Ch06 e Finalized

6 Nutrition in humans
Think about…
6.1 Modes of nutrition
6.2 Process of human nutrition
6.3 Ingestion
6.4 Digestion
6.5 Absorption
6.6 Assimilation
6.7 Egestion
Recall Think about…
Concept map
2
Special meal for the elderly

mousse-like
barbecued pork
rice
made by breaking
down food into
pastes and
solidifying them
3
Special meal for the elderly

mousse-like
barbecued pork
rice
easy to
swallow and
digest
4
Why does the food we eat have

to be digested?
5
How is food digested in our body?
6
6 Nutrition in humans 6.1 Modes of nutrition

nutrition ( 營
養)
a process in which organisms obtain food
• for energy
• for growth
• for maintaining health
7

nutrition ( 營
養) e.g.
autotrophic heterotrophic
nutrition nutrition
( 自養營養 ) ( 異養營養 )
8
autotrophic nutrition
autotrophs ( 自養生物 )
Plants make their own food by

photosynthesis.
9
heterotrophic nutrition
heterotrophs ( 異養生
物)
Most organisms (e.g. cow)
depend on other organisms for
food.
10
heterotrophic nutrition
• three main types:
holozoic saprophytic parasitic
nutrition nutrition nutrition
( 動物式營 ( 腐生式營 ( 寄生式營
養) 養) 養)
11
holozoic nutrition
• example: humans
• take in complex food
and digest it inside
the body
12
saprophytic nutrition
• example: some fungi
(e.g. bread mould)
and bacteria
saprophytes
( 腐生生物 )
13
saprophytic nutrition
• example: some fungi
(e.g. bread mould)
and bacteria
• break down food
outside the body and
then absorb soluble
nutrients
14
parasitic nutrition
• example: some
animals (e.g.
tapeworm), plants,
fungi or bacteria
parasite
( 寄生物 )
15
parasitic nutrition
• example: some
animals (e.g.
tapeworm), plants,
fungi or bacteria
• live on or inside
other organisms
and obtain food
from them
16
6 Nutrition in humans 6.2 Process of human nutrition
6.2 Process of human nutrition

Large, complex molecules (e.g. starch,
proteins and lipids) taken in have to be
broken down.
large, complex small, soluble

molecules molecules
17
This is necessary because…

• large, complex food molecules have to
be broken down before they can enter
the cell
differentially
permeable
18

• large, complex food molecules have to
be broken down before they can enter
the cell
large, complex
molecules
small, soluble
molecules
19

• the food molecules are structurally
different from those making up our
body
cow different human

proteins structure proteins
20
Nutrition ( 營養 ) in
humans consists of 5 main
processes:
food
1 Ingestion ( 攝
食Food
) is taken in
through the mouth.
22
2 Digestion ( 消化 )
Food is broken down
into soluble and
simple molecules.
23
3 Absorption ( 吸
收The
) soluble and
simple food molecules
enter the circulatory
system.
24
4 Assimilation ( 同
化 The
) absorbed food
molecules are taken
up by cells for
metabolism.
25
5 Egestion ( 排遺 )
The undigested and
unabsorbed materials
are removed from the
body as faeces.
26
The human digestive system

digestive system ( 消化系
統)
consists of
alimentary canal ( 消化
道)
digestive glands ( 消化
腺)
27
Alimentary canal
• a long muscular tube
• begins at the mouth and ends at the
anus
28
Alimentary canal
mouth cavity
( 口腔 )
pharynx ( 咽 )
oesophagus
( 食道 )
stomach ( 胃 )
29
Alimentary canal
small duodenum
intestine ( 十二指腸 )
( 小腸 ) ileum ( 迴腸 )
30
Alimentary canal
colon ( 結腸 )
large
caecum ( 盲腸 )
intestine
( 大腸 ) appendix ( 闌
尾 )
rectum ( 直腸 )
anus ( 肛
門) 31
Digestive glands
• produce digestive juices ( 消化液 )
which aid digestion
32
Digestive glands
salivary glands ( 唾腺 )
liver ( 肝 )
pancreas ( 胰 )
33
6.1
Practical 6.1
Examination of the mammalian

digestive system
1 Examine the digestive

system of a dissected rat (or
a human torso model).
2 Identify the structures.
34
1 Main processes of nutrition in

humans include ingestion ,
digestion , absorption ,
assimilation and egestion .
35
2 Our digestive system consists of

the alimentary canal and its
associated digestive glands .
36
2 The alimentary canal starts from

the mouth cavity , which leads to
the pharynx , the oesophagus ,
the stomach , the small intestine
and the large intestine . It ends
at the anus .
37
2 The digestive glands include the

salivary glands , the liver
and the pancreas .
38
6 Nutrition in humans 6.3 Ingestion
6.3 Ingestion
• Food is taken in
through the mouth.
food
39
6.3 Ingestion
• Food is cut up into
small pieces by the
teeth.
mastication
( 咀嚼 )
40
A The types of teeth

