Introduction 220308 154917

Basic Mechanical Engineering
INTRODUCTION
Thermodynamic System
• A thermodynamic system is defined as the region or matter on which our
attention is concentrated for analysis.
• Everything outside the system is considered as Surrounding.
• System and Surrounding are separated by System Boundary.
• Universe = Thermodynamic System + Surrounding
• There are three types of Thermodynamic System

(1) Open System
(2) Closed System
(3) Isolated System
(1) Open System

• A thermodynamic system in which mass and energy (heat) can be
exchanged between system and surrounding is known as an Open
System.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Introduction: By Dr. N. K. Chavda, Associate Professor, MBIT. Page 1 of 36
(2) Closed System

• A thermodynamic system in which only energy (heat) can be exchanged
between system and surrounding is known as a Closed System.
(3) Isolated System

• A thermodynamic system in which neither mass nor energy can be
exchanged between system and surrounding is known as an Isolated
System.
How to Differentiate Between Two Open Systems or Two Closed System or

Two Isolated System?
• Any two systems can be compared by comparing their parameters.

• These parameters are known as Thermodynamic Properties.
• Some of the thermodynamic properties are Pressure, Volume,
Temperature, Enthalpy etc.
Classification of Thermodynamic Property

• One of the methods to classify the Thermodynamic properties is
(1) Intensive Property
(2) Extensive Property
(1) Intensive Property

• Thermodynamic property whose value does not depend on the mass of
the system is known as Intensive Property.
• Example: Pressure, Temperature etc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(2) Extensive Property

• Thermodynamic property whose value depends on the mass of the
system is known as Extensive Property.
• Example: Volume (m3), Enthalpy (J) etc.
• Generally the value of extensive property is expressed in per unit mass
value which is known as specific extensive property.
• Example: specific volume (m3/kg), specific enthalpy (J/kg) etc.
Thermodynamic Process
• The values of properties of a system define its State.

• A thermodynamic system is considered in State 1, if values of properties
pressure, volume and temperature for that system are P1, V1 and T1.
• If value of any of the properties change, the state of the system also
changes.
• If the pressure of the system at State 1 as mentioned above changes from

P1 to Pa, system changes its state from State 1 to State 2.
• The advancement of the system from State 1 to State 2 is expressed as
“System has undergone a Thermodynamic Process”.
Classification of Thermodynamic Process

• Thermodynamic process is broadly classified as
(1) Flow Process and Non-Flow Process,
(2) Reversible Process and Irreversible Process and
(3) Cyclic Process and Non-Cyclic Process.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(1) Flow Process

• When an open system undergoes a thermodynamic process, it is known
as Flow Process.
(2) Non-Flow Process

• When a closed system undergoes a thermodynamic process, it is known
as Non-Flow Process.
(3) Reversible Process

• Consider a system undergoes a process from State 1 to State 2. While
returning back from State 2 to State 1, if system follows the same route,
then the process is known as Reversible Process.
• Theoretically it is considered that all the processes are Reversible
Processes.
• Practically all processes are Non-Reversible Processes.
(4) Non-Reversible Process

• Consider a system undergoes a process from State 1 to State 2. While
returning back from State 2 to State 1, if system does not follow the
same route, then the process is known as Non-Reversible Process.
(5) Cyclic Process

• When a system undergoes two or more than two successive processes in
such a way that initial and final state of the system are same, then it is
said that system has undergone a cyclic process.
(6) Non-Cyclic Process

