NUTRITION

It is the process through which living things obtain or make food.

Green plants make their own food using water, CO2 and sunlight in a process called photosynthesis.

Importance of nutrition
i. Source of energy
ii. It replaces and repair worn out tissues.
iii. Provides stronger immune system.
iv. Sources of material for growth.

TYPES OF NUTRITION
There are two types of nutrition
i. Autotrophic
ii. Heterotrophic
Autotrophic nutrition
 It is the mode of nutrition which an organism makes its own food from the simple inorganic materials
such as CO2, NH3, H2S. There are two types of autotrophic nutrition.
 Autotrophic nutrition may be photosynthetic or chemosynthetic

Photosynthetic nutrition
 Photosynthetic nutrition is a type of autotrophic nutrition where organisms synthesize their food in the
presence of sunlight using carbon dioxide and water as substrates.
 These organisms are also called phototrophs or photoautotroph.
 Photosynthetic organisms include plants, some protoctists (euglena, spirogyra, volvox, etc.), some algae
(green algae, brown algae and red algae).
6CO2 + 6H2O → C6H12O6 + 6O2

Chemoautotrophic/ chemosynthetic nutrition

 It is the type of autotrophic nutrition which involves the conversion of simple inorganic substances to
produce organic food substances by the use of chemical energy.
o Examples of the organic substances are hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and carbon dioxide.
 Chemosynthesis has been detected in hydrothermal vents, isolated caves, methane clathrates, whale falls,
and cold seeps (area of the ocean floor where hydrogen sulphide, methane).
 Examples are chemosynthetic bacteria. Using hydrogen sulphide as the energy source, the reaction for
chemosynthesis is:
12 H2S + 6 CO2 → C6H12O6 + 6 H2O + 12 S

Differences between photosynthesis and chemosynthesis

PHOTOSYNTHESIS CHEMOSYNTHESIS
Energy source is sunlight Energy source is chemical energy stored in inorganic
substances
Chlorophyll, phycobilins, fucoxanthin, and carotene No pigments are involved
are involved
Oxygen is released as by-product Sulphur is released as by-product
Has higher contribution to the total biospheric energy Has a lower contribution to the total biospheric
energy

HETEROTROPHIC NUTRITION
 Heterotrophic nutrition is the mode of nutrition in which organism depend upon other organisms to
obtain food since they cannot synthesize their own food.
 Heterotrophic organisms are categorized into three based on how they feed. These include

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 i. Holozoic
ii. saprophytic
iii. parasitic
Holozoic nutrition
 It is a mode of nutrition in which animals feed on whole or parts of plants or other animals and digest the
food within their body.
 Such animals are free living and have the characteristics of Ingestion, digestion, absorption, assimilation
and egestion.
 This mode of nutrition is known as animal-like mode of nutrition.

Types of holozoic organisms

i. Herbivorous: Animals which feed on plants for nutrition. E.g. Cow, goat, buffalo etc.
ii. Carnivorous: Animals which feed on other animals or animal products. E.g. Tiger, lion
iii. Omnivorous: Animals having mixed diets (feeding on both animals and plants and their products). E.g.
Human, crow
iv. Coprophagous: Animals feeding upon faeces of other animals. E.g. Pig
v. Cannibals: Animals feeding upon smaller animals of same species. E.g. Snakes, frog
vi. Sanguivorous: Animals feeding upon blood. E.g. Leech, Vampire bat

Saprotrophic nutrition
 It is a type of nutrition in which organisms obtain their nutrition from dead and decaying organic matter.
 They are also referred to as decomposers.
 They include saprophytes and saprozoic
o E.g. Fungi, bacteria, earthworm etc.

Parasitic Nutrition
 It is a type of nutrition where one organism depends on another organism (host) for nutrition.
 In this type of nutrition, the parasites end up causing harm to the host. Both plants and animals can be
parasites.
 Parasites living outside host body are known as ecto-parasites e.g. Leech, ticks, Mosquitoes, dodder,
mistletoe, Ticks, Bed bugs.
 Parasites living inside host body known as endo-parasites e.g. Plasmodium, Tapeworm (Taenia solium.)

Differences between autotrophic nutrition and Holozoic nutrition

Autotrophic nutrition
Sunlight is involved in the process
Involves in anabolic process that is manufacture of
carbohydrates from simple inorganic substances
Involves the use of pigments such as chlorophyll,
phycobilins, fucoxanthin, and carotenoids for
photosynthesis
Found in photosynthetic plants, some protoctists,
algae and cyanobacteria
Holozoic nutrition
Does not require sunlight in the process.
Involves a catabolic process or breakdown of
complex organic food substances.
Does not involve the use of pigments such as
chlorophyll, phycobilins, fucoxanthin, and
carotenoids
Found in animals, some protoctists (e.g. amoeba,
paramecium), fungi, some bacteria.

