Fibre To Fabric Laboratory Manual

FIBRE TO FABRIC LABORATORY MANUAL PRACTICAL III
1. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBRES BY FEEL, MICROSCOPIC VIEW, BURNING

BEHAVIOUR AND SOLUBILITY
Aim:
To identify the given fibres by feel, microscopic view, burning behavior and solubility tests.
Procedure:
Technical Tests for Fiber Identification
There are two types of methods that are used for identifying different fibers - the
nontechnical tests and the technical tests. The nontechnical tests include the feeling test and the
burn test. The technical tests include microscope test and chemical test. The technical tests for
fiber identification are carried out in laboratories and require technical knowledge and skills. As
such, they are much more reliable methods for testing end product as compared to the non
technical tests.
Nontechnical Tests
Feeling Test
Feeling test involves touching a fabric and feeling the fabric to know its component
fibers. For example, wool fabrics will feel warm when touched because the heat generated by
wool, which is a nonconductor of heat, will remain in the touched area itself. On the other hand,
the fabrics made up of plant fibers such as cotton fabrics, linen fabrics and even the rayon
fabrics, that are made from the cellulose of wood pulp or cotton fiber, feel cool to touch. As they
are conductors of heat, the heat generated by the finger passes off making the fabric cold.
However, it requires a long experience of handling different fabrics over a period of time for
such skillful perception. Also, it is difficult to examine and compare the fabrics made of different
fiber contents with the feeling test.
Burning Test
The other nontechnical test for fiber identification by the burn test- involves burning a
sample of fabric and observing the various characteristics shown by it after burning in order to
determine its fiber content. The burning test is more efficient than the feeling test but it also has
its limitations. For example, fabrics made of biconstituent fibers, that are combination of two
different textile polymers, cannot be identified with this test.
Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

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Burning Test procedures:
 Remove a snippet of fabric from an inconspicuous area.

 Hold snippet by the end with tweezers over an ashtray or safe surface.
 Slowly bring the flame of lighter to the tip of the snippet.
 Once the snippet is burning, evaluate flame color, flame motion, and smoke.
 Blow out flame and evaluate odor.
 When burnt snippet is cool, evaluate the bead or ash.
 Compare test results with the Burn Test Chart.

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Technical Tests
The technical tests for fiber identification done with the help of laboratory equipment are
far more reliable than the nontechnical tests. However, technical knowledge and skill,
particularly while handling chemicals, are the basic requirements for conducting these tests.
Microscope Test
Microscopes having magnification of at least 100 power, can be successfully employed
for testing and identifying the fiber contents of a fabric. Microscope test is very effective for
testing the natural fabrics. Difficulties can be faced while testing synthetic fabrics as many of
them have similar appearance. However, one must know, what the fibers look like under a
microscope as many finishing processes like mercerizing and delustering, change the appearance
of fibers under microscope. Apart from it, dark colored fabrics also cannot be tested with
microscope as light cannot pass through dark substances. For such fabrics, either the textile
dyes haveto be removed by stripping, bleaching etc. or they have to be chemically tested.
Natural fibers have their own peculiar structures, spots, lines and other marks that help in
identifying them. Following are some examples of natural fibers and how they look like under a
microscope:
Cotton: The cotton fiber is a single elongated cell. Under a microscope, it looks like flat, spirally
twisted ribbonlike tube with rough granular surface. However, mercerized cotton doesn't have
natural twist. The finishing process makes them swollen, straight, smooth and round with a
shining surface.
Linen: Linen fiber, under a microscope, looks like having multiple sided cylindrical filaments
with fine pointed edges. The filaments show nodes at intervals. It, in fact, looks like a bamboo
stick having joints that results into a little unevenness.
Wool: Wool fiber has irregular, roughly cylindrical, multi cellular structure with tapered ends.
Under a microscope, three basic layers are shown- epidermis (outer layer), cortex (middle layer)
and medulla (inner layer). Medulla is seen only in coarse and medium wool fibers and that too
under a highly powerful microscope.
Silk: Raw silk fiber, composed of two filaments, has elliptical shape under the microscope. The
two fine and lustrous filaments are shown clearly looking like transparent rods with triangular
shape. Wild silk or tussah fiber has different appearance than the cultivated silk. It is flattened,

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coarse, thick and broader fiber having fine, wavy lines all across its surface whereas cultivated
silk is narrower fiber with no marks on it.
Manmade fibers are difficult to identify through microscope because of similar appearance of
many fibers. However, their certain distinguishable characteristics under a microscope have been
mentioned below.
Rayons: Rayon fiber has uniform diameter with glass like shine. If delustered then rayon fiber
shows marks similar to pepper, when viewed cross sectionally. Viscose fiber of rayon looks
irregular when viewed cross sectionally.
Acetate: Acetate fiber looks lesser irregular than viscose rayon when viewed cross sectionally. It
has indentations that look like occasional marks when viewed longitudinally.
Nylon: There are many variants of nylon fiber. However, generally it appears fine, round,
smooth and translucent. Sometimes it has shiny appearance. If it looks dull, it will also be dotted
under the microscope.
Aramid: If viewed longitudinally, aramid fiber looks smooth and straight. If viewed cross
sectionally, it may be round or like peanut's shape.
Polyester: Generally, polyester fiber is smooth, straight. It looks round cross sectionally.
However, with various finishing processes, its appearance changes in context of texture and
luster.
Spandex: Spandex fiber have the outstanding characteristic of appearing like groups of fibers
fused together. However, different variants of spandex show different characteristics too. The
Lycra fiber looks like fused multifilaments cross sectionally. Individual fibers are dotted and in
shape like that of dog-bone. If viewed longitudinally, they appear straight.
Polypropylene: When viewed cross sectionally, polypropylene fiber looks somewhat round but
it looks straight and smooth when viewed longitudinally.
Glass: The glass fiber looks smooth, round, translucent, shiny and flexible.

