SAMPLING AND SAMPLING

DISTRIBUTION
OVERVIEW

If the set of cases from which we take a

measurement includes all the possible
cases of interest – the population – the
research process would end with the
calculation of descriptive statistics such as
mean and standard deviation.
SAMPLING AND SAMPLING
DISTRIBUTION
Objectives

The students should be able to

 Define population, parameter and
sample
 Define inferential statistics
 Discuss the methods of collecting data
 Determine the sample size.
What is a population
 The observations could refer to anything
of interest, such as persons, animals or
objects.

 It is the totality of the observations with

which we are concerned.
 The size of the population is defined as
the number of observations in the
population.
What is a sample
 In research, we often work with a
smaller subset, a sample of the
population.
 The descriptive measures used to
summarize a sample are sample
statistics.
 These sample statistics are denoted in
mathematical shorthand, with Roman
letters: 𝑋ത for the sample mean, and s for
the sample standard deviation.
What is a sample
 A sample is a subset of a population.
 In the process of data gathering, it is
often impossible or impractical to obtain
the entire set of observations for the
given population.
 Often, the sample of the population is
taken, data collected from it and
inferences about the population are
made based on the analysis of the
sample data.
Advantages of sampling
 Samples are usually cheaper and
quicker.
 It is sometimes impossible to locate all
the members of the population, either
because a complete list of the
population is unavailable, or because
some of its members are unwilling to
participate in the study.
 Sometimes, sampling is more accurate.
BASIC TYPES OF SAMPLING

Non-probability Sampling

- is arbitrary (non-random) and is generally subjective. Data

gatherers choose sample cases, “as they wish” or “wherever they
find them.”

Probability Sampling

- based on the concept of random selection, a procedure that

assures that all elements in the population are given an equal
chance of being selected as a sample unit.
Types of Sampling Methods
Samples

Non-Probability Probability Samples

Samples
Simple
Random Stratified
Judgement Chunk
Cluster
Systematic
Quota
WHY STUDY A SAMPLE?

It is cheaper.

It is faster.
It is more accurate.

It can yield more comprehensive

information.
NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling is judgmental sampling.

• It does not provide every member of the population an

equal chance of being selected as part of the sample.
• The chance of an element to be chosen as a sample is
unknown.
• There is possibility of bias. A bias is the greater
probability of certain type/class of sample
units/elements to be included in the selected sample.
• The conclusion derived from a non-probability sample
is limited to the sample itself.
Incidental/Accidental Sampling
In accidental sampling, the
investigator selects the sample units
as they become available.

For example, an investigator who wants to

interview 25 students about their study habits
may stand at the door of a classroom and
interview the first 25 students who enter the
room. If better students tend to enter the
classroom earlier than the slower students, the
bias in favor of the brighter students is introduced
Judgment Sampling
This involves the selection of a group from
the population on the basis of available
information thought. It is to be
representative of the total population. Or
the selection of a group by intuition on the
basis of criterion deemed to be self-evident.
Generally investigator should take the
judgement sample so this sampling is
highly risky.
Purposive Sampling
In this type of sampling, the
investigator uses a specific purpose in
selecting a sample.

For instance, a researcher wants to know how

grandparents feel about their grandchildren. He
may select men and women who are 65 years old
and above who have grandchildren to serve as
respondents. If there are younger grandfathers in
the population, they cannot be included in the
study.
Quota Sampling
This combined both judgement sampling and
probability sampling. The population is classified
into several categories: on the basis of
judgement or assumption or the previous
knowledge, the proportion of population
falling into each category is decided.
Thereafter a quota of cases to be drawn is fixed
and the observer is allowed to sample as he likes.
Quota sampling is very arbitrary and likely to
figure in Municipal surveys.
 ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING
In accidental sampling, the investigator selects the sample units as they
become available.

For example, an investigator who wants to interview 25 students

about their study habits may stand at the door of a classroom
and interview the first 25 students who enter the room. If better
students tend to enter the classroom earlier than the slower
students, the bias in favor of the brighter students is introduced.

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING

In this type of sampling, the investigator uses a specific purpose in selecting

a sample.