Why living things need energy

Energy is the capacity/ ability to do work. Living things require energy for the following
i. To synthesize complex molecules from simple ones e.g. production of starch and glycogen from
glucose, synthesis of protein from amino acids. These types of reactions are called anabolic
reactions.
ii. To actively transport molecules or ions across semi-permeable membrane of a cell against
concentration gradient. This is known as active transport

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 iii. For mechanical work such as muscle contraction that result in locomotion, heart beat and peristalsis
iv. For movement of cell organelles and other nuclear materials such as chromosomes during cell
division
v. Mammals and birds depend on internally generated heat energy in order to maintain a constant body
temperature
Types of nutrients
The major nutrients required for daily lives are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, mineral salts and water

Carbohydrates
 These are compounds of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
 They are a major source of energy for plants and animals
 They have a general formula Cn (H2O) n. where n = any number e.g. C6(H2O)6 = C6H12O6

Sources of carbohydrates
i. Cassava v. Irish potato
ii. Yam vi. Wheat
iii. Bread vii. Maize
iv. Rice

Types of carbohydrates
There are three types of carbohydrates. These are
 Monosaccharides
 Disaccharides
 Polysaccharides
Monosaccharides Examples of Monosaccharides
 They are simple sugars also known as reducing sugars
 They have a chemical formula C6H12O6
 Monosaccharides ("mono-" = one; "saccharide-" = sweet) are simple
sugars; the most common is glucose.
 In monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from
three to seven. Monosaccharides have chemical formula: (CH2O)n,
where n≥3.
 Monosaccharides can be classified by the number n of carbon atoms
they contain: triose (3), tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose
(7), etc.
 Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped
molecules; in aqueous solutions they are usually found in ring
forms.

Examples of monosaccharides
i. Glucose
ii. Galactose
iii. Fructose

Glucose and galactose are present in animals whilst fructose is present in plants

Glucose
 Glucose is an important monosaccharide. It provides both energy and structure to many organisms.
 Glucose molecules can be broken down in glycolysis to provide energy and precursors for cellular respiration.
 If a cell does not need any more energy at the moment, glucose can be stored by combining it with other
monosaccharides.
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  Plants store these long chains as starch, which can be broken down and used as energy later.
 Animals store glucose as glycogen

Fructose
 Fructose is a type of sugar found in many fruits and vegetables and in honey.
 Fructose is used to sweeten some diet foods, but this type of sweetener is typically not recommended for people
with diabetes because it could negatively affect blood sugar levels.
 About one third of dietary fructose is derived from fruits, vegetables, and other natural sources in the diet.
 Fructose is absorbed more slowly from the intestinal tract than glucose, sucrose, or maltose. It is converted to
glucose and glycogen in the liver.

Properties of Monosaccharides
i. They are usually colourless.
ii. Can dissolve in water.
iii. They sweet to taste.
iv. They are crystal-like

DISACCHARIDES
 A disaccharide is a carbohydrate made from two monosaccharides joined together by a glycosidic bond.
 All disaccharides are referred to as reducing sugars, except sucrose. They are still considered sugars but
are not simple sugars
 They have a general C12H22O11
 The Glycosidic bonds (also called glycosidic linkages) exist between two hydroxyl groups (-OH) of the
two monosaccharides.
 Three common disaccharides are sucrose, maltose, and lactose.
 Other, less common disaccharides include lactulose, trehalose, and cellobiose.

LACTOSE
 Lactose (C12H22O11) is also known as milk sugar.
 It is formed by condensation of one molecule of galactose
and one molecule of glucose.
 Lactose is a reducing sugar. It reduces Tollens’ and
Fehling’s reagent.
 It makes up about 5% of human milk and of cow’s milk.
 Milk becomes sour when lactose is converted to lactic
acids by bacterial (e.g. Lactobacillus bulgaricus).
 Acidic hydrolysis of lactose converts it into equal amount
of glucose and galactose

Properties of disaccharides
i. They have sweet taste (sweeter than monosaccharides)
ii. They are crystal-like
iii. They are soluble in water
iv. They diffuse slowly through cell membranes as compared to monosaccharides

POLYSACCHARIDES
 Polysaccharides are made up of many monosaccharide units linked together.
 They have a general formula (C6H10O5) n. where n represents a large number
 Polysaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides and disaccharides
Examples of poly saccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose and chitin

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 GLYCOGEN
 Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and
other vertebrates and is comprised of monomers of glucose.
 Glycogen in the animal is a highly branched molecule
usually stored in liver and muscle cells.
 Whenever blood glucose levels decrease, glycogen breaks
down to release glucose in a process called glycogenolysis.

CELLULOSE
 Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer.
 Cellulose mostly comprises a plant's cell wall. This provides the cell structural support.
 Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.

STARCH
 Starch is a complex carbohydrate that is made by plants to store energy.
 The leaves of yam plants make sugars by photosynthesis, and the sugars are carried to underground
tubers where they are stored as starch.
 When we eat starchy foods such as potatoes, the starches are broken down by our digestive system to
simple sugars, which provide our cells with energy.

CHITIN
 Chitin is a long-chain polymer of a derivative of glucose. It is found in many living things.
 For example, it is a component of the cell walls of fungi, the exoskeletons of arthropods such as
crustaceans such as shrimps, crabs, lobsters and other shellfish and insects, and the beaks and internal
shells of animals such as squids and octopuses.
 The structure of chitin is similar to that of cellulose.
 Chitin also performs a similar function to the protein keratin, which vertebrates use to make feathers, hair
and nails.

Characteristics or properties of polysaccharide

 They are not reducing agent.
 They are not sweet.
 Polysaccharides are not soluble in cold water.
 They are non-crystalline solids.