• When a system undergoes two or more than two consecutive processes in
such a way that initial and final state of the system are not same, then it
is said that system has undergone a non-cyclic process.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Force
• According to Newton’s Second Law of Motion,
• Force acting on the system (body) is directly proportional to its
acceleration.
• 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝐹 ∝𝑎
• 𝐹 =𝑚 × 𝑎
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦)𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑭 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒎 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒂
𝑚
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑭 = 𝑘𝑔 ×
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐹 = = 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝑁)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
• 1 =1𝑁
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
• Other units of Force are kN, MN etc.
Weight
• Weight of the system (body) is directly proportional to gravitational
acceleration.
• 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∝ 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
• 𝑊 ∝𝑔
• 𝑊 =𝑚 × 𝑔
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑚 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑜𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦)𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑾 = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒎 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒈
𝑚
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊 = 𝑘𝑔 ×
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
𝑘𝑔−𝑚
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊 = = 𝑁𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 (𝑁)
𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
• Weight of the system (body) depends on the gravitational acceleration.
• Thus, its value varies from place to place.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Mass
• Mass indicates the quantitative matter of the system (body).
• The value of mass does not depend on either its acceleration or
gravitational acceleration.
• The value of mass of the system (body) is constant.
𝑊 𝑖𝑛 𝑵
• 𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝒈 = 𝒎
𝑔 𝑖𝑛
𝒔𝒆𝒄𝟐
Pressure
• Pressure of the system is defined as the force acting on the system per
unit cross-sectional area.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐶𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝐹
• 𝑃=
𝐴
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑭
• 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑷 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑨
𝑁
• 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 =
𝑚2
𝑁
• 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 = = 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑃𝑎 )
𝑚2
𝑁
• 1 = 1 𝑃𝑎
𝑚2
• Other units of pressure are kPa (kN/m2), MPa (MN/m2) etc.
• The pressure is also expressed in units bar, standard atmospheric
pressure, atmospheric pressure, mm of Hg, mm of H2O etc.
Important correlations for Pressure
𝑁
• 1 𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎 = 105
𝑚2
𝑘𝑔
• 1 2 ≅ 0.1 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝑐𝑚
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) = 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) ≅ 10 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Measurement of Pressure
• Pressure measurement is broadly classified into two methods, viz.
measurement of atmospheric pressure and measurement of system
pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure is measured using Barometer.
• System pressure is measured using different types of Pressure Gauges or
Manometers.
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

• Pressure exerted by the atmospheric air is known as atmospheric
pressure.
• Barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure.
• Atmospheric pressure measured at Mean Sea Level is known as
Standard Atmospheric Pressure.
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) = 1.01325 𝑏𝑎𝑟
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) = 760 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔
• 1 𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑠𝑡𝑑. 𝑎𝑡𝑚. ) ≅ 10 𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻2 𝑂
• Atmospheric pressure at other location can be calculated using the

following formulae.
• P= ρ × g × h
• Where,
ρ = density of liquid in kg⁄m3
g = gravitational acceleration at that location in m/sec 2
h = height of the liquid used to measure atmospheric pressure in m.
P = Pressure in N/m2 .
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Measurement of System Pressure

• Different types of Pressure Gauges and Manometers are used to measure
the system pressure.
• The pressure measured by pressure gauges and manometers are known
as gauge pressure.
• Gauge pressure indicates the system pressure in reference to the
atmospheric pressure.
• If gauge pressure indicates the system pressure as +5 bar, it means that

system has 5 bar more pressure than the atmospheric pressure.
• The positive value of gauge pressure is also known as positive gauge
pressure.
• If gauge pressure indicates the system pressure as -0.5 bar, it means

that system has 0.5 bar less pressure than the atmospheric pressure.
• The negative value of gauge pressure is also known as negative gauge
pressure or vacuum pressure or vacuum gauge reading.
• If vacuum pressure = 0.5 bar, then gauge pressure = -0.5 bar.
Concept of Absolute Pressure

• The pressure measured with reference to the absolute zero pressure
(perfect vacuum) is known as Absolute Pressure.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
• Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of atmospheric pressure and

gauge pressure.
• In case of positive gauge pressure
• 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒
• In case of negative gauge pressure (vacuum pressure)
• 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝐴𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 – 𝑉𝑎𝑐𝑢𝑢𝑚 𝐺𝑎𝑢𝑔𝑒
Temperature
• The relative indication of degree of hotness or coldness of the system
(body) is known as temperature.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Unit of Temperature
• Temperature is expressed using different temperature scales like Kelvin

scale, Celsius scale and Fahrenheit scale.
• The units of temperature for different temperature scales are Kelvin (K),
Degree Celsius (OC) and Degree Fahrenheit (OF) respectively.
• As per SI unit system, unit of temperature is Kelvin (K).
• The correlations between different units of temperatures are
• 𝐾 = ℃ + 273.16
5
• ℃ = (℉ – 32)
9
Concept of Absolute Zero Temperature
• The temperature of the system is proportional to the average molecular

kinetic energy of the molecules of the system.
• As the temperature of the system increases, the average molecular
kinetic energy of the molecules increases.
• As the temperature of the system decreases, the average molecular
kinetic energy of the molecules reduces.
• The temperature at which the average molecular kinetic energy of the