Incisor Canine
( 門齒 ) ( 犬齒 )
Premolar Molar
( 前臼齒 ) ( 臼齒 )
41
Incisor chisel-shaped
• for biting and with flat sharp
cutting food edges
1 root
42
Canine
pointed and
• for tearing
curved
flesh
1 root
43
Premolar
broad top with
• for crushing
cusps
and grinding
food 1 or 2 roots
44
Molar
large broad
• for crushing
top with cusps
and grinding
food 2 or 3 roots
45
midline • 4 types of
teeth arranged
symmetrically
on the left
and right
sides
46
• number and
arrangement
upper jaw are the same
on the upper
and lower
jaws
lower jaw
47
B Milk teeth and permanent

teeth
Humans have two sets of teeth:
milk teeth ( 乳齒 ) permanent teeth ( 恆

齒) 48
Milk teeth
• first set of teeth
• appear during the
first 2 years of life
49
Permanent teeth
• second set of teeth
• replace milk teeth
between the ages of
6 and 12
• will not be replaced
if damaged or lost
50
Dentition ( 齒系 )
• type, numbers and arrangement of teeth
in the jaws
• represented by a dental formula ( 齒
式)
numbers of different types
of teeth on each side of the
upper and lower jaws
51
Milk teeth
1 canine
2 incisors 2 molars
2 incisors 2 molars
1 canine
2 1 0 2
Dental formula: i , c , pm , m
2 1 0 2 52
Milk teeth
1 canine
2 incisors 2 molars
2 incisors 2 molars
1 canine
Dental formula: or simply 2102
2102 53
Milk teeth
Dental formula:
2 1 0 2 2102
i , c , pm , m or simply
2 1 0 2 2102
Total number of teeth on each side of mouth
= (2 + 1 + 0 + 2)  2 = 10
Total number of teeth
= 10  2 = 20
54
Permanent teeth
1 canine
2 incisors 2 premolars
3 molars
3 molars
1 canine
2 1 2 3
Dental formula: i , c , pm , m
2 1 2 3 55
Permanent teeth
1 canine
3 molars
3 molars
1 canine
Dental formula: or simply 2123
2123 56
Permanent teeth
Dental formula:
2 1 2 3 2123
i , c , pm , m or simply
2 1 2 3 2123
Total number of teeth on each side of mouth
= (2 + 1 + 2 + 3)  2 = 16
Total number of teeth
= 16  2 = 32
57
C Structure of a tooth
3D model 6.1
• divided into three

regions: crown
( 齒冠 )
neck
(齒
頸)
root
(齒
根)
58
1 Enamel ( 琺瑯
質 )
• outermost, hardest
part
• non-living, made of
calcium salts
• protects the tooth
59
1 Enamel ( 琺瑯
質 )
• replaced by cementum
( 牙骨質 ) around the roots
• cementum attaches the
tooth to jawbone through
the periodontal
membrane ( 牙周膜 )
60
2 Dentine ( 牙本
質 )
• bone-like substance
containing a large amount
of calcium salts
• not as hard as enamel
• living tissue containing
living cytoplasm
61
3 Pulp cavity ( 髓
腔 )
• contains living cells,
blood vessels and
-nerve fibres
supply oxygen and
nutrients
- remove wastes
62
3 Pulp cavity ( 髓
腔 )
• contains living cells,
blood vessels and
nerve fibres
detect temperature
and pressure
63
1 During ingestion, food is put into

the mouth cavity and masticated
by the teeth.
64
2 Incisors are for biting and cutting

food. Canines
are for tearing
flesh. Premolars
and
molars are for crushing and
grinding food.
65
3 Dentitionrefers to the type,

number and arrangement of
teeth in the jaws.
66
4 A dental formula shows the

numbers of different types of
teeth on each side of the upper
and lower jaws.
67
4 The dental formula of milk teeth

is:
2 1 0 2 2102
i , c , pm , m or
2 1 0 2 2102
68
4 The dental formula of

permanent teeth is:
2 1 2 3 2123
i , c , pm , m or
2 1 2 3 2123
69
5 A tooth can be divided into the

crown , neck and root .
70
5 Each tooth consists of three

enamel
layers: the dentine
, the
and pulp
the cavity .
71
6 Nutrition in humans 6.4 Digestion
6.4 Digestion
Digestion
Physical digestion Chemical digestion