Carbohydrate tests
1. Test for reducing sugars
i. Place about 1cm3 of the food substance into a test tube
ii. Add about 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution or Fehling’s solution
iii. Place the test tube in a water bath of boiling water for five minutes
iv. A change in colour from blue to brick red indicates the presence of reducing sugars in the food
substance

2. Test for non-reducing sugars

i. Place about 1 cm3 of the food substance into a test tube
ii. Add about three drops of hydrochloric acid
iii. Heat the mixture in a water bath for about 3 minutes
iv. Cool the mixture by placing the test tube in cold water
v. Add few drops of hydrogen trioxonitrate (iv)
vi. Add about 2cm3 of Benedict’s solution or Fehling’s solution
vii. Heat the mixture in a water bath for five minutes
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 viii. A change in color from blue to brick red indicates the presence of reducing sugars

3. Test for starch

i. Marsh the food substance and mix it with water
ii. Place about 1cm3 of the mixture into a test tube
iii. Add about three drops of iodine solution
iv. A colour change from brownish yellow to blue-black indicates the presence of starch in the food
substance
Importance of carbohydrates
i. Carbohydrates Provide energy
ii. Carbohydrates Regulate blood glucose
iii. Carbohydrates spares the use of proteins for energy
iv. Carbohydrates Breakdown fatty acids and prevent ketosis,
v. Carbohydrates aid in biological recognition processes
vi. Carbohydrates are used as flavours and sweeteners
PROTEINS
 Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acids that participate in nearly all
cellular activities.
 They contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen (C, H, O, N).
 Some protein molecules contain Sulphur and phosphorous as well
General amino acid structure
 Proteins are synthesized through a process known as translation. Translation is
controlled by cell organelles called ribosomes.
 Protein is constructed from a single set of amino acids (monomers that make up
proteins). There are 20 amino acids in animal cells.
 Each amino acid has the same fundamental structure, which consists of a central
carbon atom, bonded to an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), and General formation of peptide bond
to a hydrogen atom.
 In plants, proteins are found in seed of legumes such as soya beans, cowpea and ground nut.
 In animals, proteins are found in meat and eggs.
 Animal proteins are referred to as first class proteins whereas plant protein is referred to as second class
protein.
o This is because animal protein contains all the essential amino acids whilst plant protein contains
some but not all the essential amino acids required for body building

Types of proteins
 There are seven types of proteins
i. Antibodies iv. Hormonal proteins
ii. Contractile proteins v. Structural proteins
iii. Enzymes vi. Storage proteins
vii. Transport proteins.
Essential amino acids
 They are amino acids that cannot be synthesized in animals and must be supplied in the food or diet.
 Unlike fat and starch, the human body does not store excess amino acids for later use. The amino acids
must be in the food every day.
 The essential amino acids are
o Arginine, histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan,
and valine.
o Plants, are able to make all the amino acids.

Non-essential amino acids

 These are amino acids that can be synthesized by the body
 The 10 amino acids that we can produce are
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 o Alanine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine and
tyrosine.

First class proteins

 These are proteins obtained from animal sources such as fish, meat, egg and albumen.
 These proteins contain all the essential amino acids.
Second class protein
 These are proteins that are obtained from plants such as cowpea, bean, groundnut, legumes and soya
bean.
 These types of proteins lack some of the essential amino acids.

Importance of Proteins
i. Proteins are needed for growth and repair of damaged tissues
ii. Proteins are used in the formation of enzymes and hormones
iii. Proteins are needed in the formation of skeletal muscles, cartilages and tendons
iv. Proteins form an integral part of hair, nails, horns and hooves of animals
v. Proteins sometimes serve as a source of energy especially in carnivores.
vi. Proteins are required for the synthesis of antibodies
vii. Proteins are needed to form the protoplasm of cells
viii. proteins provide support and protection to various tissues, e.g., collagen and keratin.
ix. Proteins transport various molecules and ions from one organ to the other, e.g., haemoglobin and serum
x. proteins store and provide nutrients, e.g., milk casein, ovalbumin.
xi. Proteins help to regulate cellular or physiological activity, e.g., hormones, viz., insulin, GH.

Sources of proteins
Milk, meat, prawn, soya bean, fish, eggs, cowpea, ground nut

PROTEIN TESTS
1. Biuret test
i. Place about 2cm3 of a food substance into a test tube
ii. Add about 1 cm3 of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
iii. Add few drops of dilute copper (ii) Sulphate and shake
iv. A violet coloration indicates the presence of proteins

2. Millon’s test (Augustine Nicholas Eugene Millon)

i. Place about 2 cm3 of a food substance into a test tube
ii. Add few drops of millon’s reagent
iii. Heat the mixture for about three to five minutes
iv. A reddish brown coloration indicates the presence of proteins

LIPIDS
 Lipids are organic compounds made up of fats and oils
 Fats are solid at room temperature and oils are liquid at room temperature
 Lipids contain hydrogen and oxygen
 Lipids are formed from glycerol and fatty acids
 Fats are found in animals whilst oils are found in plants

Sources of lipids
Butter, palm oil, ground nut, soya bean oil, avocado, shear nut
 Most of these foods contain unsaturated oils (oleic acid) which are stored in the fruits and seeds of plants

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  Most animals contain saturated fat (palmitic acid or stearic acid) which are stored in adipose tissues under
the skin
Importance of lipids
i. They provide insulation against heat loss
ii. They serve as shock absorbers
iii. They provide a lot of energy when respired
iv. They provide buoyancy for aquatic animals
v. Fats are needed to dissolve fat soluble vitamins
vi. Fat increases the speed of nerve transmission