For instance, a researcher wants to know how grandparents feel

about their grandchildren. He may select men and women who
are 65 years old and above who have grandchildren to serve as
respondents. If there are younger grandfathers in the population,
they cannot be included in the study.
PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

There are several ways of drawing probability

samples. The five most common techniques used are simple
random sampling, systematic sampling with a random start,
stratified sampling, cluster sampling, multistage sampling.

simple random sampling

systematic sampling with a random start

stratified sampling

cluster sampling

multistage sampling
Simple Random Samples
•Every individual or item from the
target frame has an equal chance of
being selected.
•Selection may be with replacement or
without replacement.
• One may use table of random numbers
for obtaining samples.
 Simple Random Samples : Advantages

• It requires a minimum knowledge of

population.
• It is free from subjectivity and free from
personal error.
• It provides appropriate data for our
purpose.
• The observations of the sample can be
used for inferential purpose.
Simple Random Samples : Disadvantages

• The representativeness of a sample

cannot be ensured by this method.
• This method does not use the
knowledge about the population.
• The inferential accuracy of the finding
depends upon the size of the sample
 For instance, you want to study the extent of participation in local governance among 24
barangay captains in the City of Dasmarinas and you want to draw a random sample of 10 officials. A
decision has been made to choose the sample without replacement. It is also assumed that the target
population is homogeneous in regard to a number of characteristics. Sampling may be done by “draw
lots” or by using a table of random number.

Population: 24 barangay captains

Sampling Frame: A list of the 24 barangay captains
Sampling unit: Barangay Captain

Steps in selecting the sample by drawing of lots (without replacement)

Step one: Make a list of the barangay captains and give them a corresponding number from 01 to 25.
Assuming that the names of barangay captains are the alphabets, list the names of barangay
captains and give them their corresponding numbers.

A 1 G 7 M 13 S 19
B 2 H 8 N 14 T 20
C 3 I 9 O 15 U 21
D 4 J 10 P 16 V 22
E 5 K 11 Q 17 W 23
F 6 L 12 R 18 X 24

Step Two: Write a number on a small piece of paper and roll it.. After writing all 25 numbers, place
the rolled pieces of paper in a container, shake the container and pick one piece of paper at a time
until you have picked 10.

For instance if the numbers picked are 3, 7, 13, 25, 17, 21, 5, 6, 12, 20, then the sample
barangay captains are C, G, M, Y, Q, U, E, F, R, and T.
Systematic Samples
• Decide on sample size: n
• Divide population of N individuals into groups of
k individuals: k = N/n
• Randomly select one individual from the 1st group.
• Select every k-th individual thereafter.

N = 64
n=8 First Group
k=8
 Systematic Samples : Advantages

• This is a simple method of selecting a

sample.
• It reduces the field cost.
• Inferential statistics may be used.
• Sample may be comprehensive and
representative of population.
• Observations of the sample may be
used for drawing conclusions and
generalizations.
 Systematic Samples : Disadvantages

• This is not free from error, since there

is subjectivity due to different ways of
systematic list by different individuals.
Knowledge of population is essential.
• Information of each individual is
essential.
• This method can’t ensure the
representativeness.
• There is a risk in drawing conclusions
from the observations of the sample
For a study on the “Knowledge and Practices of SPED Teachers Regarding the Use of Flipped
Teaching in the City Division of Dasmarinas,” suppose you wish to draw a sample of 15 teachers from
30 eligible respondents. These thirty were identified from a list of farming cooperative members.

Population: SPED teachers

Sampling Frame: A list of names of SPED teachers
Sampling Unit: a SPED teacher

STEPS IN DRAWING THE SAMPLE FARMERS

Step 1: List the 30 eligible farmers, in alphabetical order, and number them from 1 to 30.
Step 2. Determine the sampling interval (K) by dividing the size of the population by the number
of units desired: K = 30/15 =2.
Step 3. Select a random start by picking at random any number from 01 to 30. For example
you picked 10, then start at number 10.
Step 4: From number 10, the random start (RS), take every second name in the list. When
you reach number 30, go back to number one and continue drawing your sample
units, until you have drawn 15 numbers.