( 機械消化 ) ( 化學消化 )
72
A Physical digestion and

chemical digestion
1 Physical digestion
• breaks down food into small pieces by
physical actions
• increases the surface area of the food
for digestive juices to act on
73
physical actions
food
large piece small pieces

• smaller surface • larger surface
area area
74
physical actions
food
large piece small pieces
further broken down

into small molecules
by chemical digestion
75
2 Chemical digestion
• involves chemical reactions
digestive enzymes
( 消化酶 )
large, complex small, soluble

food molecules forms
76
• three main types of digestive enzymes:
Carbohydrases ( 碳水化合物
酶)
starch or
disaccharides monosaccharides
77
Lipases ( 脂肪
酶)
triglycerides glycerol fatty

acids
78
Proteases ( 蛋白酶 )
proteins amino acids
79
Digestion mainly occurs

in:
Mouth cavity
• physical digestion:
chewing (mastication)
• chemical digestion:
catalysed by enzyme in
saliva ( 唾液 )
80

in:
Stomach
churning ( 劇烈攪動 )
catalysed by enzyme in
gastric juice ( 胃液 )
81

in:
Small intestine
emulsification ( 乳化 ) by
bile ( 膽汁 )
catalysed by enzymes in
pancreatic juice ( 胰液 )
and enzymes on intestinal
wall 82
B Digestion in the mouth

cavity
• food is chewed by
teeth and mixed with
saliva produced by
salivary glands
83

cavity
• saliva contains:
salivary amylase
( 唾液澱粉酶 )
starch maltose
84

cavity
mucus ( 黏液 )
- helps bind food particles together
- moistens and lubricates food
make chewing and swallowing easier

85

cavity
water
- dissolves soluble substances in food,
so that we can taste the food
86
Swallowing
Animation 6.1
nasal cavity
bolus
soft palate
tongue ( 軟腭 )
epiglottis pharynx
( 會厭 )
trachea oesophagus
87
Before swallowing
The tongue rolls the

food into a soft mass
called a bolus ( 食團 ).
88
During swallowing
1 The tongue rises.
To push the bolus

towards the pharynx.
89
During swallowing
2 The soft palate

moves up.
To prevent the bolus

from entering the
nasal cavity.
90
During swallowing
3 The larynx rises.
Epiglottis covers
the opening to the
trachea.
To prevent the bolus

from entering the
trachea.
91
During swallowing
4 The bolus enters

the oesophagus.
92
After swallowing
• The food is moved from the oesophagus
to the rectum by peristalsis.
93
Peristalsis
• wave-like movement of the wall of the
alimentary canal
• contractions of two muscle
layers, circular muscle and
longitudinal muscle
94
Peristalsis
fibres arranged in rings

around the tube
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
fibres arranged along
the length of the tube
95
Peristalsis
circular muscle
longitudinal muscle
work together in a
coordinated way to push
the food
96
After swallowing
3 Lumen Behind the bolus

becomes
1 Circular muscles
smaller.
contract.
4 Food is 2 Longitudinal
squeezed muscles relax.
forward.
97
After swallowing
3 Lumen In front of the bolus

becomes
larger. 1 Circular muscles
4 Food can relax.
slide 2 Longitudinal
through muscles contract.
the lumen.
98
After swallowing
Alternate contraction
of circular muscles
and longitudinal
muscles
peristalsis
99
C Digestion in the stomach

Animation 6.2
cardiac sphincter
( 賁門括約肌 )
stomach
(a muscular bag)
pyloric sphincter ( 幽門括約

肌) 100

cardiac sphincter
( 賁門括約肌 )
• its contraction
prevents food
from flowing back
into oesophagus

肌) 101

cardiac sphincter
( 賁門括約肌 )
• controls the
release of food
into the duodenum
肌) 102
103

gastric
glands
( 胃腺 )
circular
muscle
(×10 longitudinal
) muscle
104

gastric
glands
( 胃腺 )
produce
gastric juice
( 胃液 )
105
Gastric juice contains:

• pepsin ( 胃蛋白酶 ): a protease, works
best in acidic medium
protein peptides
106

• hydrochloric acid (HCl) ( 氫氯酸 )
- provides an acidic medium for the
action of pepsin
- kills most bacteria in food
107

• mucus
- protects the stomach
wall from being
damaged by HCl
108
After the food enters the stomach…
bolus
cardiac sphincter
relaxes
muscle wall contract
to churn the food and
mix it with gastric
juice
109
After a few hours…
food is churned into a

creamy liquid called
chyme ( 食糜 )
110
After a few hours…
pyloric sphincter
relaxes
chyme is released
into the duodenum
111
6.2
Practical 6.2
Investigation of the action of pepsin