Test for lipids

1. Spot test
i. Gently squeeze the food substance against a plane sheet
ii. Hold the paper to light
iii. A translucent patch it to be observed on the paper, indicating the presence of lipids in the food
substance
2. Emulsion test
i. Place about 1 cm3 of the food substance into a test tube
ii. Add 2 cm3 of ethanol
iii. Shake the mixture thoroughly
iv. Pour the mixture into another test tube containing about 2 cm3 of water
v. A layer of cloudy white suspension forms at the top of the solution, indicating the presence of
lipids
VITAMINS
 They are organic compounds mostly of plant sources
 Vitamins are needed in smaller quantities in diet
 They are labelled A, B, C, D, E and K according to the order in which they were discovered
 Vitamins A, D, E and K are fat soluble vitamins whilst B and C are water soluble vitamins

Vitamin A (Retinol)
 Vitamin A is obtained from red palm oil, liver egg yolk, carrot, cocoa and green leafy vegetables
 It improves vision and also makes the skin healthy.
 Deficiency of vitamin A leads to poor night vision, sore eyes, bronchitis and unhealthy skin

Vitamin B1 (Thiamine)
 It is obtained from unpolished cereals, palm wine, beans, egg yolk, lean meat, bread and milk
 It improves nervous system function
 It also improves growth and appetite in children
 Deficiency of vitamin B1 leads to retarded growth, loss of appetite, nervous inflammation and paralysis.
 These deficiencies are more likely in rice-eating people

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)
 It is obtained from green vegetables, unpolished cereals, palm wine, egg yolk, beans and lean meat.
 Vitamin B2 improves skin structure and eye function
 Deficiency of vitamin B2 leads to skin disorders, sores around the eye and mouth (a disease known as
Dermatitis)
Vitamin B3 (Niacin)
 Vitamin B3 is obtained from yam, green leafy vegetables, egg yolk, ground nut, beans and lean meat
 Vitamin B3 improves the skin structure, facilitates digestion and aids in proper functioning of the brain
 Deficiency of niacin leads to pellagra
 Pellagra is characterized by diarrhea, dementia (mental disorder) and dermatitis (skin inflammation)
 These deficiencies are more likely in maize-eating people, since maize is a poor source of niacin
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 Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)
 It is obtained from pork, poultry such as chicken or turkey, fish, bread, eggs, vegetables, soya beans etc.
 Vitamin B6 is needed for protein, fats and carbohydrate metabolism.
 It helps in making red blood cells and haemoglobin
 It helps in proper functioning of the nervous.
 It improves healthy hair.
 Deficiency of vitamin B6 leads to weakened immune system tiredness and general body pains skin
rashes, cracks and sour lips.
Vitamin B12(cobalamin)
 It obtained from beef, liver, chicken, fish, cereals, low fat milk, yoghurt, cheese, egg etc.
 It is essential for synthesis of fatty acid.
 It is crucial for normal functioning of the brain and nervous system.
 It regulates red blood cells and DNA.
 Improper fat metabolism.
 Deficiency of vitamin B12 leads to improper functioning of the nervous system, anaemia and improper
fat metabolism leading to obesity.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

 It is obtained in fresh citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons, and grapes. It is also obtained in raw
vegetables like carrot, lettuce, cucumbers, green pepper etc.
 Vitamin C is needed for a healthy gum and teeth, it improves the immune system, helps in wound healing
and helps in absorption of iron by the body.
 Deficiency of vitamin C leads to scurvy (bleeding gum), poor immune development and prolonged
wound healing.

Vitamin D (calciferol)
 It is obtained from liver, fat, egg yolk and margarine.
 It is also synthesized by the skin when exposed to sunlight.
 Vitamin D is necessary for building strong bones and teeth. It is also needed for the absorption of
calcium and phosphorous.
 Deficiency of vitamin D leads to weak bones (rickets) and poor teeth development.

Vitamin E (tocopherol)
 It is obtained from vegetable oils, cereals, fruit juice, margarine, sun flower and nuts.
 Vitamin E is an anti-oxidant which prevents body cells from damage of free radicals such as cancer.
 It also functions as a blood thinner hence reduces blood clotting.
 Deficiency E leads to muscle weakness and tremors, poor vision and numbness. These deficiency
symptoms are however rare
Vitamin K (Phylloquinone)
 It is obtained from green vegetables, unpolished cereals, egg yolk and liver
 It facilitates the synthesis of prothrombin from the liver needed for blood clotting
 Deficiency of vitamin K to leads to prolonged bleeding after injury

Vitamin C test
i. Place about 2 cm3 if dichlorophenolindophenol (DCPIP) dye into a test tube
ii. Add few drops of the food substance
iii. A colour change1 of the DCPIP dye from blue to colorless indicates the presence of vitamin C

Minerals
Mineral elements required in diet include calcium, phosphorous, potassium, chlorine, iron and iodine
1. Calcium and phosphorous are found in milk, fish and whole grain cereals.
 Calcium and phosphorous plays a role in blood clot formation
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  They strengthen bones and teeth
 It promotes normal functioning of cell membranes and helps in the synthesis of ATP, RNA and DNA
2. Sodium and chlorine are obtained from table salt.
 Chlorine ions activate salivary amylase
 It helps to balance the pH of the body
3. Iron is present in green leafy vegetables, eggs, and liver
 It is essential for the formation of haemoglobin of red blood cells. Haemoglobin carries oxygen to
the body cells.
 Deficiency of iron can lead to anaemia (low oxygen in the blood)
4. Iodine is present in sea foods, iodated salt and vegetables
 Iodine helps in the proper functioning of the thyroid gland.
 Deficiency of iodine in diet causes goitre

WATER
 Water is a compound formed from hydrogen and oxygen in a ratio 2:1
 Water forms 2/3 of the human body. It is found in the blood, tissue fluid, lymph and the joint
 Water is obtained in most foods. In addition, the body needs 2-3 liters of water everyday