A 1 I 9 Q 17 Y 25
B 2 J 10 -RS R 18 Z 26
C 3 K 11 S 19 AA 27
D 4 L 12 T 20 BB 28
E 5 M 13 U 21 CC 29
F 6 N 14 V 22 DD 30
G 7 O 15 W 23
H 8 P 16 X 24
Stratified Samples
• Population divided into 2 or more groups according
to some common characteristic.
• Simple random sample selected from each.
• The two or more samples are combined into one.
Types of Stratified Samples

• Disproportionate stratified
sampling.
• Proportionate stratified sampling.
• Optimum allocation stratified
sampling.
Types of Stratified Samples

Disproportionate sampling means

that the size of the sample in each
unit is not proportionate to the size of
the unit but depends upon
considerations involving personal
judgement and convenience.
Types of Stratified Samples

Proportionate sampling refers to

the selection from each sampling unit
of a sample that is proportionate to
the size of the unit. Advantages of
this procedure include
representativeness with respect to
variables used as the basis of
classifying categories and increased
chances of being able to make
comparisons between strata.
Types of Stratified Samples

Optimum allocation stratified

sampling is representative as well
as comprehensive than other
stratified samples. It refers to
selecting units from each stratum
should be in proportion to the
corresponding stratum the population
Types of Stratified Samples
Stratified Samples: Advantages

a. It is (more precisely third way) a

good representative of the
population.
b. It is an improvement over the
earlier.
c. It is an objective method of
sampling.
d. Observations can be used for
inferential purpose.
Stratified Samples: Disadvantages

a. Serious disadvantage of this method is that it

is difficult for the researcher to decide the
relevant criterion for stratification
b. Only one criterion can be used for
stratification, but it generally seems more than
one criterion relevant for stratification
c. It is costly and time consuming method.
d. Selected sample may be representative with
reference to the used criterion but not for the
other.
e. There is a risk in generalization
 In a study on “Attitudes of farmers Towards Land Reform,” the study population consists of 75 farmers: 30 rice
farmers, 20 sugar cane farmers 10 vegetable growers, and 15 cutflower growers. If the attitudes towards land reform of
the four groups are expected to differ, a sample from each group must be drawn.

Population: All the 75 farmers

Sampling Frame: List of farmers by type
Sampling unit: Farmer

STEPS IN DRAWING THE SAMPLE

Step 1: Classify the 75 farmers: rice-farmers, sugar cane farmers, vegetable growers, cutflower
producers
Step 2: Determine the overall sample size using an appropriate formula. For example, 30 is the
desired sample size.
Step 3: Allocate the needed sample size (n) among the four strata either equally, if the
subpopulations are more or less equal; or proportionately, if the numbers in the various
strata vary. To do this divide the stratum size by the population size (N) and multiply
the quotient by the needed sample size.

Types of Farmer Population Sampling Fraction Sample Size

Rice-farmers 30 30/75x 30 12
Sugar farmers 20 20/75x 30 8
Vegetable growers 10 10/75x 30 4
Cutflower producers 15 15/75x 30 6
Total 75 30

Step 4: With the sub-sample size determined, select the sample from each stratum, using either simple
random sampling or systematic sampling with a random start.
Multiple or Double or Repetitive
Sampling
This technique enables one to check
on the reliability of the information
obtained from the first sample. Thus,
double sampling, wherein one sample
is analyzed, and information obtained
is used to draw the next sample to
examine the problem further.
Multiple or Double or Repetitive
Sampling: Advantages
a. This sampling procedure leads to
the inferences of free determine
precision based on a number of
observations.
b. This technique of sampling reduces
the error.
c. This method maintains the
procedure of the finding evaluate
the reliability of the sample.
Multiple or Double or Repetitive
Sampling: Disadvantages
a. This technique of sampling cannot
be used for a large sample. It is
applicable only for small sample.
b. This technique is time consuming,
costly, and requires more
competition.
c. Its planning and administration is
more complicated
Multi-Stage Sampling

This sample is more comprehensive and

representative of the population. In this type of
sampling primary sample units are inclusive groups and
secondary units are sub-groups within these ultimate
units to be selected which belong to one and only one
group. Stages of a population are usually available
within a group or population, whenever stratification is
done by the researcher. The Individuals are selected
from different stages for constituting the multi-stage
sampling
Multi-Stage Sampling: Advantages

a. It is a good representative of the

population.
b. Multi-stage sampling is an
improvement over the earlier methods.
c. It is an objective procedure of
sampling.
d. The observations from multi-stage
sample may be used for inferential
purpose.
Multi-Stage Sampling:
Disadvantages
a. It is a difficult and complex method of
samplings.
b. It involves errors when we consider the
primary and secondary stages.
c. It is again a subjective phenomenon
Cluster Samples
• Population divided into several “clusters”,
each representative of the population.
• A random sampling of clusters is taken
• All individuals or items in each selected clusters are
studied.