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Fibre Identification (Microscopic View)

Flax:
Longitudinal View : Long,Transparent,cylindrical,sometimes striated appearance.It has
harrow lumen running through centre.
Cross sectional view : The cell wall appears thick and polygonal in shape.
Jute:
Longitudinal View : Cross wise marks called nodes or joints.
Cross sectional view : The fibres have a small central canal similar to the lumen in cotton.
Several sided or polygonal with rounded edges.
Wool:
Longitudinal View : Irregular and roughly cylindrical, prominent scale marking or flattened
plates..
Cross sectional view : Oval to circular with variation in diameter medulla is concentric and
variable in size.
Viscose:
Longitudinal View : Uniform diameter with striation running parallel to the fibre axis.
Cross sectional view : Differ in cross sectional appearance according to the process used.
Basically has a irregular cross section.
Polyester:
Longitudinal View : Very regular, rod like appearance.
Cross sectional view : Circular in cross section.
Nylon:
Longitudinal View : Very regular, rod like appearance.
Cross sectional view : Circular in cross section.
Acrylic:
Longitudinal View : Rod like with smooth surface and profile.
Cross sectional view : Nearly round or bean shaped.

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Chemical Tests
Chemical tests for fiber identification can only be conducted in well equipped
laboratories. There are two primary methods to conduct chemical testing- stain and solvent.
Stain Method:
Stain technique uses acid and alkali on different fabrics to identify their fiber contents.
Most of the fibers have two color reactions when treated with stain. A fiber stained with
dilute acetic acid turns to a specific color. The same fiber when stained with mild alkali like soda
carbonate turns to a different color again specific to that fiber only. Acetate changes to light
green color when acetic acid is used and turns orange when dilute carbonate of soda is used.
Likewise, nylon turns beige in one and bright red in other. As double testing is done in this
method, it is sometimes referred to as double-barreled stain identification.
Solvent Method:
Various solvents are used in this method to distinguish one kind of fiber from another.
However, there is no single solvent or chemical that can be used on all fibers. Additionally,
different solvent procedures are adopted to separate and identify the fibers that are combined
together. It becomes very difficult to use solvent methods in view of fibers that have similar
chemical characteristics. Also, when more fibers are mixed to produce blended fabric, then also
it becomes tough to identify the fibers with the help of solvent method. However, it is a very
effective method for cross checking but in order to have accurate reports, the fabric has to be
cleaned thoroughly and the finishing chemicals should also be removed completely. The fabric
has to be unraveled, yarns have to be untwisted and the fibers have to be put in the solutions in as
loose a condition as is possible.
As an example of solvent method, consider differentiating animal fibers from plant fibers
with alkali. If wool or silk fiber has to be eliminated from a blended fabric then strong alkalies
can be used because animal particles are destroyed in it. Five percent of caustic soda or sodium
hydroxide is used in water. The action of the chemical is hastened by boiling the solution before
immersing the sample fabric in it. The wool or silk fiber gets completely dissolved in it. The
plant fibers remain unaffected. For differentiating them, acid has to be used as the dilute acids
destroy plant fibers. A drop of sulfuric acid has to be put on the sample fabric which, in turn, is
placed between two blotters and pressed with hot iron. If it contains cotton, linen or rayon then
the fabric gets charred at the spot.

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Cross sectional and longitudinal view of fibres
Results:
Sl. No. Sample Reference Identified fibre as Remarks
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
RESULTS:
Fiber identification is done with the help of burning, chemical, microscopic and feel test.
************

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2. DETERMINATION OF COUNT OF YARN AND CV%
Aim:
To determine the count and count CV% for given yarn.
Preparation:
Yarn Count:
It indicates the weight per unit length or length per unit weight. In English system count denotes
the number of hanks of 840 yards that will weight one pound.
Lea:
A continuous length of yarn in the form of a coil of 80 loops
made on the reel of girth of 1.5 yards.
Sampling:
Take 10 cops or 5 cones per sample.
Automatic Wrap Reel:
It is designed for preparing leas of 120 yards of
definite length with uniform tension, it helps in preparing
more number of leas in short time.
Conversion table for yarn counts
Tex Den Nm Grains/yd

Tex den/9 1000/Nm gr.yd x 70.86
Ne 590.54/tex 5314.9/den Nm x .5905 8.33 / gr/yd
Den tex x 9 9000/Nm gr/yd x 637.7
Nm 1000/tex 9000/den 14.1 / gr/yd
Grains/yd tex / 70.86 den / 637.7 14.1/Nm
Where, Nm – metric count, Nec – cotton count
Preparation of test specimens:

1. Number the selected cones/cops and fix them on the bobbin holder of the wrap reel.
2. Reel out the required length of 120 yards for wrap reel.
3. Cut and tie the trailing end of the lea to its leading end.