Procedure
1
cork borer Allow it to cool.
Bunsen burner
112
6.2
2
Press to make cork borer

3 wells.
milk-agar
plate
113
6.2
2 Replace the lid as quickly as possible.
Label the wells A, B and C.
C B
114
6.2
3 Use a clean dropper to fill the wells with:
3 3
A: 1 cm pepsin solution + 1 cm dilute HCl
B: 1 cm3 distilled water + 1 cm3 dilute HCl
3 3
C: 1 cm boiled pepsin solution + 1 cm dilute HCl
A
C B
115
6.2
4 Incubate at 35 °C for one hour.
pepsin + HCl
A
C B distilled water +
boiled pepsin
HCl
+ HCl
116
6.2
5 Any clear zone around the wells?
pepsin + HCl
A
C B distilled water +
boiled pepsin
HCl
+ HCl
117
6.2
Results and discussion
A clear zone is observed around well A.
Pepsin diffuses to the milk-agar and helps the

breakdown of the milk protein.
118
6.2
No clear zone is observed around well B.
It shows that any clear zone formed around

well A is due to the presence of pepsin.
119
6.2
No clear zone is observed around well C.
It shows that any clear zone formed around

well A is due to the enzymatic action of
pepsin.
120
D Digestion in the
small intestine includes
duodenum and
ileum
121
D Digestion in the
small intestine
122
D Digestion in the
small intestine
duodenum
receives various 1 bile
secretions
3 intestinal
juice 2 pancreatic
juice
123
1 Bile
• green alkaline fluid
• produced by liver
• temporarily stored in
the gall bladder
• released through the
bile duct
duodenum
124
1 Bile
• contains no
digestive enzyme
125
1 Bile
• contains:bile salts
emulsification
(physical small droplets
digestion)
lipids
smaller surface area larger surface area
facilitates chemical
digestion by lipase
126
1 Bile
• contains:bile pigments ( 膽色
素- )do not take part in
digestion
- formed from breakdown
of haemoglobin from
red blood cells
- excreted in faeces
127
1 Bile
• contains:sodium hydrogencarbonate
( 碳酸氫鈉 )
- alkaline
- neutralizes the acidic chyme
- provides an alkaline
medium for the action of
enzymes
128
2 Pancreatic juice
• produced by the
pancreas
• released through the
pancreatic duct
into the duodenum
129
2 Pancreatic juice
• contains:pancreatic amylase
starch maltose
130
2 Pancreatic juice
• contains:pancreatic lipase
lipids glycerol fatty

acids
131
2 Pancreatic juice
• contains:proteases
amino
proteins peptides acids
132
2 Pancreatic juice
• contains:sodium hydrogencarbonate
- neutralizes the acidic
chyme
- provides an alkaline
medium for the action of
enzymes in the small
intestine
133
3 Intestinal juice
• produced by some
glands in the wall
of the small
intestine
• slightly alkaline
134
3 Intestinal juice
• contains mainly water, mucus and
sodium hydrogencarbonate
• provides an alkaline medium for
the action of enzymes
135
Digestion by enzymes on the epithelium

of the small intestine
enzymes on cell membrane
(e.g. carbohydrases and proteases)
specialized cells
on epithelium
136
carbohydrases
• catalyse the breakdown of
disaccharides into monosaccharides
maltase
maltose glucose
137
carbohydrases
sucrase
sucrose glucose +
fructose
138
carbohydrases
lactase
lactose glucose +
galactose
139
proteases
• catalyse the breakdown of peptides into
amino acids
proteases
peptides amino acids
140
6.3
Practical 6.3 Animation 6.3
Demonstration of the effect of

bile salts on oil
Procedure
1
add 10 drops of
bile salt solution
peanut oil
141
6.3
2
Shake for 10 seconds.
142
6.3
2
Stand for 5 minutes.

Any changes in the
mixture?
143
6.3
3 Repeat steps 1 and 2 with distilled
water.
distilled water
peanut oil
144
6.3
3 Compare the appearance of the two mixtures.
145
6.3
Mixture Appearance
Peanut oil and An emulsion ( 乳狀物 ) is
bile salt solution formed. The bile salts
emulsify lipids into tiny
droplets.
146
6.3
Mixture Appearance
Peanut oil and Two layers of liquids are
distilled water observed. This is a control
to show that emulsification
of lipids is due to the bile
salt solution.
147
6.4
Practical 6.4
Investigation of the action of lipase