molecules becomes zero is known as Absolute Zero Temperature.
• For Gas, the value of absolute zero temperature is -273.16 OC or 0 K.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Work
• The product of Force applied on the system and distance travelled by the
system in the direction of force is known as Work.
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 = 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑭𝒐𝒓𝒄𝒆 × 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑁 × 𝑚
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑁 × 𝑚 = 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 ( 𝐽 )
• When a system undergoes displacement under the action of pressure, it

is said that work has transferred through system boundary.
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 )
• 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 × (𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 )
• 𝑊 = 𝑃 × (𝑉𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑉𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 ) 𝑖𝑛 𝑱
• The other units of work are kJ, MJ etc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Power
• The work done by the system in unit time is known as Power.
• Thus, power is rate of doing work.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑇𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝐷𝑜𝑛𝑒
• 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑊
• 𝑃=
𝑡
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑾
• 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑷 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒕
𝑁−𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝐽
𝑠𝑒𝑐
• 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑃 = 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑡 ( 𝑊 )
• The other units of power are kW, MW etc.
Energy
• Energy is defined as the ability of the doing work.
• The value of Energy of the system specifies whether the system is
capable to do the work or not.
• The unit of Energy is same as unit of Work.
• Energy is expressed in J, kJ, MJ etc.
• Most commonly Electrical Energy is expressed in kWh, MWh etc.
Different Forms of Energy
(1) Mechanical Energy
(2) Chemical Energy
(3) Thermal or Heat Energy or Heat
(4) Nuclear Energy
(5) Electrical Energy
• One form of energy can be converted into another form of energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Law of Conservation of Energy

• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it only converts from one
form to another form.
• Total amount of the energy before transformation and after
transformation remains constant.
Types of Energy
• Energy can be broadly classified as
(1) High Grade Energy and Low Grade Energy
(2) Stored Energy and Energy in Transition
(1) High Grade Energy

• The form of energy which can be completely converted into work
(neglecting losses) is known as High Grade Energy.
• Examples: Electrical Energy, Mechanical Energy etc.
(2) Low Grade Energy

• The form of energy which can not be completely converted into work
(neglecting losses) is known as Low Grade Energy.
• The form of energy which converts partly into work (neglecting losses) is
known as Low Grade Energy.
• Examples: Thermal or Heat Energy or Heat, Nuclear Energy, Chemical
Energy of Fuel etc.
(3) Stored Energy

• The form of energy which is in accumulated form is known as Stored
Energy.
• Examples: Nuclear Energy, Chemical Energy of Fuel etc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Energy in Transition

•
The form of energy which crosses the system boundary is known as
Energy in Transition.
• This type of energy comes in existence due to difference in
thermodynamic property of the system, viz. temperature difference,
volume difference etc.
• Examples: Heat, Work etc.
Different types of Mechanical Energy
• There are two types of mechanical energy.
(1) Potential Energy
(2) Kinetic Energy
(1) Potential Energy
• The energy possessed by the system due to its height or elevation is
known as potential energy.
• 𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚 × 𝑔 × ℎ
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔.
𝑔 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
ℎ = ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑚.
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 − 𝑚 ( 𝐽 )
(2) Kinetic Energy
• The energy possessed by the system due to its velocity or motion is
known as Kinetic Energy.
1
• 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
• 𝑊ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒,
𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦) 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔.
𝑉 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 (𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦) 𝑖𝑛 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐.
𝐾𝐸 = 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑖𝑛 𝑁 − 𝑚 ( 𝐽 )
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Heat
• Heat is defined as the energy in transition due to temperature difference
between two systems.
• It is denoted by the symbol “Q”.
Unit of Heat
• Heat is one form of energy i.e. Energy in transition.
• In SI unit system, the unit of heat is J.
• The other units are kJ, MJ etc.
• Heat is also measured in Calorie (cal.).
• 1 𝑘𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 4.187 𝑘𝐽 = 4187 𝐽
Transfer of Heat
• When two systems having different temperatures are in contact, transfer
of heat takes place from one system having high temperature to another
having low temperature.
• The transfer of heat continues until temperature difference between two
systems exists.
• When heat is supplied to the system or heat is removed from the system,
some of the following changes in the system take place.
(1) Change in temperature

(2) Change in volume
(3) Change in State etc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Change of State due to Transfer of Heat

• When heat is supplied to any system (body), system in solid state
converts into liquid state or system in liquid state coverts into vapour
state.
• The terminologies associated with the change of state due to transfer of
heat are defined as under.
(1) Melting Point