Importance of water
i. Water helps in cooling the body through formation of sweat,
ii. Water forms part of body secretions such as saliva, enzymes and gastric juices.
iii. Water is needed for excretion of metabolic waste
iv. Water helps in maintaining a constant salinity of the blood (electrolyte balance)
v. Water facilitates blood circulation
vi. Water is present in synovial fluids which lubricates the joints in the body

DIETARY FIBRE (ROUGHAGE)

 It is present in green vegetables, beans, wheat, bread and fruits
 Dietary fiber enhances the peristaltic movement of the intestines hence helps in emptying of the bowels
(it prevents constipation)
 It reduces blood cholesterol.
 It prevents bile cancer appendicitis and diabetes mellitus.
 It releases glucose slowly
 Lack of dietary fiber leads to constipation, obesity and diabetes etc.

BALANCED DIET
 It is a diet that contains all the food nutrients in their right proportion
 The food eaten daily should be able to supply the total energy required for daily activities and it should
be palatable
 Individuals’ energy requirements vary according to their climate and activities
 People living in cold areas require more energy from food than those living in warm areas
 Active people (adults) who do heavy work require more energy than those who are sedentary (less active)
 Pregnant women and nursing mothers also require a high amount of energy daily
 Males require more energy than females

Importance of a Balanced Diet

i. Balanced Diet leads to a good physical and a good mental health.
ii. It helps in proper growth of the body.
iii. It increases the capacity to work
iv. It increases the ability to fight or resist diseases.

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 MALNUTRITION
 It is a condition which results from an individual eating an unbalanced diet
 This results from too little or too much food. It may also mean eating too little or too much of a
particular food substance for a long time
 Malnutrition leads to deficiency diseases such as marasmus, scurvy, rickets etc.
 Individuals who consume less than enough food are said to be starving.
 Their body uses more energy than they get from diet. This leads to breakdown of stored food in their
body, making them lose much weight (emaciate). They will eventually run out of stored food and die
 Individuals who eat too much food over a long period of time become obese. Obese people have a lot
of fat stored under their skin. They weigh more than 94kg (209 pounds). An obese person is at risk of
suffering from heart diseases and diabetes

ENZYMES
 Enzymes are proteins that act as catalysts, enabling or speeding up chemical reactions without being
used up in the reaction.
 Enzymes were discovered by a German chemist called Edward Buchner in the late nineteenth
century
 Enzymes are found in living cells and they are released by cells when needed
 Enzymes are found in living cells and they are released when needed
 Enzymes are usually named by adding the suffix “ase” to the main substance which they work on.
E.g. maltase works on maltose, lipase works on lipids, urease works on urea and protease works on
protein
 Some enzymes are used inside the cells and are called intracellular enzymes, while some are used
outside the cells and are called extracellular enzymes

Characteristics of enzymes
i. Enzymes are highly specific to the reactions they catalyze (each enzyme will catalyze on a particular
reaction)
ii. Enzymes are not destroyed (denatured) by extremely high temperature (above 40oC)
iii. Each enzyme works within a specific range of pH
iv. Enzymes are protein in nature
v. Enzymes are soluble
vi. Enzymes are activated by co-enzymes in the form of vitamin derivatives
vii. Most enzyme actions are reversible

Factors that affect the rate of enzyme reactions

i. Changes in temperature
ii. Enzyme concentration
iii. pH of the medium
iv. nature of substrate
v. the kind of co- enzyme

DENTITION
 Dentition refers to the number, type and arrangement of teeth in the upper and lower jaws
 The homodont are those organisms that have all same type of teeth and the heterodont are those organisms
that have teeth of different types.
 The example of homodont is non-mammalian vertebrates e.g. include amphibians, reptiles and fishes. Those
of heterodont also include humans, sheep and goats.

Two sets of teeth in mammals

1. Primary teeth

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  Primary teeth are also known as deciduous teeth, milk teeth, baby teeth or temporary teeth. Primary teeth
start to form during the embryo phase and erupt during infancy (from 6 months to 3 years).
 Normally, there are 20 primary teeth, 10 on each dental arch: 4 incisors (2 central incisors and 2 lateral
incisors), 2 canines and 4 molars.
 Generally, by the age of 12 to 14 years, all primary teeth are replaced by permanent teeth but in the
absence of permanent replacements, they can remain functional for many years.

2. Permanent teeth
 Permanent teeth (or adult teeth) are the second set of teeth and normally consist of 32 teeth.
 The first permanent teeth appear around the age of 6 and are usually the first molars which erupt right
behind the last "milk" molars of the primary dentition.
 The permanent premolars will replace the milk molars of the primary dentition and all permanent molars
will erupt behind the deciduous teeth.

TYPES OF TEETH AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

There are 4 types of teeth in the oral cavity:
1. Incisors – The four front teeth in both the upper and lower jaws are called incisors.
 Their primary function is to cut food.
 The two incisors on either side of the midline are known as central incisors.
 The two adjacent teeth to the central incisors are known as the lateral incisors.
 Incisors have a single root and a sharp incisal edge.
2. Canines – There are four canines in the oral cavity.
 Two in the maxillary arch and two in the mandibular area.
 They are behind and adjacent to the lateral incisors. Their main function is to tear food.
 They have a single, pointed cusp and a single root.
3. Premolars (Bicuspids) – These teeth are located behind and adjacent to the canines and are designed to
crush food. There are eight premolars in the oral cavity.
 There are two in each quadrant of the mouth. These teeth have 2 cusps.
 The maxillary first premolar has two roots, and the remaining premolars have a single root.
 There are no premolars in the primary dentition.
4. Molars – The most posterior teeth in the mouth are the molars.
 They have broader and flatter surfaces with 4-5 cusps. T
 hey are designed to grind food. Molars typically have two roots, although the maxillary first
molar (behind the second premolar) has three roots.
 There are 12 molars in the permanent dentition with three in each quadrant of the mouth.