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4. Similarly take 30 leas making a total of 40 leas from the same 10 bobbins.
5. Condition the sample in a conditioning box for about 12 hours.
6. Determine the mass in grams of the leas and calculate the count
Cotton count = 64.80 / Weight of lea in gms
Observation:
Test No. Weight of the lea Count (x) = x–x =d d2

in gms (64.80 / Weight of lea in gms)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Average(x)
∑ d2
Standard deviation (SD) = √ ∑ d2

N
Coefficient of Variation (CV) = SD x 100

x
Results:
The given yarn count is…………. & CV% is…………..
**********

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3. DETERMINATION OF SINGLE YARN TWIST AND CV%

Aim:
To determine the single yarn twist by using twist tester and calculate CV% of twist.
Specimen preparation:
 2-5% random sample is taken from bags that are selected from the consignment. Say if
there are 100 bags, then select 5 bags randomly for testing. From each bag select one
cone for testing and from each cone 10 tests are to be made thus total 50 testing.
 After conditioning, outer few layers from cone are removed.
 Then it is side-end withdrawal and mounted on the tester.
Continuous twist tester:
 On twist testers, tests on consecutive lengths of yarn are not easily made because of the
instrument design and the amount of yarn handling involved.
 So this tester has the extra advantage of allowing twist tests at fixed intervals.
 The straightened fibre principle is still used for the actual measurement of the twist.
 The yarn passes from the sample package, through a guide, through non-rotating jaw,
then through rotating jaw and finally wound on to a (clockwork-driven) drum.
 Assuming that a 1'' length of yarn is gripped between the jaws, the twist is taken out and
the number of turns noted.
 The handle is then turned until the counter reading is again zero. The spring loaded jaws
of the rotating clamp are opened and the clamp moved 1'' forward to touch the fixed
clamp.
 Fixed jaw is then opened; rotating clamp is pulled back to its work position which pulls a
new 1'' sample into the test zone.
 The drum is allowed to take up the slack yarn, fixed clamp is again closed and the next
test can be made.
For a longer test length say 5-10'' the sequence after a test is then:
Slide the fixed clamp upto the rotating clamp, open the rotating clamp and allow the drum to take
up the slack yarn, close it again, slide the fixed clamp back to its original position, close it and
make the next test.

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Twist measurement
Several methods of twist measurement are available. We will describe two methods
which are applicable to the more common type of yarns - first for single yarn and the second for
double or multi ply yarns. Twist tester for single yarn: We will describe a single yarn twist tester
based on the twist contraction method. The yarn is first gripped in the left hand clamp which is
mounted on the pivot & carries a pointer. After being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn is
pulled through until the pointer lies opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale; the jaw is then
closed. At this stage the specimen is under a small tension and a nominal length of 10” (or any
other chosen test length). As the twist is removed the specimen extends and the pointer assumes
a vertical position. Eventually all the twist is taken out but the jaw is kept rotating in the same
direction until sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to zero mark again. The
total number of turns registered on the revolution counter is divided by two i.e. twice the number
of inches on the test length. This gives the total twist in the yarn. To get the twist level per inch
of the yarn, this number is again divided by ten.
Method
This method is based on the fact that yarns contract in length as the level of twist is
increased. Therefore if the twist is subsequently removed, the yarn will increase in length
reaching a maximum when all the twist is removed. The method uses a piece of equipment such
as that shown in Fig. in which the end of the yarn distant from the counter is attached to a pointer
which is capable of magnifying its changes in length.
At the start of the test the yarn is placed under a suitable tension, either by a clip-
onweight or by a weighted arm as shown. The test procedure is to untwist the yarn until all its
twist has been removed and then to continue twisting the yarn in the same direction, until it

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returns to its original length. The basis of the method is the assumption that the amount of twist
put in is equal to the twist that has been removed. However, this is not necessarily the case. For
woolen yarns the method may give results up to 20% below the true value, whereas for worsted
yarns the results may be 15% higher owing to fibre slippage. One source of error in the method
is that at the point of total twist removal the fibres in the yarn are unsupported so that any tension
in the yarn may cause the fibres to slip past one another, so increasing the length of the yarn. The
difference in length if unnoticed will cause an error in the measurement of turns per unit length.
Another source of error is the fact that with some yarns, when the twist is removed, the amount
of twist to bring it back to the same length is not equal to the twist taken out.
Because of these problems the method is not recommended for determining the actual
twist of a yarn but only for use as a production control method. There is a US standard for this
method but it warns that the measured values are only an approximation of the true twist. It
suggests that 16 samples are tested using a gauge length of 250 or 125 mm. However, the
method is easy to use and has less operator variability than the standard method so that it is often
used for measuring the twist in single yarns.
Untwist-twist method or Twist contraction method
 This method is based on the fact that yarns contract in length as the level of twist is
increased and it increases in length on twist removing, at last reaching a maximum length
when all the twist is removed.
 The instrument shown is used for this method.
 The yarn is first gripped in the left-hand clamp which is mounted on a pivot and carries a
pointer.
 After being led through the rotating jaw, the yarn is pulled through until the pointer lies
opposite a zero line on a small quadrant scale; jaw is then closed.
 At this stage the specimen is under a small tension and has a nominal length of 10''.
 As the twist is removed, the yarn extends and the pointer assumes a vertical position, so
removing the tension.
 Eventually all the twist is taken out but the jaw is kept rotating in the same direction until
sufficient twist has been inserted to bring the pointer back to the zero mark again.
 The total number of turns recorded on the revolution counter is divided by 20.