• The temperature at which system in solid state starts converting into
liquid state when heat is supplied to the system is known as melting
point.
(2) Boiling Point

• The temperature at which system in liquid state starts converting into
vapour state when heat is supplied to the system is known as boiling
point.
• It is also known as Saturation Point Temperature.
• The value of Saturation temperature depends on the pressure of the
system.
(3) Critical Point
• The pressure and temperature above which system exists only in one
state i.e. in vapour state is known as critical point.
(4) Triple Point
• The temperature at which the solid, liquid and vapour state of the system
exist in equilibrium condition is known as triple point.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Comparison of Heat and Work

• Heat and Work both are energy in transition.
• Both are path function.
• Heat is low grade energy while work is high grade energy.
Positive and Negative value of Heat and Work

• Conventionally, when heat is supplied to the system, system converts
heat into work and work is done by the system.
• Thus, heat supplied to the system and work done by the system is
considered as positive.
• While opposite to above, heat rejected by the system and work supplied
to the system (work done on the system) are considered as negative.
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

• Heat and work are mutually convertible.
• The ratio of Work transfer to Heat transfer is constant which is known as
Mechanical Equivalent of Heat or Joule’s Equivalent of Joule.
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
• = 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 = 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 ′ 𝑠 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐽
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟
𝑊
• = 𝐽
𝑄
• Above definition of ratio does not indicate that heat is completely

converted into work or vice versa.
• Only some part of heat is converted into work.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Specific Heat
• As the heat is supplied to the system, temperature of the system
increases.
• Specific heat is defined as the heat required to increase the temperature
of unit mass system by one degree.
• It is denoted by the symbol “C”.
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝐶 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝. 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝐶 = 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

𝑄
• 𝐶= 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑄
• 𝐶=
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 × 𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒
𝑄
• 𝐶=
𝑚 × ∆𝑇
Unit of Specific Heat

𝑄
• 𝐶=
𝑚 × ∆𝑇
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑸
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 =
𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝒎 ×𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑻
𝐽
• 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐶 =
𝑘𝑔×𝐾
𝑘𝐽 𝑀𝐽
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑘𝑔 𝐾 𝑘𝑔 𝐾
• The value of specific heat is considered as constant theoretically. But

actually the value of specific heat varies with the value of temperature.
• 𝑇ℎ𝑢𝑠, 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
• 𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝐶 × ∆𝑇
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Specific Heats of Solid, Liquid and Gas

• Solid and Liquid have only one value of Specific Heat i.e. “C”.
• Gas exhibits two values of Specific Heats as mentioned below.
(1) Specific heat when gas is heated maintaining the volume of gas
constant
• Specific heat at constant volume is defined as the heat required to
increase the temperature of unit mass system by one degree when
volume of the system is maintained constant.
• It is denoted by CV.
(2) Specific heat when gas is heated maintaining the pressure of gas
constant
• Specific heat at constant pressure is defined as the heat required to
increase the temperature of unit mass system by one degree when
pressure of the system is maintained constant.
• It is denoted by CP.
Heat Capacity
• The product of specific heat and mass is known as Heat Capacity.
𝑄
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝐶 =
𝑚 × ∆𝑇
𝑄 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
• 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑚 × 𝐶 = 𝑜𝑟
∆𝑇 𝐾 𝐾
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Internal Energy
• Heat is not completely converted into work or vice versa.
• Thus, when heat supplied to any system, some amount of heat is
converted into work and the rest amount of heat is stored into the
system.
• It is known as Internal Energy.
• It is the Stored Energy.
• It is denoted by the symbol “U”.
• Specific internal energy is denoted by the symbol “u”.
• Specific internal energy is internal energy of the system per unit mass.
• 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 +

𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
• 𝑄 =𝑊 +𝑈
• ∆𝑄 = ∆𝑊 + ∆𝑈
• The unit of internal energy is same as the unit of work or heat i.e. J, kJ,
MJ etc.
• The unit of specific internal energy is J/kg, kJ/kg or MJ/kg.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Enthalpy
• Enthalpy is defined as the summation of internal energy and flow energy
of the system.
• Enthalpy is considered as total heat content of the system.
• It is denoted by the symbol “H”.
• Specific enthalpy is enthalpy per unit mass of the system.
• It is denoted by the symbol “h”.
• 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