STRUCTURE OF A TOOTH

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 1. Enamel: It is the hard outer covering of the tooth.
o It mainly contains calcium and phosphate.
o It is the biting surface and it protects the dentine.
2. Dentine: It is located beneath the enamel and it extends with the root.
o It forms the bulk of the tooth and encloses the pulp cavity.
3. Cementum: The tissue covering the surface of the tooth root.
o It connects the tooth to the alveolar bone (jaw bone) through the periodontal ligament.
o Its hardness is similar to bone.
4. Dental Pulp/ pulp cavity: This cavity contains soft tissues such as blood vessels and nerve fibres.
o It promotes growth of the tooth and makes it sensitive.
5. Periodontal ligament: It connects the root of the tooth to the alveolar bone (jaw bone).
o It reduces the force applied to the jaw bone while chewing food.
6. Alveolar bone: It is the jaw bone that supports the tooth.
o When a large part of the alveolar bone (jaw bone) is destroyed, the tooth becomes loose.
7. Gingiva(gum): The soft tissue covering the alveolar bone (jaw bone).

DENTAL FORMULA
 Dental formula represents the arrangement of teeth in each half of the upper and the lower jaw.
 The entire formula is multiplied by two to represent the total number of teeth.
 The letters used in this formula are based on the 4 types of teeth like– Incisor (I), Canine (C), Premolar
(PM), and Molar (M).

Dental formulae of some selected mammals

ADAPTATION OF TEETH TO DIET

Herbivores
 Herbivores eat only plant material and so their teeth are specially adapted
to break down the tough cellulose wall of plant cells.
 The adaptations include large flattened molars, which increase surface area
to grind the plant material on during chewing.
 They do not have incisors in the upper jaw (except horses). Instead, they
have a horny pad that helps them chew plant leaves.
 They have large diastema or gap between their front and back teeth
o They use the diastema to pull more plant material through their mouth
as they continue chewing.
o The diastema also helps them to roll food while chewing.
Carnivores
 Canines are present in their lower jaw, but they are significantly reduced and blunt
 They have very prominent, sharp canine teeth used to capture, kill, and
butcher their prey.
 The incisors are relatively small compared to the rest of the teeth. They also
have pointed, close-packed crowns that form a comb-like structure which
the animals use to groom their fur.
 The first lower molar and the last upper premolar teeth form the Carnassial
teeth.
o Carnassial teeth have sharp cutting edges which are used to cut meat and
tear meat away from bones.
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 DENTAL CARE
i. Regular brushing of teeth with tooth brush and tooth paste (twice a day).
ii. Use of mouth wash such as hydrogen peroxide to remove Stains due to eating kola or smoking tobacco
iii. Intake of foods which contain vitamins and minerals such as green vegetables, fresh fruits and eggs
should be taken regularly.
iv. Avoidance of Sugary foods and drinks like sweets, ice cream etc.
v. Visiting the dentist regularly for check-up (at least twice in a year).
vi. Artificial teeth should always be removed and washed with germicide solution after each meal.
vii. Misuse of teeth such as cracking of large bones that may cause damage to the enamel should be avoided

DIGESTION
Digestion refers to the breakdown of food into smaller components that can be absorbed into the bloodstream.
There are two types of digestion namely: Physical digestion and chemical digestion.

Physical digestion involves the mechanical break-down of food into smaller pieces.
It involves chewing of food in the mouth and churning of food in the stomach.

Chemical digestion involves the chemical breakdown of food by different enzymes and chemicals.
 It starts in the mouth with salivary amylase that breaks down carbohydrate
 Chemical digestion continues throughout the digestive system with gastric acid in the stomach, and
pancreatic and other enzymes in the small intestine.

DIGESTIVE PROCESSES
The processes of digestion include six activities: iv. Chemical digestion
i. Ingestion v. Absorption
ii. Propulsion vi. Egestion.
iii. Mechanical (physical) digestion,
 Ingestion: It is the taking of substances such as food and drink into the body through the mouth.
 Mechanical digestion It is the breakdown of food into smaller pieces without chemical change to the
food molecules.
 Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large insoluble molecules into small soluble molecules.
 Absorption is the movement of small food molecules and ions through the wall of the intestine into the
blood.
 Assimilation is the movement of digested food molecules into the cells of the body where they are used,
becoming part of the cells.
 Egestion is the passing out of undigested food that has not been absorbed, through the anus as faeces

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

The human digestive system is made up of the Alimentary canal and
accessory organs.
Accessory organs
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 These are organs that helps with digestion but is not part of the digestive
 Salivary glands
They are exocrine glands that produce saliva in the oral cavity.
They secrete an enzyme called amylase, which helps in the breakdown of starch into maltose. There are three types
of salivary glands, namely:
 Parotid glands produce a serous (watery) saliva
 Submandibular glands produce a mixture of watery and mucous saliva
 Sublingual glands secrete a saliva that is predominantly mucous in character

Alimentary Canal
The alimentary canal is a muscular tube that runs from the mouth to the anus
It is made up of the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, duodenum, intestines, rectum and anus

Digestion in the mouth (buccal cavity)

 It begins with the breakdown of starch into maltose by the action of the enzyme called salivary amylase
(ptyalin)
 Saliva is secreted as soon as food enters the mouth or by the sight or smell of food
 Saliva also contains mucin which softens and lubricates food for easy swallow.
 It also contains salts such as NaCl and Na2CO3 which provide a slightly alkaline medium (pH 7.3-7.9)
 The tongue rolls the food to facilitate chewing and the food is swallowed as a bolus.