Introduction
lipids glycerol fatty acids
acidic
148
6.4
Introduction
The change in pH can be detected by
indicators like phenolphthalein ( 酚酞 ).
colour: colourless colour: pink
8.4 10 pH
149
6.4
Procedure
1 A B C
5 cm3 full-cream milk + 7 cm3 sodium carbonate

solution + 5 drops phenolphthalein solution
150
6.4
2
1 cm3 of lipase
solution
A
151
6.4
2
1 cm3 of
distilled water
B
152
6.4
2
1 cm3 of boiled
lipase solution
C
153
6.4
2
glass rod
A B C
mix well
154
6.4
3
Stand for 10 A B C
minutes. Observe
any changes in the
mixtures.
155
6.4
Boiling tube Observation
Mixture changed from pink
A
to white.
Lipids are broken down into glycerol
and fatty acids
pH drops
156
6.4
B Mixture remains pink.
A control to show that any colour

change in tube A is due to the
presence of lipase.
157
6.4
C Mixture remains pink.
A control to show that any colour

change in tube A is due to the
enzymatic action of lipase.
158
A summary of digestion
Carbohydrates
mouth cavity
salivary amylase
in saliva maltose
starch
159
Carbohydrates
stomach
(no chemical digestion)
160
Carbohydrates
small intestine
pancreatic amylase
in pancreatic juice
starch maltose
carbohydrases
on intestinal wall
disaccharides
monosaccharides
161
Proteins
mouth cavity
162
Proteins
stomach
pepsin
in gastric juice
proteins peptides
163
Proteins
small intestine
proteases
in pancreatic juice
proteins peptides
proteases in
pancreatic juice and
on intestinal wall amino
peptides acids
164
Lipids
mouth cavity
165
Lipids
stomach
166
Lipids
small intestine
bile salts in bile
(physical digestion) small
lipids droplets
pancreatic lipase
in intestinal juice
small glycerol
droplets fatty acids
167
• Digestion is completed in the small intestine.
digested products
monosaccharides
amino acids ready for

fatty acids absorption
glycerol
168
A student carried out an experiment to study the

role of lipase and bile in lipid digestion in our body.
The set-ups he used are shown below.
P Q
water bath
full-cream milk + full-cream milk +

lipase solution + lipase solution +
distilled water + bile salt solution +
sodium carbonate solution sodium carbonate solution
169
The results are shown in the graph below.

8.5 P:
8.0 full-cream milk +
lipase solution +
7.5 distilled water +
pH P sodium carbonate
7.0 solution
Q
Q:
6.5
full-cream milk +
lipase solution +
0 20 40 60 bile salt +
time (min) sodium carbonate
solution
170
P:
8.5
full-cream milk +
lipase solution +
8.0
distilled water +
7.5 sodium carbonate
pH P
7.0 solution
Q:
Q full-cream milk +
6.5 lipase solution +
bile salt +
0 sodium carbonate
20 40 60 solution
time (min)
a State one evidence from the results showing bile salts help
the lipid digestion. Explain your answer. (2 marks)
171
Suggested answer
a The pH of the solution in tube Q drops faster
than that in tube P during the first 20 minutes. (1)
This shows that fatty acids are formed at a faster
rate in the presence of bile salts. (1)
172
b The student suggested that the breakdown of

lipids in tube P is due to the presence of lipase.
What control is needed to test this hypothesis?
What is the expected result if the hypothesis is to
be supported? (2 marks)
P Q
full-cream milk +
lipase solution +
distilled water +
sodium carbonate solution
173
Suggested answer
b A tube similar to tube P but with no lipase
added. (1)
The pH of the solution in this tube should remain
unchanged. (1)
174
Setting up a controlled experiment

P control

lipase solution + distilled water +
distilled water + distilled water +
differs only by the presence of lipase

175

P control

lipase solution + distilled water +
distilled water + distilled water +
all other variables are kept the same

176

P control
If there is no breakdown of lipids in the

control tube, we can conclude that the
breakdown of lipids is due to the presence
of lipase but not other factors.
177
A student set up the test tube below to investigate

the action of amylase. He tested for the presence of
starch in the tube using iodine test after 30 minutes
and found that the iodine solution remained brown.
starch solution +
amylase solution
178
Suggest a control to show each of the following.

a Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the
presence of amylase. (1 mark)
starch solution +
amylase solution
179

a Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the
presence of amylase. (1 mark)
A similar tube but with distilled water added

instead of amylase solution. (1)
180

b Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the
enzymatic action of amylase. (1 mark)
starch solution +
amylase solution
181

b Breakdown of starch in the tube is due to the
enzymatic action of amylase. (1 mark)
A similar tube but with boiled amylase solution

added instead of fresh amylase solution. (1)
182
c Some patients may have their bile duct blocked,

and need to have their gall bladder removed.
Explain how this may affect the digestion of
lipids. (3 marks)
183
Suggested answer
c As the gall bladder is removed, bile produced by
the liver cannot be stored. (1)
When food enters the duodenum, insufficient
amount of bile is released for emulsifying
lipids. (1)
The surface area for the action of lipase
decreases, thus lipids cannot be digested efficiently.
(1)
184
1 Physical digestion is the

breaking down of food into
smaller pieces by physical
surface
actions. It increases the area of
food for digestive juices to act on.
185
1 Chemical digestion involves

chemical reactions that are
catalysed by digestive enzymes.
It breaks down complex food
molecules into small, soluble
absorption
forms, which are ready for
. 186
2 Peristalsis pushes food along the

alimentary canal. It helps mix the
food with digestive juices .
187
2 It also help absorption by

increasing the contact between
intestinal wall and digested food.
188
3 Digestive juice: saliva

Site of action Mouth cavity
Site of production Salivary glands
Enzyme or other • Salivary amylase
substance present • Water
• Mucus
189
3 Digestive juice: saliva
Action starch maltose
pH 6.5–7.5
190
3 Digestive juice: gastric juice

Site of action Stomach
Site of production Gastric glands in
stomach wall
Enzyme or other • Pepsin
substance present • Hydrochloric acid
• Mucus
191
3 Digestive juice: gastric juice
Action proteins peptides
pH 2.0 (acidic)
192
3 Digestive juice: bile

Site of action Small intestine
Site of production Liver
Enzyme or other • Bile salts
substance present • Bile pigments
• Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
193
3 Digestive juice: bile

emulsification small
Action lipids
(physical digestion) droplets
pH 7.6–8.6 (alkaline)
194
3 Digestive juice: pancreatic juice

Site of production Pancreas
195

Enzyme or other • Pancreatic amylase
substance present • Proteases
• Pancreatic lipase
• Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
196

starch maltose
amino
Action proteins peptides
acids
lipids fatty acids + glycerol
pH 8.0 (alkaline)
197
3 Digestive juice: intestinal juice

Site of production Glands in the wall of
small intestine
• Mucus
Enzyme or other • Water
substance present • Sodium
hydrogencarbonate
pH 8.5 (alkaline) 198
3 Specialized cells on epithelium of

small intestine have:
• carbohydrases
disaccharides monosaccharides
• proteases
peptides amino acids
199
6 Nutrition in humans 6.5 Absorption
6.5 Absorption
mainly takes place

in the ileum
200
A Structure of small intestine
Animation 6.4
very long
about 7 m
201

The wall
• circular muscles
and longitudinal
muscles are present
• highly-folded
inner wall
202

Villi ( 絨毛 ) (singular: villus)
• finger-like projections
on the inner wall
• lacteal (a lymph vessel)
in the centre
• network of capillaries
surrounding the lacteal
203

Epithelium
• one-cell thick
• large number of
microvilli
(also called brush
borders) on the cell
membrane
204
B Absorption of digested
food in small intestine Animation 6.5
• Food molecules are

absorbed from the
lumen into capillaries
and lacteals by
diffusion, osmosis and
active transport.
205
1 Into the blood in the capillaries

Water-soluble food molecules
• by diffusion and active transport
monosaccharides
amino acids
minerals
water-soluble
vitamins capillary
206

Water
lumen of small intestine
monosaccharides
amino acids
minerals
water-soluble vitamins
water
207

Water
capillary lumen of small intestine
epithelium
208

Water
capillary lumen of small intestine
water potential
increases
water drawn into the

capillary by osmosis
209
2 Into the lymph in the lacteals

Fatty acids and glycerol
• by diffusion
fatty acids
glycerol
epithelial cells lacteal

210

recombine
into fine lipid
droplets

211

fine lipid droplets

enter the lymph
in the lacteals
212

Lipid-soluble vitamins
• by diffusion
lipid-soluble
vitamins
(e.g. vitamin A
and vitamin D)
213
6.5
Simulation of digestion and absorption in
the small intestine using dialysis tubing
Procedure
1
tap water
wet a dialysis tubing
214
6.5
2
add equal volumes of

starch solution and
amylase solution
tie a knot at one end
215
6.5
3
tie the other end
distilled
wash
water
216
6.5
4
37°C distilled water
dialysis tubing
containing starch
and amylase
217
6.5
5
test with iodine solution

and Benedict’s solution
Any starch or
reducing sugars?
218
6.5
5
test again after one hour
Any starch or
reducing sugars?
219
6.5
At the beginning of the experiment, are there
any starch or reducing sugars detected?
No.
How about after one hour?
Reducing sugars are detected.
220
6.5
What does this show?
Amylase helps break down starch into
reducing sugars (maltose).
221
6.5
wall of dialysis tubing
distilled water starch and amylase

mixture
reducing sugar
starch
222
6.5
only reducing sugar molecules are
small enough to pass through
distilled water starch and amylase
mixture
223
C Adaptation of small intestine

for absorption
1 very long
allow sufficient time for

complete digestion and
absorption
224

for absorption
2 highly-folded inner wall
225

for absorption
+
many villi
226

for absorption
+
many villi
+
large number of microvilli
surface area for absorption 

