Maths

What they’d teach you…If they had the time

By

Kevin W Bennett
Copyright © 2014 by Kevin W Bennett, 9 Birch Avenue, Winwick, Warrington

Kevin.bennett83@ntlworld.com

The material content and format are the intellectual property of Kevin W Bennett
of “KB Tutoring and training”. All rights reserved.

No part of this material can be reproduced by any means, or transmitted, or

translated into electronic format without the written permission of Kevin W
Bennett.
Table of contents
Pythagoras Theorem

Pythagorean triples

Trigonometry

Quadratic Formula

Calculus, Differentiation
 Pythagoras Theorem
Even though this theorem bears his name it is thought that this method was used
previously by the Babylonians and the Indians. Pythagoras was the head of a sect
called, surprise, surprise, the Pythagoreans so due to his dedicated group of
followers he had a great marketing department to ensure that his name lived on
in any way it could and having your name in text books after 2000 years is really
good marketing.

Diagrammatic proof

If we take four triangles of exactly the same size with the shortest side labelled
“a” and the base labelled “b”, and the longest side labelled “c”

Then we will arrange them as below and in “Figure 2 (i)”, then draw a
square around the triangles as in “Figure 2 (ii)”. We then find as in “Figure
2 (iii)” the spare space can be split into two squares, the length of the sides
of these two squares are the same as the two sides of the triangle.

Figure 1
Figure 2
( i )
( ii )
( iii )
( iv )
Let us now take these triangles to prove Pythagoras’ theorem.
If we take one of the triangles and pivot it on its corner until it lines up with
the corner of the square.
This then gives the arrangement as it is on the right. Notice that the overall
blue area remains the same, just rearranged, and the blank area remains the
same, just rearranged. Now let’s take another triangle and pivot it on its
corner until it lines up with the corner of the square.

The overall blue area remains the same, just rearranged, and the blank area
remains the same, just rearranged. Now looking at the blank area this blank
area is a square with sides of length “c”.
And so we have proved that
Figure 3 (i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(viii)
(vii)
+

=
A Pythagorean triple is a right angled triangle where all of the sides are integers.
This doesn’t happen all of the time. Mostly we get decimal answers. Let’s look
at a pattern to identify these triples. To find this pattern first remember the
Fibonacci sequence
 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597
Here each integer on this list is the sum of the two integers before it ( 5=3+2,
233=144 + 89 etc.) Now if we consider every second item on the list from 5
onwards it will give us the length of the hypotenuse.
 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597
So the next triple has the longest side as 13, but also look at the base length, it is
“12”. The sum of the sides of the last triple is “3 + 4 + 5 = 12”. Is this a
coincidence? No it happens every time. What about the shortest side ? Take the
integer before “13” i.e. “8” and take away from this the previous shortest side
i.e. “3”, so “8 – 3 = 5”.

So the next triple has the longest side as 34, but also look at the base length
take the sum of the sides of the last triple is “5 + 12 + 13 = 30”. What about
the shortest side, take the integer before “34” i.e. “21” and take away from
this the previous shortest side i.e. “5”, so “21 – 5 = 16”

Figure 5

Figure 6
 Pythagorean triples
What is this, well let’s look at a triangle that you may have been taught in
school
Figure 7
 1,2,3,5,8,13,21,34,55,89,144,233,377,610,987,1597
Now put these alternate integers from 5 and work out a pattern to spot a list
of triple.

Fibonacci sequence

Hypotenuse
( c )

Base
( a )

Height
( b )

