Global Journal of Environmental Research 2 (2): 74-80, 2008

ISSN 1990-925X
© IDOSI Publications, 2008

Salinity Effects on Young Healthy Seedlings of

Kyllingia Peruviana Collected from Escravos, Delta State
1
Erhenhi Ha, 2B. Ikhajiagbe, 3J.F. Bamidele and 4E. Ogie-Odia

1
Departmen of Botany, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria
2
Raw Materials Research and Development Council, Abuja, Nigeria
3
Department of Botany, University of Benin, Benin City, Nigeria
4
Department of Botany, Ambrose Alli University, Ekpoma, Nigeria

Abstract: This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of salinity on young healthy seedlings of Kyllingia
peruviana. Young healthy seedlings of Kyllingia peruviana were collected and then transplanted and watered
to stabilize them. The Plants were grown in bowls in sand culture and watered with 0, 70, 280 and 560 mM NaCl
solution respectively. To create different water regimes, i.e. wet, flooded and drought situations, the bowls
containing plants for wet regime were watered every other day, the soil in the bowls for flooded treatment was
totally covered with water while the bowls for drought situation were watered once every five day. At high
salinity (560 mM NaCl), mortality of the whole plants was total. Significant reduction in growth also occurred
because of the plants inability to adjust osmotically. Ash content in leaves and root of Kyllingia peruviana
decreased as salinity increased. K+ was found to be the dominant cation and Na+ had low ionic concentration
in the leaves and root of the plant. Salinity and water regime significantly affected plant biomass, dry and
fresh weights, ash content and ionic concentration though at varying degrees depending on the salt tolerance
level of the plant and its adaptive mechanisms. Drought had profound effects on the plants species studied
in terms of growth, survival and plant quality.

Key words: Killingia peruviana %Salinity %Water regimes %Drought

INTRODUCTION Saline solutions impose both ionic and osmotic

Salts are a common and necessary component of soil
and many salts (nitrates and potassium) are essential
plant nutrients. However, when salts are present in
relatively high amounts that plant growth is adversely
affected [1]. The presence of salts in soil or in irrigation
water can adversely affect plant growth and soil
properties. Increased salt tolerance is needed for crops in
area at risk of salinization [2].
Growth and yield reductions occur as a result of
the shortening of the lifetime of individual leaves,
thus reducing net productivity and crop yield [2,3].
Reduction in turgor pressure for plants exposed to
salinity might be the major cause of growth reduction in
excessive accumulation of an internalion concentration
[4]. Increased treatment levels of NaCl induced decreases
in Ca2+, K+, and Mg 2+ in plants [5]. Contamination of soils
with oilfield brines is a significant environmental problem
in many oil-production areas [6,7]
stresses on plants. These stresses can be distinguished
at several levels. In salt-sensitive plants, shoot and to a
lesser extent root growth is permanently reduced within
hours of salt stress and this effect does not appear to
depend on Na+ concentration in the growing tissues, but
rather is a response to the osmolarity of the external
solution [8,2]. Na+ -specific damage is associated with the
accumulation of Na+ in leaf tissues and results in necrosis
of older leaves; starting at the tips and margins and
working back through the leaf.
Seven percent of the land surface and five percent
of cultivated lands are affected by salinity [9], with salt
stress being one of the most serious environmental
factors limiting the productivity of crop plants [10]. The
electrolytes sodium (a cation) and chloride (an anion)
are extremely toxic to most plant at relatively low soil
water concentrations, due to deleterious effects on
cellular metabolism and ultra structure. A saline habitat
often has a low diversity of plants, sometimes even just

Coressponding Author: Dr. Erhenhi Ha, Department of Botany, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria
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 Global J. Environ. Res., 2 (2): 74-80, 2008