The following actions occur while swallowing food

i. The tongue squeezes the food against the hard palate
ii. The soft palate and the uvula close the nasal passage
iii. The larynx raises under the epiglottis to close the passage to the
trachea
iv. The epiglottis lowers to direct the bolus of food over the trachea
into the oesophagus

Oesophagus
 The oesophagus is a tube that transports food from the pharynx to the stomach.
 Food passes down the oesophagus into the stomach.
 The muscular walls of the oesophagus contract relax to push the food down. This action is known as
peristalsis
 Peristalsis is the alternate contraction and relaxation of the smooth muscles of the alimentary canal.
 Salivary amylase continues to convert starch into maltose while in the oesophagus
 The food passes through the cardiac sphincter and enters the stomach

DIGESTION IN THE STOMACH

The stomach is a J-shaped muscular sac which can expand to temporarily store food.
The smooth muscles of the stomach produce contractions that mix the boluses of food with gastric juice. This process is
known as churning.
This mixing leads to the production of the thick liquid known as chyme.
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 The stomach has special gastric glands which secrete gastric juice. The gastric glands are stimulated by a hormone called
gastrin. Which is produced by the stomach walls.

 Hydrochloric acid creates an acidic medium required for normal

functioning of the gastric enzymes.
o It activates pepsinogen (inactive form) into pepsin (active
form).
o It kills pathogens that are ingested along with food and also
stimulates the contraction and relaxation of the pyloric
sphincter

The stomach contains mucus which forms a protective inner lining
to the lining of the stomach against the stomach acids.
 The pyloric sphincter is normally closed to keep food and stomach
secretions within the stomach.
 This process, (known as gastric emptying), slowly repeats over the
1-2 hours that food is stored in the stomach.
 The slow rate of gastric emptying helps to spread out the volume of chyme being released from the stomach
and maximizes the digestion and absorption of nutrients in the intestines

 The enzymes present in the gastric juice chemically digest large molecules into their smaller subunits.
 The gastric juice contains pepsin, renin and HCl.
 Pepsin- is an enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of proteins into smaller units called peptides.
 Pepsin works in an acidic medium (pH 1.5-2.0)
 Renin is an enzyme found in children. It converts proteins called Caseinogen (found in milk) into casein (milk
curd)
Digestion in the Duodenum.
The duodenum is the first part of the small intestine. The chyme passes from the stomach into the duodenum
through the pyloric sphincter which opens from time to time.
 When the chyme enters the duodenum, the walls of the duodenum release a hormone called secretin and
cholecystokinin into the blood stream.
 Secretin stimulates the pancreas to secretes pancreatic juices,
 Cholecystokinin (CCK) stimulates the gallbladder to release bile into the bile duct and finally into the
duodenum.
 The bile emulsifies fat by breaking down large complex fat into smaller droplets (emulsion).
 Emulsification is the breaking up of large lipid (fat) droplets into small droplets, to provide greater surface
for enzyme action.
 Emulsification of fat increases the surface area of the fat and makes it easier to react with enzymes.
 The bile is green in colour. This is due to the presence of excretory materials (Bilirubin and Biliverdin).
 These excretory products are released by the liver after it breaks down red blood cells and haemoglobin.
 The pancreatic juice is alkaline in nature. Therefore, it neutralizes the acidity of the chyme and raises its pH.
 The pancreatic juice contains six major categories of enzymes, which act in an alkaline medium.
i. Pancreatic amylase – completes conversion of starch into maltose.
ii. Lipase (steapsin)– Acts on emulsified fats to produce fatty acids and glycerol.
iii. Nucleases – Digest nucleic acids, i.e. DNA and RNA content of the food.
iv. Trypsinogen (inactive form of trypsin) – It is activated into trypsin by the enzyme enterokinase and it
acts on remaining proteins.
v. Chymotrypsin – acts on milk protein casein to produce paracasein (curd), and also converts other
proteins into peptides.
vi. Carboxypeptidases – act on peptides to produce small peptides and amino acid

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 Digestion in the small intestine.
 The small intestine is about 6 meters long and has three parts:
o Duodenum, Jejunum, and ileum.
 The small intestine loops back and forth, and fills much of the abdominal cavity.
 The small intestine is held in place by fan-like folds of connective tissue (mesentery) that contain many
blood vessels.
 In the small intestine chyme is acted upon by three main digestive juices.
(i) Bile juice from the liver
(ii) Pancreatic juice from the pancreas
(iii) Intestinal juice from intestinal villi.