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 The method is based on the assumption that the amount of twist put in is equal to the
twist that has been removed. However, this is not necessarily the case.
Sample Twist per Inch Remarks Sample Twist per Inch Remarks
1 6
2 7
3 8
4 9
5 10
Mean Mean
Result:
The Single yarns twist by using twist tester is done and CV% of twist calculated.
********

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4. DETERMINE THE COURSE / LOOP LENGTH OF GIVEN KNITTED FABRIC

Aim:
To determine the course / loop length of given knitted fabric.
Specimen preparation:
Knitted fabric is made by loop formation. Some of the fabric properties depend on loop length.
The method for measuring loop length of your sample. To measure loop length of a knits fabric
sample use following steps-
Step 1: Take your sample and cut fabric swatch of 10 cm X 10 cm from the fabric sample.
While cutting fabric swatch consider cutting on the wales line. Count number of wales in the 10
cm of fabric swatch. For example see the right side image, that has 6 wales.
Step 2: Take out yarns by pulling the loop. Don't consider yarns those are not full length of
swatch. Take five yarns of complete length and stretch yarns to remove curling on yarns.
Step 3: Measure yarn length. Use measuring tape or scale to measure yarn length. Measure all
5 sample yarns. Note yarn lengths in a paper or note book. Calculate average length of the
sample yarns.
Step 4: Calculate the loop length. Now divide average length of the yarns by no. of loops on
the fabric sample.
Suppose you count 'X' no. of loops (wales) in the swatch and average length of the stretched
yarns are 'Y' cm. Therefore loop length of the sample fabric will be equal to Y/X centimeters.
Calculation:
Calculate nominal production of a fleece-knitting machine per hour from the data given:
Machine Gauge - 18
Machine Dia - 30 inches
Number of Feeders for front yarn - 60
Number of feeders for loop yarn - 30
Machine RPM - 28
Yarn Count - 26s for front
Yarn count for loop - 16s
Stitch length of front yarn - 4.5 mm
Stitch length of Loop yarn - 2.5 mm
Efficiency - 85%

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Solution:
Step one
First we will calculate number of needles and number of stitches produced in one revolution.
This would help us in calculating the total length of yarn consumed in one revolution.
Number of needles = machine dia x gauge x  (3.14)
= 30 x 18 x 3.14
=1696 (exact 1695 but needles are always in even number
so we will take nearest even figure)
In this example we will calculate consumption of yarn in Kgs of both yarns and then we will add
them to get final production per hour. Consumption of yarn for front knitting, Every needle is
making one stitch on every feeder because machine is producing single jersey fabric (front of
fleece).
Number of stitches produced in one revolution = Number of needles x number of feeders
= 1696 x 60 = 101760
This figure shows that machine is making 101760 stitches in one revolution.
Step Two
Length of stitch is 04.5 mm (stitch length is always calculated in metric system)
From this figure we can calculate yarn consumption in yards in one hour
Yarn Consumption (in yards) in one hour
= number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x 60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)
=101760 x 4.5 x 28 x 60
1000
= 769305 meters or 841312 yards
Step Three
In previous step we calculated quantity of yarn consumed in yards. We can easily calculate
weight of this yarn while its count is known (see example 03).
Weight of cotton yarn = length of yarn
Count x 840

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= 841312
840 x 30
= 38.52 pounds or
= 17.43 Kilo grams
Efficiency 85% = 14.85 Kilo grams
Answer: this machine will consume 14.85 Kgs of yarn to knit front of the fleece fabric in one
hour at 85 % efficiency
Step Four
Yarn consumed for loop knitting (back of the fabric). Every needle is making one stitch on every
feeder because machine is producing single jersey fabric (front of fleece).
Number of stitches produced in one revolution = Number of needles x number of feeders

= 1696 x 30
= 50880
This figure shows that machine is making 50880 stitches in one revolution.
Note: that we have put 30 cones of course count for loops after every two feeders.
Step Five
Length of stitch is 2.5 mm (stitch length is always calculated in metric system). From this figure
we can calculate yarn consumption in yards in one hour
Yarn Consumption (in yards) in one hour
= number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x 60 (minutes)

1000(to convert mm into meters)
=50880 x 2.5 x 28 x 60
1000
= 213696 meters or
= 233696 yards

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Step Six
In previous step we calculated quantity of yarn consumed in yards. We can easily calculate
weight of this yarn while its count is;
Weight of cotton yarn = length of yarn
Count x 840
= 233696
840 x 16
= 17.39 pounds or
= 7.89 Kilo grams
Efficiency 85% = 6.70 Kilo grams
Step Seven
Now we can add both yarn consumed
Yarn for front 14.85
Yarn for back 6.70
Total 21.55
This machine can produce 21.55 Kgs fabric in one hour at 85% efficiency
All above discussion to elaborate the way to calculate the optimum production of a knitting
machine. The following formula is useful in every situation to calculate the optimum production
capacity of a knitting machine at 85% efficiency.
For cotton count
Production in one hour =
Gauge x Dia x 3.14 x RPM x 60 x Stitch length (mm) x 1.0936 x 1 x 85
1000 x 840 x yarn count x 100
Results:
The given knitted fabric loop length is measured as………………………
The given knitted fabric course length is measured as………………………
*****************

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5(a) DETERMINATION OF WASH FASTNESS OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Aim
To find out the colour fastness of given fabric by using washing laundrometer.
Method
Wash fastness
Features of Washing Fastness Tester:
 It is fabricated out of quality stainless steel.
 Possess electric heater to heat water in water bath.
 The microprocessor based programmer is provided for temperature control.
 Buzzer to indicate the completion of the process cycle or step.
A specimen of the textile to be tested, with the adjacent fabric attached is subjected to washing
under specifiend conditions. Te extent of any change in color and that of the staining of the
adjacent fabric are assessed and the rating is expressed in fastness numbers. There are two types
of adjacent fabrics; (1) single fibre fabric and multiple fibre fabric. In the case of multifiber
fabric only one specimen is required and in the of single fiber fabric two adjacent faabric are
required. There are various colorfastness tests. Details of washing fastness tests are given below.
Fastness to Washing:
In the test, change in color of the textile and also staining of color on the adjacent fabric are
assessed. A 10 x 4 cm swatch of the coloured fabric is taken and is sandwitched between two
adjacent fabric and stitched, The sample and the adjacent fabric are washed together. Five
different types of washing are specified as different washing mthods.
Fastness to Wash
S.No Method Washing severity Soap+Soda Time in Temp Steel
in grams/liter minutes balls
1 IS:687:79 Very mild like 30 40+/- 2 Nil
hand wash 5
2 IS:3361:79 5 times severe 45 50+/- 2 Nil
than method 1 5
3 IS:764:79 Mild washing 5+2 30 60+/-2 Nil
4 IS:765:79 Severe washing 5+2 30 95+/-2 10
5 IS:3417:79 Severe washing 5+2 4 hrs 95+/-2 10