one dominant species, because so few species are able Table 1: Weekly mean of Kyllingia peruviana showing leaf number against
different salinity treatments and water regime. Mean obtained
to resist salt damage and those that do have special
from three replicates±SE. Where: % (+) or (-) percentage leaf
microhabitats that are optimal. True halophytes are number increase or decrease obtained from mean leaf number.
plants that thrive in water having greater than 0.5% NaCl. (a) Wet
A small number of plant lineages have evolved structural, Weeks 0 mM NaCl 70 mM NaCl 280 mM NaCl 560 mM NaCl
phenological, physiological and biochemical mechanisms 1 7.3±0.7 7.7±0.7 7.0±1.2 7.0±1.2
for salt resistance and true halophytes have evolved 2 9.7±0.3 8.3±1.2 6.7±0.7 7.7±0.9
convergently in numerous related family [2]. Kyllingia 3 11.7±0.9 8.3±1.2 6.7±0.3 9.0±1.2
peruviana (Cyperacea) are facultative halophytes i.e. 4 11.7±0.9 7.7±0.3 4.7±0.9 4.3±0.3
5 14.3±1.2 8.3±0.3 4.3±0.9 0.7±0.3
they are able to settle on salty soils, but their optimum
6 17.0±1.0 9.0±0.6 2.7±0.7 0
lies in a salt-free or at least low-salt milieu. It is a monocot 7 15.7±1.5 6.3±1.7 1.5±0.5 0
and perennial. The present study therefore aims to 8 18.3±1.9 4.3±1.2 1.5±0.5 0
examine the effects of salinity and water regimes on some % 150.68 -44.16 -78.57 -100
physiological parameters of the plant. (b) Flooded
1 8.0±2.6 7.7±0.7 7.7±1.2 8.0±1.2
MATERIALS AND METHODS 2 9.3±3.0 9.0±1.0 8.7±1.5 8.7±0.7
3 10.0±2.3 10.3±0.3 7.0±1.5 10.3±1.5
4 9.7±1.5 11.0±0.6 7.3±0.9 5.7±0.7
Young healthy seedlings of Kyllingia peruviana
5 11.7±2.0 9.7±0.7 6.0±1.7 3.0±0.6
were collected from Escravos in Delta state. The seedlings 6 14.7±1.2 8.3±1.2 4.0±0.6 0
were transplanted and watered to stabilize them. 7 13.3±1.3 7.3±0.9 2.7±0.3 0
The Plants were grown in 40 cm diameter plastic 8 15.7±1.2 6.0±1.7 1.0±0.5 0
bowls (five replicate plants per treatment) in sand culture % 96.25 -22.08 - 87 .01 -100
and watered with 0, 70, 280 and 560 mM NaCl solution (c) Drought
respectively. 1 9.0±1.5 8.3±3.0 9.7±1.5 9.3±2.8
Saline solution was used in this experiment and was 2 9.7±2.6 8.0±2.1 9.3±0.3 8.0±0.9
3 9.7±3.7 7.3±1.2 8.7±0.3 7.3±0.7
prepared artificially by dissolving calculated or weighed
4 10.0±4.0 5.0±1.7 4.3±0.7 2.7±0.7
amount of commercially laboratory grade NaCl pellets with 5 11.7±3.3 5.0±1.7 4.7±0.3 2.7±0.7
distilled water to make 70, 280 and 560 mM NaCl solution. 6 13.3±3.3 5.7±1.8 3.0±0.6 2.0±0.3
Distilled water was used as control (0 mM NaCl). 7 13.3±3.3 4.7±1.7 2.7±1.2 1.0±0.3
One seedling was planted in each plastic bowl. The 8 3.0±1.0 5.0±1.5 1.0±0.5 0
bowls were watered regularly for four weeks to allow the % -66.67 -39.76 -89.69 -100
seedling stabilize in the soil. They were then subjected to
NaCl concentrations of 0, 70, 280 and 560mM. To create cells) to the whole plant (e.g. exclusion of Na+ from the
different water regimes (i.e. wet, flooded and drought plant and intraplant allocation of Na+) Plants need suitable
situations) the bowls containing plants for wet regime conditions (water, mineral elements and light e.t.c) to
were watered every other day, the soil in the bowls for harness their full potential in the area of growth,
flooded treatment was totally covered with water while the development, maturity and establishment. When these
bowls for drought situation were watered once every 5 suitable conditions are altered or unavailable, the survival
days. Plastic bowls with simulated wet and drought of certain plants depend on various forms of adaptive
situations were perforated underneath, whereas the mechanisms which may include shedding of old leaves
flooded ones were not given drainage perforations where toxic materials may be stored, sequestering of
underneath. harmful elements to an innocuous ones, succulence
(thickening of leaves and stems), selective absorption of
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION elements by the roots of plants, exclusion and avoidance
of certain chemical substances by the plants e.t.c. In the
Tolerance to salinity and varying water regimes present study, Kyllingia peruviana displayed distinct
involves processes in many different parts of the plant variation in salinity tolerance when grown under three
and more than one of these processes can operate different water regimes.
concurrently within a particular plant. These mechanisms Table 1 (a, b and c) show the effects of salinity and
can occur at a wide range of organizational levels, from water regime on the mean number of leaves during the
the cellular (e.g. compartmentation of Na+ from within duration of the experiment. It was observed that salinity