• 𝐻 = 𝑈 + 𝑃𝑉
• The units of enthalpy are J, kJ, MJ etc.
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

• ℎ = 𝑢 + 𝑃𝑣
• The units of specific enthalpy are J/kg, kJ/kg or MJ/kg.
Entropy
• When heat is supplied to the system at high temperature, the possibility

of conversion of heat into work is more.
• While when heat is supplied to the system at lower temperature, the
possibility of conversion of heat into work is less.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
• Entropy is the function of heat having highest possibility of conversion

into work.
• Increase in entropy of the system is less when there is high possibility of

conversion from heat into work i.e. when transfer of heat takes place at
high temperature.
• Opposite to above, increase in entropy of the system is more when there

is less possibility of conversion from heat into work i.e. when transfer of
heat takes place a lower temperature.
• Entropy expresses the value of disorderness of the System.
dQ
• dS =
T
• Where,
dQ = Change in heat transferred from the system in kJ
T = Temperature in K
dS = Change in Entropy of the systemin kJ/K
Laws of Thermodynamics
• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• First Law of Thermodynamics
• Second Law of Thermodynamics
• Third Law of Thermodynamics
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

• When System A and System B are in thermal equilibrium with the
System C separately then the System A and System B are also in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
First Law of Thermodynamics

• Most general form of the first law of the thermodynamics is
• Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed; it only transfers from
one form of energy into another form of energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Case: I: When First Law is applied to closed system

• The difference between heat transferred and work indicates the change in
total energy of the system.
• 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑑 − 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
• ∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 … … … … … (𝐴)
• 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 +

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑃𝐸 + 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐾𝐸 + ⋯
• 𝑁𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
• 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
• ∆𝐸 = ∆𝑈
• ∆𝑈 = 𝑄 − 𝑊
Case: II: When First Law is applied to cyclic process undergoing in closed
system
• ∆𝐸 = 𝑄 − 𝑊 … … … … … (𝐴)
• For Cyclic Process, ∆E = 0

• Thus, equation A can be written as
• 0 = Q−W
• OR
• (ΣW)cycle = (ΣQ)cycle
• For a system undergoing a cycle i. e. 1 − 2 − 3 − 1,
• W1−2 + W2−3 + W3−1 = Q1−2 + Q 2−3 + Q 3−1
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Second Law of Thermodynamics

• There are two statements for the second law of thermodynamics
explained by different Scientists.
Kelvin-Plank Statement
• It is impossible for a system operating in a cycle between fixed
temperature limits to completely convert heat into work.
Clausius Statement
• It is impossible for a system operating in a cycle to transfer the heat from
lower temperature body to higher temperature body.
• In simpler form, Heat cannot flow from low temperature body to high
temperature body ITSELF.
• Both the statements of second law of thermodynamics are equivalent.
Third Law of Thermodynamics

• When a system is at zero absolute temperature, the entropy of the
system is zero.
• Zero entropy means there is not molecular, atomic, nuclear etc. disorder
present in the system.
• Practically change in entropy is estimated.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Prime Mover
• Prime mover is a device (a thermodynamic system) which coverts natural
source of energy into mechanical energy (useful work).
Natural Sources of Energy (Sources of Energy)

• Different types of sources of energy used by prime mover are fuel, stored
water at high elevation, atom, non-conventional source of energy etc.
(1) Fuel
• Fuels have chemical energy in stored form.
• A device containing thermodynamic system and undergoing different
processes known as heat engine converts the heat energy generated by
burning of fuels into mechanical energy.
(2) Stored Water at High Elevation

• Water is accumulated in river where dam is constructed.
• Water stored at high elevation contains the potential energy.
• A device containing thermodynamic system and undergoing different
processes known as hydraulic turbine converts the potential energy
water into mechanical energy.
(3) Atom
• Atoms have nuclear energy which generates the heat by nuclear fission
or fusion process.
• Heat produced is converted into mechanical energy.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(4) Non-Conventional Source of Energy

• The sources of energy which are not used regularly are known as non-
conventional sources of energy.
• The sources of energy which replenish themselves naturally are known
as renewable sources of energy.
• Examples: Solar Energy, Wind Energy, Tidal Energy etc.
Classification of Prime Mover
• Prime mover is broadly classified as