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The solution for washing should be prepared to the required temperature of washing. The liquor
material ratio is 50:1. After soaping treatment, remove the speciment, rinse twice in cold water
and then in running cold water under a tap. Squeeze it and air dry at a temperture not exceeding
60°C. The change in color and staining is evaluated with the help of grey scales.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Fastness rating Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
Result
The durability of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods.
************

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5(b) DETERMINATION OF RUBBING FASTNESS OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Aim
To find out the rubbing fastness of given fabric by using crock meter.
Method
Crockmeter
In order to determine the color fastness of dyed or printed textiles or leather, this test is used for
the determination of color fastness against rubbing, either under dry or under wet conditions.
Features of Crockmeter
1. To determine the Color Fastness of Textiles.
2. The equipment consists of a counter.
3. It is provided with a flat peg.
4. It also consists of an operating handle.
5. Tests the color fastness of the textile in a very accurate manner.
6. It gives not only accurate but quick results also.
Specifications of Crockmeter
 Diameter of the Rubbing Finger : 16 mm & 25 mm
 Load on the Finger : 9 N & 20 N
 Size of Crocking Cloth : (5 x 5) Cms & (7 x7) cms
 Length of the Traverse : 100 ±5 mm
 Counter (Re-settable) : 4-Digit Counter
 Size of Test Specimen : 25 x 5 Cm
20
 Overall Dimension of the Unit : 600 (W) x 190 (D) x 200 (H) mm
 Net Weight of the Unit : 4 Kg. (9 lbs.)
 Construction : Cold-rolled steel
Working Principle of Crockmeter
1. The crockmeter consists of a rigid flat metallic platform on which the test specimen can
be held firmly and a abrading finger which rubs against it under a specified load.
2. The platform is fixed over the base of the equipment and lies in a horizontal plane.
3. The test specimen is held firmly over an abrasive paper which is pasted on the upper face
of the platform, with the help of two pins holding it at both ends.
4. The abrading finger has a flat circular rubbing face which is covered with 4 piece of
white abradant fabric during the test.
5. The abradant fabrics picks up color lost by the test specimen during rubbing.
6. It is held over the finger with the help of a tapered ring.
7. Motion to the finger is given through a reciprocating arm with runs an two ball bearings
to minimize friction and to apply a uniform load on the finger.
8. The arm is moved by a manually operated crank and connecting lin The equipment is
finished in dark metallic paint and bright chrome plating to give it a corrosion resistant
finish.
Tabulation
Sl. No Sample type Fastness rating Remarks
1
2
3
4
5
Result
The rubbing fastness of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods in crock
meter.
************

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6. DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Aim
To find out the shrinkage of the given fabric by using template method.
Method
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is the process in which a fabric becomes smaller than its original size, usually through
the process of laundry. Cotton fabric suffers from two main disadvantages of shrinking and
creasing during subsequent washing.There are two types of shrinkage occurs during washing;
1) Length wise
2) Width wise
Cause
Due to high tension during preparation of fabric which result in excess stretch in yarn. This type
of shrinkage is known as London shrinkage. Due to swelling of fibers for fiber structure.
Working Procedure
The sample which is done shrinkage test, spread on table. Then a glass template put on sample
fabric which is square size. There are six mark on glass template and distance between two mark
is 35 cm. Marking the sample fabric by unchangeable marker. Then sample is sewn by hand
sewing machine. Sample is ready for washing. Simple wash the fabric at 60˚c temp for 90 min.
after washing the fabric is taken out. Dry the sample as per any of the method. It can either be
Line Dry or Flat Dry or Tumble Dry. To find the dimensional change read the Shrinkage/Stretch
on 3 points on the Wrap side and 3 points on Weft Side. Get the mean value of wrap-wise and
weft wise readings to get the Accurate Shrinkage or Stretch.

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Shrinkage is determined as
Shrinkage % =
(length of fabric before wash)-(length of fabric after wash)) x 100
(length of fabric after wash)
Example,
length of fabric before wash (X) = ..............cm
length of fabric after wash (Y)= ............cm
Now, Shrinkage % = ((X-Y) / Y) X 100
= ...........%
Here, Shrinkage is ............ Normally shrinkage is acceptable less than 5%. But it can be change
in case of buyer requirement.
Result
The shrinkage of given fabric is measured as per the test procedures and methods..
************

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7. ANALYSIS OF FABRICS
Aim:
To Analyses of Plain/twill/satin/honey comb/terry/extra warp Fabric.
Woven Fabric
Fabrics composed of two sets of yarns. One set of yarns, the warp, runs along the length of the
fabric. The other set of yarns, the fill or weft, is perpendicular to the warp. Woven fabrics are
held together by weaving the warp and the fill yarns over and under each other. To make woven
fabrics woven design are done.
Basic Parts of Woven Design:
Basic Parts of a complete woven design are:
1. Weave Plan
2. Drafting Plan
3. Lifting Plan
4. Denting Plan
1.WEAVE PLAN:
Weave plan illustrates the interlacing of ends & picks in the fabric under consideration. It shows
the up & down of each yarn in a fabric sample. Weave plan is drawn on a graph paper.
This is a representation of design of a plain weave:

 The vertical line (column) represents warp yarn.
 The horizontal line (row) represents weft yarn.
 ←↓Represents repeat unit.