227

for absorption
3
one-cell thick epithelium
short diffusion distance

for food molecules
228

for absorption
4 lacteal and
network of capillaries
absorbed food molecules
are carried away rapidly
maintain a steep
concentration gradient
229

for absorption
5 peristalsis
bring digested food
molecules in close contact
with villi
maintain a steep
230
D Absorption in large intestine
• semi-solid material left in the large

intestine is called faeces colon
caecum
appendix rectum
231
• If the remains of food pass the colon

too slowly…
a larger portion of water absorbed
faeces becomes hard
constipation
232
• If the remains of food pass the colon

too quickly…
a smaller portion of water absorbed
a larger portion of water remain in faeces
diarrhoea
233
1 Absorption of food mainly

takes place in the ileum of
the small intestine.
234
2 Water
-soluble food molecules (e.g.
monosaccharides, amino acids,
minerals and water-soluble
vitamins) are absorbed into the
blood in the capillaries by
diffusion
and active
. transport
235
2 Water is absorbed into the blood

in the capillaries by osmosis .
236
2 Fatty acids and glycerol

enter the epithelium of the villi by
diffusion and then recombine
to form lipids.
237
2 The lipids then enter the

lymph in the lacteals.
238
2 Lipid -soluble vitamins are

absorbed into the lymph in the
lacteals by diffusion .
239
3 Adaptation of small intestine

for absorption:
Adaptation Significance
• very long Allows sufficient time
for absorption
240

for absorption:
• Highly- Increase the surface
inner wall
folded area for absorption
• Numerousvilli
• Numerous
microvilli
241

for absorption:
One-cell-thick Reduces the diffusion
epithelium distance for
absorption
242

for absorption:
and
Lacteals Transport absorbed
network of capillaries food molecules away
in villi rapidly
maintained a steep
for diffusion
243

for absorption:
Peristalsis Brings digested food
molecules into close
contact with the villi
keeps a steep
for diffusion
244
6 Nutrition in humans 6.6 Assimilation
6.6 Assimilation
• the uptake and use of absorbed food
molecules by cells for metabolism
245
A Transport of absorbed food

In small
intestine,
water-soluble food
molecules
e.g. monosaccharides,
amino acids, minerals
and water-soluble
vitamins
246
A Transport of absorbed food

In small
intestine,
water-soluble food
molecules
e.g. monosaccharides,
amino acids, minerals
and water-soluble
vitamins
247
liver
hepatic portal vein
( 肝門靜脈 )
248
vena cava ( 腔靜
脈)
hepatic vein
( 肝靜脈 ) heart
liver
some are
foodprocessed
molecules
and then carried
are stored
to
the heart
249
heart
250
lipids and lipid-

soluble food
molecules
enter the
heart
blood near the
neck region
lymph
vessel
251
lipids and lipid- vena cava

soluble food
molecules
heart
lymph
vessel
252
aorta ( 大動
脈)
heart
all parts of
the body
253
B Fates of the absorbed food

1 Glucose
• for releasing energy
respiration
glucose energy
254

1 Glucose
• excess glucose is converted to
glycogen in liver and muscles
stored in
glycogen liver / muscles
255

1 Glucose
• excess glucose may also be
converted to lipids
256

2 Lipids
• for making cell membranes and some
hormones
• as energy reserves to provide energy
when the body is short of glycogen
257

2 Lipids
• excess lipids are stored in the
adipose tissue around the internal
organs and under the skin
258

3 Amino acids
• for making proteins for growth and
repair
• for making enzymes, antibodies and
some hormones
259

3 Amino acids
• may be broken down to release energy
when carbohydrates and lipids are used
up (e.g. during starvation)
• broken down in the liver through
deamination ( 脫氨作用 ) when in
excess
260
C Roles of the liver

1 Carbohydrate metabolism
• regulates the blood glucose level
After a meal…
blood excess glucose
glucose level glycogen

increases
261

Between meals…
glucose in blood is used blood
by cells in respiration
blood glucose level 
262

Between meals…
blood
glycogen
263
2 Lipid metabolism
• excess carbohydrates and amino
acids are converted into lipids
• lipids are transported to adipose tissue
and stored
264
3 Amino acid metabolism