(1) Thermal Prime Mover and
(2) Non-Thermal Prime Mover.
(1) Thermal Prime Mover

• The prime mover in which natural source of energy is coverted into
thermal or heat energy which in turn is converted into mechanical energy
is known as Thermal Prime Mover.
• According to the sources of energy, thermal prime movers are further
classifed as
(a) Chemical Energy of Fuel
(b) Nuclear Energy
(c) Geothermal Energy
(d) Bio Energy
(e) Direct Solar Energy
_____________________________________________________________________________________
(a) Chemical Energy of Fuel

• The thermodyanic system which converts the chemical energy of fuel into
thermal energy and thermal energy into mechanical energy is known as
Heat Engine.
• Heat Engines are further classified as

(i) External Combustion Engines and Internal Combustion Engines
(ii) Reciprocating Engines and Rotary Engines
• Examples:
• Steam Engine (Reciprocating type), Steam Turbine (Rotary type) and
Closed Cycle Gas Turbine (Rotary type) are the examples of External
Combustion Engine.
• I. C. Engine (Reciprocating type) and Open Cycle Gas Turbine (Rotary
type) are the examples of Internal Combustion Engine.
(2) Non-Thermal Prime Mover

• The prime mover in which natural source of energy is converted into
other than thermal energy which in turn is converted into mechanical
energy is known as Non-Thermal Prime Mover.
• Examples: Potential Energy of Water (Hydraulic Turbine, Water Turbine),

Tidal Energy (Tidal Power Plant), Wind Energy (Wind Mill) etc.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Efficiency
• Efficiency of the system is defined as the ratio of output from the system
to input to the system.
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
• 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 =
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚
Efficiency Related to Internal Combustion Engine

• The examples of IC Engines are petrol engine, diesel engine etc.
Energy Conversion in IC Engine
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Indicated Power
• The Power available at Piston is known as Indicated Power.
Brake Power (Shaft Power)

• The Power available at engine shaft is known as Brake Power.
Friction Power
• 𝐹𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 − 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Mechanical Efficiency
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑾
• 𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 = 𝑋 100
𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑾
Thermal Efficiency
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐸𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = × 100
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐵𝑃 𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑾
• 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝑱 × 100
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ×𝐶𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝒔𝒆𝒄 𝒌𝒈
𝐵𝑃 𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑾
• 𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝑱 × 100
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ×𝐶𝑉 𝑖𝑛
𝐼𝑃𝑖𝑛 𝒌𝑾
• 𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂𝐼𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 = 𝒌𝒈 𝒌𝑱 × 100
𝑚𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑖𝑛 ×𝐶𝑉𝑖𝑛
Specific Gravity
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Law of Energy Conservation (Steady Flow Energy Equation)
• 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 = 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝐸𝑥𝑖𝑡

𝐶12 𝐶22
• ℎ1 + + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑞 = ℎ2 + + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑤 (For Unit mass)
2 2
Some Important Equations to Solve the Problems
Force
F=m*a
Where, m = mass in kg.
a = acceleration in m/sec2 and
F = Force in N
F=P*A
Where, P = Pressure and
A = Area.
Weight
W=m*g
Where, m = mass of the body in kg.
g = gravitational acceleration in m/sec2
W = Weight in N
Pressure
P = F/A
Where, F = Force in N
A = Area in m2 and
P = Pressure in N/m2
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑋𝑔𝑋ℎ
Where, 𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3
h = height of the liquid in m.
P = Pressure in N/m2
Important Pressure Units
1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)
1 bar = 105 Pa = 105 N/m2
1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 bar
1 atmospheric pressure = 1.01325 X 105 Pa (N/m2)
1 atmospheric pressure = 760 mm of mercury height.
Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure + gauge pressure.

Absolute pressure = atmospheric pressure – vacuum pressure.
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Work
W=F*D
Where, F = Force in N.
D = Distance moved in direction of force in m.
W = Work in N-m (J)
W = P*V
Where, W = Work in J
P = Pressure in N/m2 and
V = Volume in m3
Power
P=W/t
Where, W = Work in Nm (J)
t = time in seconds.
P = Power in J/sec. (Nm/sec) (W)
Kinetic Energy
1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2
2
Where, m = mass of the moving body in kg.
V = velocity of the moving body in m/sec.
KE = Kinetic energy of the moving body in Nm (J)
Potential Energy
PE = m X g X h Where, m = mass of the body in kg.