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 ‘X’ represents warp over weft.

 Empty box represents weft over warp.
 # Represents starting point.
2.DRAFTING PLAN:
Drafting plan indicates the number of heald shafts required to make a design and also indicates
the threading of warp through heald eyes of heald shafts it is drawn top of the weave plan
Fig.2. Drafting plan
3. LIFTING PLAN:
Lifting plan indicates the selection of heald shafts to be lifted or lowered on each successive
insertion of weft or pick. Lifting plan is drawn at the right side of the weave plan.
Fig.3. Lifting plan

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4. DENTING PLAN:
The process of inserting warp yarn through red is called denting and the plan that indicate the
order in which denting is done is called denting plan. This is done for keeping uniform spacing
between yarns of warp sheets. Usually two yarns are passed through each dent.
Cover Factor:
Cover factor is a number that indicates the extent to which the area of a fabric is covered by one
set of threads. For any woven fabric, there are two cover factors: a warp cover factor and a weft
cover factor. Under the cotton system, the cover factor is the ratio of the number of threads per
inch to the square root of the cotton yarn count.
The figure shows projected views of two woven cloths of different construction. At A the warp
and the weft threads cover the area of the cloth only partially, but at B the cloth area is covered
completely with no spaces left between the adjacent warp yarns, and it will be seen that the
relative closeness of yarns in a woven cloth is dependent upon the ratio of yarn diameter, d, to
yarn spacing, p. This ratio known as relative cover, can be defined as the proportion of a
projected view of a given area of cloth which is covered by threads, and will have a scale from 0
to 1, although it may also be expressed as percentage cover with a scale from 0 to 100 per cent.
d/p = relative cover,
(d x 100)/p = percentage cover
It is preferable to express warp and weft relative cover separately, as the cumulative value of
cloth cover does not indicate the comparative importance of each set of yarns which is essential
for the determination of certain cloth characteristics.
1. Reed Count : It is calculated in stock port system.
EPI
Reed width = ………………………………
1 + Weft crimp %age
No. of dents in 2 inches is called Reed Count

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2. Reed Width :
100 + Weft crimp %age
Reed width = Cloth width x ………………………………….
100
3. Crimp % :
Warp length - Cloth length
Warp Crimp %age =…………………………………………. x 100
Cloth length
Weft length - Cloth length

Weft Crimp %age = ……………………………………… x 100
Cloth length
EPI
4. Warp cover factor = ....................................

√Warp Count
PPI
5. Weft cover factor =…………………….
√Weft count
Wp.C.F. x Wt. C.F.

6. Cloth cover factor = Wp.C.F. + Wt.C.F. - ……………………………….
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7. Maximum EPI for particular count :
a. For plain fabrics = 14 x √Count
b. For drill fabrics = √Count x 28 x 4/6
c. For satin fabric = √Count x 28 x 5/7
Ends/repeat x 1 / yarn diameter

d. Other design = ………………………………………………………..
No. of intersections / repeat + ends/repeat

27
1
8. Yarn diameter = ……………………………
28 x √Count
9.Warp requirement to weave a cloth :
Total ends x 1.0936 x 453.59 x crimp%

Warp weight in gms/mtrs. =…………................................................x Wasteage%
840 x Count
Weft weight in gms/mtrs.
Reed width in inches x 453.59 x PPI

=……………………………………………x Crimp % x Waste %
840 x Count
Cloth length in mtrs.with the given weft weight
Weft wt. in kgs. x Weft count x 1848 x 0.9144
=……………………………………………………….
PPI x Reed width in inches
10. Weight of yarn in a cloth : The weight of cloth manufactured on loom depends upon the
weight of yarns in the warp and weft : ends/inch, picks/inch and the weight of size on the warp.
Therefore, Cloth weight = Weight of warp + Weight of weft + Weight of size (All in lbs.)
Total No. of Ends x Tape length in yds.

Weight of warp in lbs = ------------------------------------------------------------------
840 x Warp yarn count
Length of cloth (yds) x Picks/inch in cloth x Reed width (inch)

Weight of weft in lbs = --------------------------------------------------------------------------
840 x Weft yarn count
**************

28
UNDERSTANDING THE VARIOUS COMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE FABRICS BY

VISUAL EXAMINATION WITH THEIR APPLICATIONS AND COMMERCIAL
NAMES.
1. PLAIN WEAVE:
Most simple and most common type of construction Inexpensive to produce, durable, Flat, tight
surface is conducive to printing and other finishes. The simplest of all patterns is the plain
weave. Each weft yarn goes alternately over and under one warp yarn. Each warp yarn goes
alternately over and under each weft yarn. Some examples of plain weave fabrics are crepe,
taffeta, organdy and muslin.
1 x 1 plain 2 x 2 plain
 Rib weave: the filling yarns are larger in diameter than the warp yarns. A rib weave
produces fabrics in which fewer yarns per square centimeter are visible on the
surface.
 Matt Weave or Basket weave: here, two or more yarns are used in both the warp
and filling direction. These groups of yarns are woven as one, producing a basket
effect.
Method of Construction: Each filling yarn goes alternately under and over the warp yarns
Household Uses: Draperies, tablecloths, upholstery.
2.TWILL WEAVE:
Creates a diagonal, chevron, hounds tooth, corkscrew, or other design. The design is enhanced
with colored yarn is strong and may develop a shine. Twill weave is characterized by diagonal
ridges formed by the yarns, which are exposed on the surface. These may vary in angle from a

29
low slope to a very steep slope. Twill weaves are more closely woven, heavier and stronger than
weaves of comparable fiber and yarn size. They can be produced in fancy designs.
Method of Construction: Three or more shafts; warp or filling floats over two or more
counterpart yarns in progressive steps right or left
Household Uses: Upholstery, comforters, pillows.