• excess amino acids are broken down
through deamination
amino acid amino + remaining
group part
urea carbohydrates
or lipids
excreted
in urine
265
3 Amino acid metabolism

• synthesizes non-essential amino acids
• converts some amino acids into other
amino acids
266
4 Breakdown of old red blood cells

and storage of iron
old red
blood cells
the iron
released is
iron stored
267
5 Storage and production of vitamins

• stores lipid-soluble vitamins
vitamin A vitamin D
268
5 Storage and production of vitamins

• production of vitamin A
carotene vitamin A
269
6 Production of bile
bile released into
duodenum for lipid
emulsification
270
7 Detoxification
• enzymes in liver cells help break down
mildly toxic substances e.g. alcohol and
drugs
mildly toxic enzymes harmless

substances substances
271
1 Transport of water-soluble food

molecules:
capillaries in villi of hepatic
small intestine portal vein
vena hepatic liver

cava vein
heart aorta body cells

272
1 Transport of lipids and lipid-soluble

food molecules:
lacteals in villi of main lymph
small intestine vessel
vena blood vessel near

cava the neck region
heart aorta body cells

273
2 The fate of absorbed glucose:

for releasing energy , or
converted to glycogen or lipids
for storage
274
2 The fate of absorbed lipids:

for making cell membranes
and some hormones , or as
energy reserves
275
2 The fate of absorbed amino

acids: proteins
for makingenergy , or
releasing when stored
deaminated
carbohydrates and lipids are used
up, or when in
excess 276
6 Nutrition in humans 6.7 Egestion
6.7 Egestion
• undigested and unabsorbed materials
form the faeces
large intestine
277
6.7 Egestion
form the faeces
contain
dietary bacteria dead cells water

fibre
secretions from bile
alimentary canal pigments
278
6.7 Egestion
form the faeces
contain
dietary bacteria dead cells water

fibre
secretions
make from
the faeces bile
alimentary
brown canal
in colour pigments
279
6.7 Egestion
faeces temporarily
stored in rectum
anal sphincter
( 肛門括約肌 ) relaxes
and muscles of rectum
contract
faeces pushed out
280
6.7 Egestion
egestion or
defaecation ( 排糞 )
281
1 Why does the food we eat have to be

digested?
Large, complex food molecules have to

be broken down into small, soluble
molecules, so that they can pass
through the differentially permeable
membrane and enter the cells.
282
1 Why does the food we eat have to be

digested?
Also, the food molecules from other

organisms have to be broken down, so
that they can be used to build our own
molecules.
283
2 How is food digested in our body?

Food is digested by physical actions like
chewing and churning, and digested
chemically by digestive enzymes.
284
Nutrition
consists of
ingestion absorption assimilation

digestion occurs occurs
mainly in in egestion
small liver and
intestine body cells
285
digestion
involves
physical chemical
digestion digestion
brought about by
enzymes
286
physical
digestion
brought about by
mastication churning in
by teeth stomach
emulsification of
lipids by bile salts
287

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6 Nutrition in humans

Special meal for the elderly

Special meal for the elderly

Why does the food we eat have

How is food digested in our body?

6.1 Modes of nutrition

6.1 Modes of nutrition

Plants make their own food by

6.2 Process of human nutrition

large, complex small, soluble

This is necessary because…

This is necessary because…

This is necessary because…

cow different human

The human digestive system

Examination of the mammalian

1 Examine the digestive

1 Main processes of nutrition in

2 Our digestive system consists of

2 The alimentary canal starts from

2 The digestive glands include the

A The types of teeth

B Milk teeth and permanent

milk teeth ( 乳齒 ) permanent teeth ( 恆

• divided into three

1 During ingestion, food is put into

2 Incisors are for biting and cutting

3 Dentitionrefers to the type,

4 A dental formula shows the

4 The dental formula of milk teeth

4 The dental formula of

5 A tooth can be divided into the

5 Each tooth consists of three

Physical digestion Chemical digestion

A Physical digestion and

large piece small pieces

large piece small pieces

further broken down

large, complex small, soluble

triglycerides glycerol fatty

proteins amino acids

Digestion mainly occurs

Digestion mainly occurs

Digestion mainly occurs

B Digestion in the mouth

B Digestion in the mouth

B Digestion in the mouth

make chewing and swallowing easier

B Digestion in the mouth

The tongue rolls the

1 The tongue rises.

To push the bolus

2 The soft palate

To prevent the bolus

To prevent the bolus

4 The bolus enters

fibres arranged in rings

3 Lumen Behind the bolus

3 Lumen In front of the bolus

C Digestion in the stomach

pyloric sphincter ( 幽門括約

C Digestion in the stomach