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 Global J. Environ. Res., 2 (2): 74-80, 2008
and drought significantly affected mean number of leaves.
Leaf number increased in controls by 51.95% under wet
regime, 28.75% under flooded regime and a decrease of
58.90% under drought showing the significant effects of
drought regime on leaf number by inhibiting its formation
or increase. It was observed that as salinity increased,
percentage leaf number decreased even to the lowest
point of 100% at 560 mM NaCl where mortality of the
whole plants occurred.
Generally, salinity decreased the mean leaf number of
kyllingia peruviana due to the accumulation of Na+ in
leaf tissues [2]. Ikhajiagbe et al. [3] reported significant
reduction in number of leaves with increasing salt levels
in Sphenostylis stenocarpa. The present study also
agrees with the work of [11,12] which indicated that Na+
specific damage is associated with the accumulation of
Na+ in leaf tissues which results in necrosis of older
leaves starting at the tips and margins and working back
through the leaf growth and yield reductions occur as a
result of the shortening of the lifetime of individual leaves,
thus reducing net productively and crop yield. It was
observed that the magnitude of growth suppression in
response to salinity increased as water regime fluctuates
from wet or flooded to drought. Leaf death under high
salinity conditions is caused by a rapid rise in salt
concentrations in cell walls or cytoplasm when the
vacuoles can no longer compartmentalize the salts.
Mortality was observed in almost all the water regimes at
high salinity (560 mM NaCl). This agrees with the second
phase of the Munns and Termaat [13] model which
hypothesizes that the rate of leaf death will eventually
exceed the rate at which new leaves can be produced.
At high salinity (560 mM NaCl), mortality of the
whole plants was total in Kyllingia peruviana. At higher
salinities, a significant reduction in growth occurred
because of the plants inability to adjust osmotically.
Kyllingia peruviana lacked succulence. Succulence
(A high volume/surface ratio) is mainly a result of
vacuoles of mesophyll cells with water and increasing in
size by depositing ions of salts in and organelles of the
cells. K+ was found, in the present study, to be the
dominant cation comparative to Na+ as earlier reported by
Jeschke and Hartung [14]. Jennings [15] related
succulence in halophytes to sodium metabolism. He
postulated that an out-wardly directed sodium pump exits
in halophytes and that this pump is related to cation-
activated ATPase in the cell wall. This pump would drive
potassium ions into the cell against an elector-chemical
potential gradient. Exposure to high concentrations of
NaCl increased succulence in leaves of Atriplex hastate
76
[16] and Atriplex amnicola [17] and stem of Sarcocornia
natalensis [18]. Flowers et al. [9] observed that salinity
frequently induces succulence in dicotyledonous
halophytes and this was also found for A. hortensis
var.cupreata [19]. By contrast to these observations, leaf
succulence in the work of Wolf and Wilfred [20] did not
increase with salinity.
There was a corresponding decrease in the fresh
weight (Table 2) as salinity increased. There were
significant (P<0.05) differences between controls and 280
mM NaCl both in leaves and root of Kyllingia peruviana.
Fresh weight of leaves and roots of Kyllingia peruviana
was 27.6g and 11.3g respectively in the wet regime (0 mM
NaCl) compared to 7.2g and 13.3g respectively in the
drought regime (0 mM NaCl).
Salinity increase correspondingly decreased dry
weight in leaves (Table 3). Dry weight of leaves and roots
Kyllingia peruviana in the wet regime (0 mM NaCl)
significantly differed from that in the drought regime as
well. There was however significant change in both
parameters when subjected to 70 mM NaCl treatment. The
result observed in the fresh and dry weight of Kyllingia
peruviana (Tables 2 and 3) showed decreased fresh and
dry weights of leaves and root. This was reported earlier
in Mungbean by Raptan et al. [21] that the reduction in
growth and total dry weight matter production occurred
under saline condition. The results obtained from the
experiment showed high dry and fresh weight of root
predominately in drought regime. This agreed with the
work of Brouwer, [22] which stated that plants show a
tendency to form relatively larger root system under
nutrient stress, or water stress in saline medium.
The biomass of Kyllingia peruviana was found to
decrease significantly (p<0.05) in a progressive trend
with increase in salinity among controls and other
treatmentsirrespective of the water regime it was
subjected. The maximum biomass allocation was observed
in controls under the three different water regimes
compared to other treatments and were found to be
significantly different (P<0.05) (Table 4). Generally, in the
non-saline situation biomass accumulation in the wet
and flooded regimes significantly differed from that in the
drought regime, which was evidently least in biomass
accumulation. Decrease in plant biomass with increasing
salt levels have been previously reported by Aslam et al.
[17] in Atriplex amnicola; Ungar, [23] in Atriplex patula
(Chenopodiaceae) and Greenway [24], who reported that
increased salinity levels may cause a reduction in total
growth of halophytes, especially leaf biomass. Similarly,
Ikhajiagbe et al. [3] reported significant reduction in total
 Global J. Environ. Res., 2 (2): 74-80, 2008