Types of Fabrics:
Denim: A Strong Warp Face Cotton Cloth used for overall, Jeans skirts etc. Largely made in 3/1
twill weave. Generally warp yarn is dyed brown or blue and crossed with white weft.
Gabardine: A Warp Face cloth mostly woven 2/2 twill, 27/2 tex warp, 20/2 tex cotton weft.
Here cotton weft is yarn dyed but the wool warp may be dyed in piece.
3. SATIN /SATEEN:
Satin has been a staple in wedding gowns for centuries. Satin supposedly originated in Zaytoun,
China, which is now Canton. It became popular in Europe in the 12th century, in Italy in the 13th
century and in England in the 14th century. Satin, because of its construction and fiber content, is
one of the most luxurious fabrics manufactured. Satin is most often made from low twist,
filament yarns. It is usually constructed by floating the warp or lengthwise yarns over four filling
or horizontal yarns. The long floats give the fabric luster. Silk is the premiere choice of fiber
content for bridal satin fabrics. However, silk satins are more expensive than satins containing
acetate or polyester. Satin is found in apparel, lingerie, draperies, drapery lining fabrics and
upholstery fabrics.
 Smooth, soft luster
 Excellent drapability
 Floats snag easily

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8 x 8 Regular satin
The warp and weft threads are crossed in a programmed order and frequency in order to obtain a
flat appearance, since the linked points are not arranged continuously. As a result one side of the
fabric has more warp threads whilst the back appears to consist mainly of weft threads, the
higher the satin number (7satin, 8satin….), the higher and the count of warp and weft threads.
Satin weave allows production of fibres with high mass per unit of surface area and good
drapability. Canvas patterns are given below.

31
Method of Construction:
 Floats one warp yarn over four or more weft yarns, then tied down with one thread,
resulting in a smooth face
 Common Fabrics: Satin, satin-weave fabrics out of fabrics such as cotton & Charmeuse
Household Uses: Draperies, quilts
Examples of Fabric:
 Satin: Used for ribbons, trimmings, dresses, linings etc, and originally was an all silk
fabric with a fine rich glossy surface formed in a warp satin weave. The warp is much
finer and more closely set than the weft, and the latter which only shows on the under
side is frequently composed of cotton. Double faced Satins are made on the reversible
warp backed principle, with one side differently colour from the other.
 Sateen; A cotton fabric is made in 5 thread weft face sateen, and woven like cotton. It
is sold in bleached, mercerized or printed condition.
 Charmeuse: It is a light weight fabric woven with a satin weave ,where the warp
threads cross over three or more of the backing (weft) threads. The front side of the
fabric has a satin finish-lustrous and reflective-whereas the back has a dull finish.
3. Ordinary honeycomb
Main features:
The main features of ordinary honeycomb are as follows –
 Surface of produced fabric is rough.
 Similar appearance or effect formed in both sides of the fabric.
 In repeat size, ends and picks are equal or unequal.
 Repeat size is multiple of two.
 Smallest repeat size is 6 X 4.
 One cell in each repeat.
 V – draft or pointed draft is found.
 Simple construction.
Construction principle:
 The stages of constructing an ordinary honeycomb weave are as follows –

32
 Construct a 1/a Z twill starting in the bottom left-hand corner, then a similar one
running in the opposite direction and starting one square down from the top left-
hand corner, so that there will be a clean intersection of the twill lines, as at first
stage;
 In one of the two diamonds produced, leave a row of stitching points and then lift
the remainder of the diamond solid. This is the final weave.
 The following figures show the weave plan with drafting and lifting plan of
different equal and unequal repeat sizes of ordinary honey comb weaves.
End uses:
This weaves is particularly suitable for hand towels, glass cloths, dispensed roller towels and
bath mats, where moisture absorption properties are particularly desired, but in similar coarse
cotton qualities it is also used for quilts and soft furnishings, and in finer qualities for shirts and
brocades. In conjunction with the newer textured yarns, it is produced in very coarse qualities for
cellular blankets.
Brighton honeycomb:
Main features:
 Brighton honeycomb is a complex structure. The main features of Brighton
honeycomb are as follows –
 More honeycomb cells of varying size are produced in this weave.
 The fabric surface is also rough as ordinary honeycomb.
 When making the weave, the number of threads per repeat should always be a
multiple of (i.e. 12 ends X 12 picks), whilst the longest float should always be one
less than half the number of threads in the repeat (i.e. 12/2 – 1 = 5).
 Both sides of the fabric look the same like as ordinary honeycomb.
 Straight drafting system is used to produce this brighton honeycomb weave.
Construction principle:
 The construction more complicated than the ordinary honeycomb, is illustrated by figures
below, with the following stages –
 Construct a 1/a Z twill, starting in the bottom left-hand corner, and then construct a 1/a S
twill, starting with the first warp lifts in the squares to the right and below the square in
the top left-hand corner, and indicate the points on the double row of binding which are