h = height of the body in m.
PE = Potential energy of the body in Nm (J)
Temperature
The unit of temperature in SI system is Kelvin (K) and other units are degree
Centigrade (OC) and degree Fahrenheit (OF).
Important Temperature Conversion Formulae

K = OC + 273.16
5
OC = (OF – 32)
9
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Heat
Heat is one form of energy i.e. Energy in transition.
1 J = 0.2388 calories
1 kcal = 4.187 kJ = 4187 J
If heat enters the system, it is considered positive and if heat is rejected from
the system, it is considered negative.
Specific Heat Capacity (Specific Heat)
𝑄
𝐶= Where, Q = Heat transferred in kJ
𝑚 𝑋 𝑑𝑇
m = mass of the body in kg.
dT = Temperature difference in K.
C = Specific heat in kJ / kg. K
Heat transferred is calculated using above equation as

𝑄 = 𝑚 × 𝐶 × 𝑑𝑇
Heat Capacity
𝑄 𝐽 𝑘𝐽
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑚 × 𝐶 = 𝑜𝑟
∆𝑇 𝐾 𝐾
Specific Gravity
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑 = (𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Internal Energy, U
Q=W+U
Where, Q = Heat transferred in kJ
W = Work in kJ
U = Internal energy in kJ
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Enthalpy, H
H = U + PV for total mass of system (m kg) and
h = u + Pν for unit mass of system
Where, H = Enthalpy in kJ
h = Specific enthalpy in kJ/kg
U = Internal energy in kJ
u = Specific internal energy in kJ/kg
PV = Flow energy
Pν = Specific flow energy.
Entropy, S
Entropy is the function of heat having highest possibility of conversion into
work.
Change in Entropy
𝑑𝑄
𝑑𝑆 =
𝑇
Where, dS = Change in Entropy in kJ/K.
dQ = Change in heat transferred in kJ
T = Temperature in K.
First Law of Thermodynamics As Applied To Closed System Undergoing

Cyclic Process
(ΣW)𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒 = (Σ𝑄 )𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

For a system undergoing a cycle i.e. 1-2-3-1,
𝑊1−2 + 𝑊2−3 + 𝑊3−1 = 𝑄1−2 + 𝑄2−3 + 𝑄3−1

Law of Energy Conservation (Steady Flow Energy Equation)
Energy at entry = Energy at Exit
𝐶12 𝐶22
ℎ1 + + 𝑍1 𝑔 + 𝑞 = ℎ2 + + 𝑍2 𝑔 + 𝑤 (For Unit mass)
2 2
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Solution of the Problems

1 An artificial satellite has a mass of 600 kg and is moving towards
moon. Calculate its kinetic and potential energies in (MJ) relative to
earth when it is 50 km from launching & moving at 2500 km/hr.
Take acceleration of earth’s gravitational field as 790 cm/s2.
mass of satellite, m = 600 kg
height of satellite over earth, h = 50 km = 50000 m
𝑘𝑚 𝑚
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒, 𝑉 = 2500 = 2500 × 1000
ℎ𝑟 ℎ𝑟
2500000 𝑚 m
= = 694.44
3600 𝑠𝑒𝑐 sec
𝑐𝑚 790 𝑚
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑡ℎ’𝑠 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑, 𝑔 = 790 2
=
𝑠𝑒𝑐 100 𝑠𝑒𝑐 2
Kinetic energy of satellite,
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑉 2 = × 600 × 694.442
2 2
𝐾𝐸 = 144675926 𝐽 = 144.676 𝑀𝐽
Potential energy of satellite,
790
𝑃𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 600 × × 50000
100
𝑃𝐸 = 237000000 𝐽 = 237 𝑀𝐽
2 Determine absolute pressure in bar & N/m2 in the following cases.

Case (A): Barometer Reading = 760 mm of Hg and
Manometer Reading = 180 mm of Hg.
Case (B): Barometer Reading = 760 mm of Hg and
Vacuum Gauge Reading = 100 mm of Hg.
Case (A):
Absolute pressure = Barometer Reading + Manometer Reading
Absolute Pressure in mm of Hg = 760 + 180 = 940 mm of Hg
Now,
760 mm of Hg = standard atmospheric Pressure(1.01325 bar)
So, 940 mm of Hg = ?
Absolute pressure in bar = (940 * 1.01325) / 760 = 1.2532 bar
Now, 1 bar = 105 N/m2
So, Absolute pressure in N/m2 = 1.2532 X 105 N/m2
_____________________________________________________________________________________
Case (B):
Absolute pressure = Barometer Reading – Vacuum Gauge Reading
Absolute Pressure in mm of Hg = 760 – 100 = 660 mm of Hg
Now,
760 mm of Hg = standard atmospheric Pressure(1.01325 bar)
So, 660 mm of Hg = ?
Absolute pressure in bar = (660 * 1.01325) / 760 = 0.8799 bar
Now, 1 bar = 105 N/m2