Table 2: Effects of Salinity and Water regime on fresh weight (g) of leaves and root of Kyllingia peruviana
Wet Flooded Drought
---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
Conc (mM NaCl) Leaf Root Leaf Root Leaf Root
0 27.6 11.3 26.2 6.3 7.2 13.3
70 13.3 7.5 13.4 7.6 13.8 8.5
280 5.7 7.3 2.5 10.3 4.0 6.3
560 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Table 3: Effects of Salinity and Water regime on dry weight (g) of leaves and root of Kyllingia peruviana
Wet Flooded Drought
---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
Conc (mM NaCl) Leaf Root Leaf Root Leaf Root
0 4.3 2.3 3.8 0.8 1.3 1.6
70 2.7 1.3 2.0 1.8 2.4 2.2
280 1.2 1.4 0.7 3.2 1.3 1.4
560 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

Table 4: Effects of Salinity and Water regime on biomass (g) of Kyllingia
peruviana
Conc (mM NaCl) Wet Flooded
0 38.7 20.4
70 32.5 22.4
280 22.3 23.5
560 0.0 0.0
plant biomass accumulation in Sphenostylis
stenocarpa with increasing salt levels. Cooper [25]
investigated the effects of salinity, water logging and
cation uptake of some salt mash plants such as Festuca
rubra, Juncus gerandi, Armieria naritimaand Plantago
marritima and found out that there were large differences
in absolute dry weight yields among the various species.
Similar reduction in plant biomass in relatiojn to increased
salinity was also reported by Hassan et al. [26] in barley,
Abdul-Halim et al. [27] in wheat and Al-Mutawa [28] in
chickpea.
The ash content measures the amount of
accumulated inorganic matter in plants. Kyllingia
peruviana had higher ash content in leaves than in
roots (Table 5). There was a progressive decrease in ash
content in the leaves as salinity progressed under wet
regime. Under the flooded regime, the ash content
obtained in the control leaves was significantly (P<0.05)
different from that obtained in other treatments, while
maximum ash content in root was recorded in 280mM NaCl
and found to be significantly (P<0.05) different form other
treatments. At 560mM NaCl, no value of ash content was
recorded due to mortality that occurred. Generally, ash
content in leaves and root of Kyllingia peruviana
decreased as salinity increased. Some halophytes are
also reported to have high ash contents, mainly, as in
Drought the case of Fruiticosa, because of an accumulation of
12.4 Na+ and Cl- [29,18,23].
13.6 The ionic concentration of Kyllingia peruviana
12.6 both in leaves and root is in Table 6. Calcium content
0.0 of the leaves at 70 mM NaCl in the wet regime was 0.86
mmolg-1dry wt, compared to 0.12 mmolg-1dry wt in the
roots. Generally, it was observed that ionic composition
of the leaves was more than that of the roots.
Concentrations (Ca2+, Mg2+, Na+ and K+) however
decreased with increase in salinity irrespective of
water regime. Ionic concentrations of K+ were more
compared to those of Ca2+, Mg2+ and Na+.
Drought has profound effects on the plants species
studied in terms of growth, survival, yield and plant
quality. Drought leads to loss of turgor. Loss of turgor
affects rate of cell expansion and ultimate cell size,
decrease in growth rate in terms of stem elongation, leaf
expansion and stomata aperture. One of the effects of
drought (water stress) is premature senescence and
shedding of leaves. These agree with the previous work
of (Silberbush and Ben-Asher 30), which showed that
Drought exacerbates the problems of Na+ toxicity.
It was also observed that flooding regime had
significant effects on the plants studied. Huang et al. [31]
and Vartapetin et al. [32], earlier reported that flooding of
soil with non-saline or saline water adversely affects the
distribution of many woody plants because it inhibits
seed germination as well as vegetative and reproductive
growth, alters plant anatomy and induces plant mortality.
Flooded soil quickly becomes devoid of oxygen at depths