33
immediately adjacent to those of intersection that will allow extensive floats in the weft
direction, as illustrated in the first stage;
 Using the points indicated in first stage as the extreme lift of the longest float, lift the
remaining adjacent ends, as in second stage;
 Each of these warp floats now form the centre float of a diamond which can be
completed. This is the final weave.
 The draft of the brighton honeycomb is straight, this producing a lifting plan which is
identical with the design; therefore, there is no saving of heald-shafts as is the case with
the pointed or V-draft of the ordinary honey comb.
End uses:
Although the weave is not as popular as the ordinary honeycomb, it is used in similar qualities
for more decorative end uses such as quilts and brocades and in some cases, hand towels and
glass cloths. It is also suitable for crockery towels.
6.TERRY WEAVE:
Terry-cloth is a pile weave, which means that there are uncut loops woven into the fabric on one
or both sides, which are raised above the ground cloth. Pile weaves can have cut or uncut loops,
woven either weft-wise or warp-wise, but terry-cloth is always warp-wise. In velour towels pile
loops on one side of the fabric are sheared in order to give a smooth cut velvet appearance.
Uncut loops of the fabric are sheared in order to give a give the best absorbency, whereas velour
gives a luxurious velvety hand. A towel with appliqués is embellished with additional pieces of
decorative fabric in a motif which is stitched onto the towel Two-pick terry towels which were
woven for bathrobe end-use have lost their importance today due to instability of the loops. Five

34
or more pick terry towels are rarely produced because they need to be beaten for each pile twice.
They need to be beaten for each pile twice. and four-pick terry towels.
As one sided pile toweling has low water absorbing capacity, it is only used for special purposes
such as a limited number of bathrobes. Furthermore weaving one sided pile terry with few or no
defects is difficult. In two sided pile terry both sides are covered with pile, whereas all the
irregularities are visible in one sided terry fabric as one side is bare without pile. Towels are
divided into groups according to end use and size as bath towels, hand towels, face towels,
fingertip towels, kitchen towels and washcloths.

35
7. EXTRA THREAD FIGURING FABRIC:

Large-figured designs, which include tapestry, are woven on the jacquard loom. Other fabrics
made on a jacquard loom include damask and brocade. Punched cards or computers control the
individual warp yarns independently. Many of these looms are integrated with computer aided
design systems. Computer design patterns are programmed into jacquard looms for automatic
design formation. Jacquard weaves lend themselves to complex pictorial and other patterning
effects. Infinite changes of the weft yarns are possible, which enables the tapestry weaver, when
the subject is pictorial, to imitate the graduations of tone achieved by the oil painter. Tapestries
are produced by a more complicated weave than damask or brocade and consists of two or more
sets of warp and filling. The designs are formed by the filling threads, which are worked back
and forth over the warp threads only where the needed instead of completely across the fabric.
Filling threads of contrasting colors are dovetailed with adjoining filling threads in many of the
primitive tapestries. This is usually referred to as dovetailed tapestry while many Oriental
tapestries are composed of interlocking filling threads of contrasting colors called interlocking
tapestry. Most tapestries woven in Europe are of the slit tapestry variety. A slit or opening is left
in the weave when the filling threads of one color meet those of the contrasting color. Tapestries
are typically more ornate, colorful and more expensive. Tapestries range from heavy, durable
floor-coverings to delicate Chinese silk. Very few of these early tapestries survive being ravaged
by time, light, mold, rats, moths, wear and tear. High quality tapestries, which often included
gold and silver thread, were frequently burned in later periods in order to extract their precious
metal.
Results:
Analyses of Plain/twill/satin/honey comb/terry/extra warp Fabric were carried out and plot the
design in point paper.
**************

36

Fibre To Fabric Laboratory Manual

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FIBRE TO FABRIC LABORATORY MANUAL PRACTICAL III

1. IDENTIFICATION OF FIBRES BY FEEL, MICROSCOPIC VIEW, BURNING

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Burning Test procedures:

 Remove a snippet of fabric from an inconspicuous area.

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Fibre Identification (Microscopic View)

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Cross sectional and longitudinal view of fibres

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

2. DETERMINATION OF COUNT OF YARN AND CV%

Tex Den Nm Grains/yd

Preparation of test specimens:

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Test No. Weight of the lea Count (x) = x–x =d d2

Standard deviation (SD) = √ ∑ d2

Coefficient of Variation (CV) = SD x 100

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

3. DETERMINATION OF SINGLE YARN TWIST AND CV%

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

4. DETERMINE THE COURSE / LOOP LENGTH OF GIVEN KNITTED FABRIC

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

= number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x 60 (minutes)

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Number of stitches produced in one revolution = Number of needles x number of feeders

= number of stitches x length of (mm) x RPM x 60 (minutes)

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

5(a) DETERMINATION OF WASH FASTNESS OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

5(b) DETERMINATION OF RUBBING FASTNESS OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

6. DETERMINATION OF SHRINKAGE OF THE GIVEN FABRIC

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

length of fabric before wash (X) = ..............cm

length of fabric after wash (Y)= ............cm

Now, Shrinkage % = ((X-Y) / Y) X 100

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

This is a representation of design of a plain weave:

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

 ‘X’ represents warp over weft.

Fig.2. Drafting plan

Fig.3. Lifting plan

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

No. of dents in 2 inches is called Reed Count

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

Weft length - Cloth length

4. Warp cover factor = ....................................

Wp.C.F. x Wt. C.F.

a. For plain fabrics = 14 x √Count

b. For drill fabrics = √Count x 28 x 4/6

c. For satin fabric = √Count x 28 x 5/7

Ends/repeat x 1 / yarn diameter

Prepared by Prof.P.Vinayagamurthi & D.Gopalakrishnan

9.Warp requirement to weave a cloth :

Total ends x 1.0936 x 453.59 x crimp%