cells
(c) Delta cells (d) Gama cells

19. Bacteria entering with contaminated food are 24. Which is sweet in taste but is not sugar-
killed in stomach by
(a) Starch (b) Saccharine
(a) Pepsin
(c) Lactose (d) Protein
(b) Renin
25. Mucus is secreted by the :-
(c) Sodium bicarbonate
(a) Stomach (b) Duodenum
(d) HCl
(c) Large intestine (d) All of the above
20. Digestion of carbohydrates, proteins and fats
completes in- 26. In stomach after physical and chemical diges-
tion food is called:-
(a) Stomach
(a) Chyme (b) Chyle
(b) Liver
(c) Small intestine (c) Amino acid (d) Bolus
(d) Large intestine 27. A normal human being requires how much
calories per day
21. Absorption of digested food chiefly occurs in-
(a) Stomach (b) Colon (a) 2500 k. cal (b) 4000 k.cal
(c) Small Intestine (d) Large Intestine (c) 5000 k.cal (d) 686 k cal
22. Pancreatic juice takes part in digestion of- 28. The toxic substance are detoxicated in the
(a) Proteins carbohydrate and fats human body by :
(b) Proteins and fats (a) Lungs (b) Kidneys
(c) Protein, carbohydrate (c) Liver (d) Stomach
(d) Proteins only 29. The muscular contraction in the alimentary

canal is known as :
23. Stomach is the main site for the digestion of -
(a) Systole (b) Diastole
(a) Fats (b) Carbohydrate
(c) Peristalsis (d) Metachronal
(c) Protein (d) All of these
ANSWERS
1. (a) 2. (a) 3. (c) 4. (b) 5. (b) 6. (d)
7. (b) 8. (c) 9. (b) 10. (c) 11. (c) 12. (b)
13. (c) 14. (a) 15. (c) 16. (c) 17. (c) 18. (c)
19. (d) 20. (c) 21. (c) 22. (a) 23. (c) 24. (b)
25. (a) 26. (a) 27. (a) 28. (c) 29. (c)


1.1 - Life Proces

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1

“INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC”

The food or nutrients are the chemical substances

IIT ASHRAM Page # 1

IIT ASHRAM Page # 2

 Types of Heterotrophic Nutrition

IIT ASHRAM Page # 3

(iii) Parasitic (para - other) Nutrition

(iv) Mutualistic Nutrition

IIT ASHRAM Page # 4

AUTOTROPHIC NUTRITION IN PLANTS

 Photosynthetic Pigments Trap Solar Energy

 Site of Photosynthesis – Chloroplasts

The chloroplasts (Fig.) consist of the two

 Raw Materials of Photosynthesis – Carbon Dioxide and Water

IIT ASHRAM Page # 6

 Mechanism of Photosynthesis or How Food is synthesized during Photosynthesis

IIT ASHRAM Page # 7

 Overall Photosynthetic Reaction

(ii) Dark Reaction

Sunlight Enzyme RuBP

IIT ASHRAM Page # 8

IIT ASHRAM Page # 9

NUTRITION IN UNICELLULAR ORGANISMS

The digestive system is different in different organisms

IIT ASHRAM Page # 10

IIT ASHRAM Page # 11

2. The Oesophagus or Food Pipe

IIT ASHRAM Page # 12

IIT ASHRAM Page # 13

IIT ASHRAM Page # 14

 The bile performs the following functions :

IIT ASHRAM Page # 15

5 The Large Intestine

IIT ASHRAM Page # 16

IIT ASHRAM Page # 17

Table : Functions of various organs/regions of the digestive system

S.No. Organs/Regions Functions

IIT ASHRAM Page # 18

IIT ASHRAM Page # 19

IIT ASHRAM Page # 20

34. Describe the process of digestion of food components in man.

1. Match the following

IIT ASHRAM Page # 21

(c) CO2 is taken out (1) 0.003% (2) 0.03%

IIT ASHRAM Page # 22

(a) Animals of this earth (b) Absorption of light

(b) Plants on this earth (c) Absorption of light and photochemical

IIT ASHRAM Page # 24

IIT ASHRAM Page # 25

(b) Proteins and fats (a) Lungs (b) Kidneys

(c) Protein, carbohydrate (c) Liver (d) Stomach

(d) Proteins only 29. The muscular contraction in the alimentary

IIT ASHRAM Page # 26

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