Sample
Clusters
Cluster Sampling: Advantages

a. It may be a good representative of the

population.
b. It is an easy method.
c. It is an economical method.
d. It is practicable and highly applicable in
education.
e. Observations can be used for
inferential purpose.
Cluster Sampling: Disadvantages

a. Cluster sampling is not free from error.

b. It is not comprehensive. All these
above are techniques of probability
sampling.
Consider the study “Attitudes Towards Dishonesty and Dishonest Practices Among Employees in the
City of Dasmarinas LGU.” The employees may be divided into 10 heterogeneous groups, or
classes/clusters, each with 10 individuals, or a total of 100 employees. If the desired sample size is 50
employees, 5 sample clusters need to be drawn at random.

ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF

HI J K HI J K HI J K HI J K HI J K

1 2 3 4 5

ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF ABCDEF

HI J K HI J K HI J K HI J K HI J K

6 7 8 9 10

Population: All the 10 classes/clusters

Frame: List of 10 clusters/groups
Sampling Unit: One group/cluster with 10 members

STEPS IN SELECTING THE SAMPLE CLUSTERS:

Step 1: Number the 10 groups consecutively from 01 to 10.
Step 2: Using simple random sampling, draw five numbers. Suppose numbers 2, 6,5,.9, and
1 are chosen
Step 3: Identify the groups represented by the numbers drawn.
Step 4: Study all the employees in the five sample clusters.
Characteristics of a Good Sample
• A good sample is the true representative of the
population corresponding to its properties. The
population is known as aggregate of certain
properties and sample is called sub-aggregate
of the universe.
• A good sample is free from bias, the sample
does not permit prejudices the learning and
preconception, imaginations of the investigator
to influence its choice.
• A good sample is an objective one, it refers
objectivity in selecting procedure or absence of
subjective elements from the situation
Characteristics of a Good Sample
• A good sample maintains accuracy. It yields an
accurate estimates or statistics and does not
involve errors.
• A good sample is comprehensive in nature. This
feature of a sample is closely linked with true-
representativeness. Comprehensiveness is a
quality of a sample which is controlled by
specific purpose of the investigation. A sample
may be comprehensive in traits but may not be
a good representative of the population.
• A good sample is also economical from energy,
time and money point of view.
Characteristics of a Good Sample
• The subjects of good sample are easily
approachable. The research tools can be
administered on them and data can be collected
easily.
• The size of good sample is such that it yields an
accurate results. The probability of error can be
estimated.
• 9. A good sample makes the research work
more feasible.
• A good sample has the practicability for
research situation.
 DETERMINATION OF SAMPLE SIZE
CONSIDERATIONS IN DETERMINING THE SAMPLE SIZE

1. Type of survey variables or data

items to be estimated
2. Availability of resources
3. Degree of accuracy or tolerable error
of the estimate
4. Availability of Sampling Frame
5. Estimated Population Size
 If Z is set at 95% confidence level and p= 0.5, the formula
can be simplified into the following form

N
n = ----------
Nd2+ 1

where :
N = Population
n = the desired sample size
d = margin of error, usually set at either .05, .025, or .01
How do we determine
the sample size?
To determine the sample size from a given
population, the SLOVIN’s formula is used.

𝑁
𝑛=
1 + 𝑁𝑒 2
Example

A group of researchers will conduct a survey to

find the opinion of the residents of a particular
community regarding Extra-Judicial Killings (EJK).
If there are 20,000 residents in the community and
the researchers plan to use a sample using a 10%
margin of error, what should the sample size be?
Example

Substituting the given values in the formula, we

have

20000
𝑛= =
1+20000(0.1)2
99.5
Hence, the researcher will just conduct the
survey using 100 residents.
Methods of collecting data

1. The Direct or Interview Method

 the researcher obtains the information by
asking questions and inquiries from the
interviewee.
 Using this method, more accurate answers
and responses can be gathered.
 This method is costly and time consuming
Methods of collecting data

2.The Indirect or Questionnaire Method

 This method makes use of a written
questionnaire. The researcher gives or
distributes the questionnaire either by
personal delivery or by mail.
 The researcher cannot expect that all
distributed questionnaires will be retrieved.
Methods of collecting data

3. The registration Method

 This method of collecting data is governed
by laws. The data are gathered from
secondary sources such PSA, COMELEC,
DTI,LTO, and others.
4. The Experimental Method
 This is usually used to find out cause and
effect relationships.