Description of the villi Diagram of the villi

 The Villi (singular: villus) are tiny finger-like projections found in

the inner lining of the small intestines
 The main function of the villi is to increase the surface area for
absorption
 They are made up of thousands of tiny structures called microvilli.
 Each villus contains a dense network of blood capillary.
o This makes it possible for glucose and amino acids to easily
diffuse into the bloodstream.
 The capillaries join the hepatic portal vein which carries absorbed
nutrients into the liver for detoxification before being distributed to
the body cells
 There is a tube called a lacteal in each villus. This tube has a blunt
end
 Lacteal tube forms part of the lymphatic system and is used to
transport fatty acids and glycerol into the lymphatic system and then
into the blood vessels.
 The epithelial lining also contains cells that are capable of secreting
mucus. These cells are known as goblet cells
Intestinal Juice (Succus Entericus)
The intestinal juice contains the following enzymes
i. Lipase- Converts the remaining fat into fatty acids and glycerol
ii. Maltase- Converts maltose into glucose
iii. Lactase- Converts lactose into glucose and galactose
iv. Sucrase-Converts sucrose into glucose and fructose
v. Eripsin- Converts peptides into amino acids
vi. Enterokinase- Converts inactive trypsinogen into trypsin (active form)

LARGE INTESTINE
 The colon is a 6-feet long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.
 The large intestine produces no digestive enzymes.
 Chemical digestion is completed in the small intestine before the chyme reaches the large intestine.
 Functions of the large intestine include the absorption of water and electrolytes and the elimination
of faeces.
 The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.
 The appendix is a small tube attached to the cecum.
 The large intestine is a highly specialized organ that is responsible for processing waste so that emptying
the bowels is easy and convenient.
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 Activities of the Large Intestine
Metabolism. The “resident” bacteria that live in its lumen metabolize some
Absorption.
of Absorption
the remaining nutrients,byreleasing
the largegases
intestine is limited
(methane to the absorption
and hydrogen of
sulphide)
vitamin
that K, some
contribute to B
thevitamins,
odour ofsome ions, and most of the remaining water.
faeces.
Egestion. The undigested food materials accumulate within the rectum and it is
released through the anus. It contains mucus, bacteria and water

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE LIVER

 The liver is the largest internal organ in the human
body and it weighs about 1.5 kg.
 It is the body’s metabolic center due to its vital
role.
 It is located below the diaphragm
 It is reddish brown in colour due to the large
number of red blood cells in it. It receives more
blood than any other organ
 Blood is supplied to the liver by the hepatic portal
vein and the hepatic artery
 The hepatic portal vein is a blood vessel that moves
blood from the pancreas, gall bladder, spleen and
the gastrointestinal tract to the liver. This blood is
rich in nutrients.
 The hepatic artery carries oxygenated blood from
the heart to the liver.

 The liver is divided into two large parts called lobes. Each lobe is made up of numerous cylindrical
structures called lobules. Each lobule is made up of rows of liver cells (hepatocytes).
 There is a vein in the center of each lobule called the central vein. This vein is a branch of the hepatic
portal vein.
 Branches of the hepatic artery, hepatic portal vein and the bile duct run alongside each other in every
lobule. This group of vessels is known as interlobular blood vessels or portal triad
 The bile that has been secreted by the liver cells move through tiny channels called canaliculi into the bile
duct.
 The central vein and the interlobular vessels are linked by capillaries called the hepatic sinusoids. These
sinusoids are in close association with the liver cells
 There are some specialized cells known as kupffer cells attached to the walls of the sinusoids. The
kupffer cells are phagocytes (remove bacteria and other micro-organisms and also destroy old red blood
cells).

Functions of Bile juice

 It helps the body to absorb the breakdown products of fat in the gut. Bile salts bind with lipids to form
micelles. This is then absorbed through the intestinal mucosa.
 Emulsify fats and break it down into small particles.
 It kills germs present in the food.
 It has an important part in the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins.
 Bile also carries excess cholesterol out of the body and 'dumps' it into the gastrointestinal tract where
it can be passed out with other waste matter. This reduces the acid content of the chyme.

Functions of the liver

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The liver functions are classified as excretory or homeostatic.
1. Regulation of blood sugar
 The liver stores glycogen in its cells (maximum of 100 g)
 The liver occasionally converts fat and proteins into glucose in the absence of
glycogen
2. Formation of bile
 The liver continuously breaks down red blood cells to form bile which is stored in
the gall bladder
3. Storage of iron
 The liver stores iron from the hemoglobin of the red blood cells which get
destroyed
4. Deamination
 Deamination is the removal of excess amino acids from the blood
 The amino acids are converted into urea and are excreted by the kidneys
5. Detoxification
 Many poisonous substances that enter the blood stream are removed by the liver
and are modified into less toxic forms before being excreted by the kidneys
6. Production of plasma protein
 Liver produces proteins like fibrinogen, albumin, and globulins
7. Production of heat
 The various chemical reactions that occur in the liver produces a great deal of heat
8. Storage of vitamins
 The liver stores vitamins like A, D and B12.

Liver diseases
i. Hepatitis
ii. Jaundice
iii. Cirrhosis
iv. Liver cancer
ENZYMES
enzymes are biological catalysts which are protein in nature, produced by living cells that speed up chemical
activities in organisms.

Charateristics of enzymes
i. They are protein in nature
ii. Remain chemically unchanged at the end of a reaction.
iii. They are denatured/ destroyed at high temperature (above 45ºⅭ) and also become inactive under low
temperatures.
iv. Most intracellular enzymes function most efficiently around neutral pH and very high acidity and
alkalinity deactivate them.
v. The rate of enzymatic action is influenced by enzyme concentration and substrate concentration.
vi. Enzymes are specific in their activities.

Factors affecting enzymes actions

i. Nature of the substrate
ii. Co-enzymes/ Non protein organic groups
iii. Temperature
iv. PH (alkalinity and acidity)
v. Substrate concentration
vi. Enzymes concentration
vii. Chemicals / inorganic ions e.g. FAD

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