So, Absolute pressure in N/m2 = 0.8799 X 105 N/m2
Reference Books:
(1). Elements of Mechanical Engineering – MCQ and Numerical as per GTU,
By Neeraj Chavda, Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany (ISBN :
978-3-330-07021-9)
(2). Elements of Mechanical Engineering – Laboratory Manual (as per GTU),
By Neeraj Chavda, Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany (ISBN :
978-620-2-05650-2)
(3). Elements of Mechanical Engineering – Tutorial (as per GTU), By Neeraj
Chavda, Lap Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany (ISBN : 978-613-9-
82424-3)
(4). Basic Mechanical Engineering (Elements of Mechanical Engineering), By
J. P. Hadiya, H. G. Katariya and S. M. Bhatt, Books India Publications.
(5). Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach Seventh Edition in SI Units,
Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A. Boles, McGraw-Hill, 2011.
(6). Basic Mechanical Engineering, By Pravin Kumar, Pearson Publications.
(7). Engineering Thermodynamics, By Rayner Joel.
(8). Thermal Science and Engineering, By Dr. D. S. Kumar, S. K. Kataria &
sons Publications.
(9). Fundamental of Mechanical Engineering, By G. S. Sawhney, PHI
Publications.
(10). Elements of Mechanical Engineering, By Sadhu Singh, S. Chand
Publication.
(11). Elements of Mechanical Engineering, By P. S.Desai and S. B.Soni.
_____________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction 220308 154917

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Introduction 220308 154917

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Basic Mechanical Engineering

• There are three types of Thermodynamic System

(1) Open System

(2) Closed System

(3) Isolated System

How to Differentiate Between Two Open Systems or Two Closed System or

• Any two systems can be compared by comparing their parameters.

Classification of Thermodynamic Property

(1) Intensive Property

(2) Extensive Property

• The values of properties of a system define its State.

• If the pressure of the system at State 1 as mentioned above changes from

Classification of Thermodynamic Process

(1) Flow Process

(2) Non-Flow Process

(3) Reversible Process

(4) Non-Reversible Process

(5) Cyclic Process

(6) Non-Cyclic Process

Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure

• Atmospheric pressure at other location can be calculated using the

Measurement of System Pressure

• If gauge pressure indicates the system pressure as +5 bar, it means that

• If gauge pressure indicates the system pressure as -0.5 bar, it means

Concept of Absolute Pressure

• Absolute pressure is the algebraic sum of atmospheric pressure and

• Temperature is expressed using different temperature scales like Kelvin

Concept of Absolute Zero Temperature

• The temperature of the system is proportional to the average molecular

• The temperature at which the average molecular kinetic energy of the

• For Gas, the value of absolute zero temperature is -273.16 OC or 0 K.

• When a system undergoes displacement under the action of pressure, it

• The other units of work are kJ, MJ etc.

Law of Conservation of Energy

(1) High Grade Energy

(2) Low Grade Energy

(3) Stored Energy

(4) Energy in Transition

(1) Change in temperature

Change of State due to Transfer of Heat

(1) Melting Point

(2) Boiling Point

Comparison of Heat and Work

Positive and Negative value of Heat and Work

Mechanical Equivalent of Heat

• Above definition of ratio does not indicate that heat is completely

• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡, 𝐶 = 𝑄 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 𝑏𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑒

Unit of Specific Heat

• The value of specific heat is considered as constant theoretically. But

Specific Heats of Solid, Liquid and Gas

• 𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑆𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑆𝑜𝑚𝑒 𝐴𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑜 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 +

• 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 = 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

• 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

• When heat is supplied to the system at high temperature, the possibility

• Entropy is the function of heat having highest possibility of conversion

• Increase in entropy of the system is less when there is high possibility of

• Opposite to above, increase in entropy of the system is more when there

• Entropy expresses the value of disorderness of the System.

• Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

First Law of Thermodynamics

Case: I: When First Law is applied to closed system