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 Global J. Environ. Res., 2 (2): 74-80, 2008

Table 5: Effect of Salinity and Water regime on ash content (g) of Kyllingia peruviana leaves and root
Wet Flooded Drought
--------------------------------------- ------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------
Conc (mM NaCl) Leaf Root Leaf Root Leaf Root
0 1.18 0.63 1.16 0.32 0.38 0.49
70 0.83 0.48 0.52 0.51 0.75 0.65
280 0.41 0.43 0.43 0.31 0.42 0.42
560 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 6: Effects of Salinity and Water regime ionic composition (mmolg-1dry wt) in the leaves and roots of Kyllingia peruviana
Wet Flooded Drought
Conc ------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------ ------------------------------------------------------
(mM NaCl) Ca Mg Na K Cl Ca Mg Na K Cl Ca Mg Na K Cl
Lvs 0 0.81 0.26 0.22 1.21 0.19 0.88 0.26 0.24 1.20 0.12 2.21 0.56 0.42 2.80 0.32
70 0.86 0.31 0.28 1.31 0.25 0.92 0.30 0.26 126 0.15 1.32 0.22 0.19 1.76 0.25
280 1.20 0.42 0.37 1.43 0.31 1.31 0.46 0.4 1.76 0.21 1.56 0.31 0.25 2.32 0.27
560 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Rts 0 0.76 0.23 0.21 1.02 0.23 2.18 0.32 0.21 2.71 0.32 1.48 0.28 0.18 1.82 1.36
70 0.12 0.18 0.17 1.63 0.18 1.2 0.21 0.19 2.21 0.2 1.32 0.42 0.3 1.58 0.23
280 0.93 0.22 0.18 1.42 0.16 0.82 0.38 0.24 0.84 0.18 1.45 0.23 0.18 1.78 0.25
560 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Lvs=Leaves, Rts=Roots

below a few millimeters since roots and rhizomes are
essentially aerobic organs, the consequences can be fatal
because, as aerobic respiration ceases, levels of energy-
rich adenylates drop rapidly causing a dramatic decline
in ion uptake and transport.
Under the flooded regime, mortality was observed
in Kyllingia peruviana. This confirms the work of
Shifferaw et al. [33], which showed that excess water in
the soil displaces air from non-capillary pore-spaces
thereby producing oxygen deficiency. Thus as root
growth ceases, physiological drought set in which may
eventually leads to mortality.
In the present study, K+ was found to be the
dominant cation and Na+ had low ionic concentration in
the leaves and root of the plant studied. This agrees with
Jeschke and Hartung [14], report that some halophytes
have developed a sodium-potassium pump that maintains
a low sodium concentration within the cells of the plants
ensuring that enough potassium is absorbed. Carolyn
and Irwin [7] also reported that K+ was accumulated by
plant in a much greater ratio than Na+.
The deleterious effects of salinity on the plants was
suspected to be linked to other factors as salinity effects
vary within intraspecies and interspecies in the different
water regimes. This agrees with the works of Epstein [34]
and Creamer et al. [35], that the deleterious effects of
salinity are thought to result from low water potentials,
ion toxicities, nutrient deficiencies, or combination of
these factors. Nutrient deficiencies can occur in plants
when high concentrations of Na+ in the soil reduced
the amount of available K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ or when Na+
displaces membrane-bound Ca2+. In addition, Na+ may
have a direct toxic, such as when it interferes with the
function of potassium as a cofactor in various reactions.
It also agreed with the work of Kurth et al. [36], which
indicated that many of the deleterious effects of Na+
however, seem to be related to the structural and
functional integrity of membranes.
The results obtained in this project showed that
increased treatment levels of NaCl induced decreases
in Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+ in the plants. This is in conformity
previous work of Ajmal et al. [5], which indicated that
increased treatment levels of NaCl induced decreases
in Ca2+, K+ and Mg2+ in plants. Empirically, for a wide
range of species, it is often found that plants that are
more able to tolerate moderately saline environments
have a greater ability to exclude Na+ from the shoot, or at
least the leaf blades, and concurrently maintain high
levels of K+ [8, 12, 37-43].
Salinity and water regime significantly affect plant
biomass, dry and fresh weights, ash content and ionic
concentration though at varying degrees depending on
the salt tolerance level of such plant and its adaptive
mechanism or mechanisms.

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 Global J. Environ. Res., 2 (2): 74-80, 2008
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