13

21
 34

55

89

144

233

377

610

987

1597

13

34

89

233

610

1597

5 + 4 + 3= 12

13 + 12 + 5= 30

34 + 30 + 16= 80

89 + 80 + 39 = 208
 233+208+105=546

610+546+272=1428

8 - 3= 5

21 - 5= 16

55 - 16= 39

144 - 39= 105

377 - 105= 272

987 - 272= 715

Table 1
 Trigonometry
The Sumerians, and after them the Babylonians first introduced the idea of angle
measurements and the ratios of the changing lengths of sides of different
triangles. It was introduced to aid their study in astronomy. It wasn’t taken much
further than its use in astronomy until the ancient Greeks who turned it into more
of an ordered and systematic study. Mathematicians such as Euclid and
Archimedes studied chords and angles within circles that were very similar to
modern day trig.
Something interesting about Archimedes is he was a highly successful and
devoted mathematician during his time. He was so devoted that one day when
the Romans were invading his city Archimedes was on the beach writing
symbols and equations in the sand, in such deep thought he was unaware of the
scene unfolding around him. An invading soldier approached Archimedes and
ordered him to stand and follow him. Archimedes told the soldier to leave him
alone and allow him to finish his work. The soldier promptly killed Archimedes,
but due to the fact that he was so well known within that part of the world that
when the soldier told his commander what he had done the soldier was then
executed by his commander as the world had lost a great mind.
The trig in its modern form, as we know it really started to take hold in the 5th
century in India, which was taken forward and expanded upon by medieval
Islamic mathematicians. Around the same time it was developed independently
by Chinese mathematicians although it was not really major field of study for
them. The field of trigonometry really took off during the 16th century with the
greater demand for more accurate navigation techniques.

The basic idea

You may remember the mnemonic SOH-CAH-TOA. But what does this
represent. Well the basic idea of trigonometry is that we are recording the ratios
at which the sides change in relation to each other as the angle grows and
shrinks.

Figure 8
Ratio “Adj”
and
“Hyp”
(A & H)
Ratio
“Opp”
and
“Hyp”
(O & H)
Ratio
“Opp”
and
“Adj”
(O & A)
3√11
10
0.9950

1
10
0.1

1
3√11
0.1005

4√6
10
0.9797

2
10
0.2

2√21
10
0.9165

8
10
0.8

6
10
0.6

2
4√6
0.2041

4
10
0.4

4
2√21
0.4364

6
10
0.6

6
8
0.75

8
6
1.33

8
10
0.8

Figure 9
 (i) – to – (viii) (The angle grows the hypotenuse remains constant)

See from the table that as the angle increase then the ratios
• Adjacent – to – Hypotenuse decreases
• Opposite – to – Hypotenuse increases
• Opposite – to – Adjacent increases
 Ratio “Adj”
and
“Hyp”
(A & H)
Ratio
“Opp”
and
“Hyp”
(O & H)
Ratio
“Opp”
and
“Adj”
(O & A)
Figure 9

(i) – to – (viii) (The angle grows the hypotenuse remains constant)

 4
10
0.4

2√21
10
0.9165

2√21
4
2.2913

2
10
0.2

4√6
10
0.9797

4√6
2
4.899

1
10
0.1

3√11
10
0.9950

3√11
1
9.950
 How is this useful?

Well the rate at which the angle changes is related to how the sides change
in comparison to each other. Then by recording these changes if we know
the sides we can find the angle, AND if we know the angle we can find the
sides. Let’s look at the following triangle

Adjacent – Hypotenuse

Opposite – Hypotenuse

Opposite – Adjacent

5√3
10

5
10

5
5√3

=
 =

Figure 10
So each of these ratios can represent 30 , but also if we flip this around then
o

if we have 30 we can derive each of these ratios.

o

If you have three items they can only be paired in three ways. So as we
have three sides we have three pairs an so we call them “Sin”, “Cos” and
“Tan”.
Figure 11
From Table 3, as the angle increases we are recording and plotting the
ratios of “opposite” and “Hypotenuse”

1
10
 2
10
4
10
6
10
8
10
2√21
10
4√6
10
3√11
10
Now let’s consider angles greater than 90 .
o

Figure 12
Then the vertical and horizontal distance along the line is exactly the same
as 30 , and imagining the base line as the “x-axis” then the vertical distance
o

is still a “positive” y-value.

So 90 to 180 is a mirror image of what is already plotted.
o o

Figure 13

Figure 14
1 10
2 10
8 10
6 10
4 10
2√21 10
4√6 10
3√11 10
3√11 10
4√6 10
2√21 10
2 10
1 10
8 10
6 10
4 10
Table 3
Now let’s consider angles greater than 180 . o

Figure 15
Then the vertical and horizontal distance along the line is exactly the same
as 30 but in a negative direction, , again imagining the base line as the “x-
o

axis” then the vertical distance is now a “negative” y-value.

Figure 16

Figure 17
Table 4 (i) 0 - to - 180 .We can see that the tables below produce the
o.

familiar sine graph above.

(ii) 180 - to - 360
o o

1 10
2 10
8 10
6 10
4 10
2√21 10
4√6 10
3√11 10
3√11 10
4√6 10
2√21 10
2 10
1 10
8 10
6 10
4 10
-1 10
-2 10
-8 10
-6 10
-4 10
-2√21 10
-4√6 10
-3√11 10
-3√11 10
-4√6 10
-2√21 10
-2 10
-1 10
-8 10
-6 10
-4 10
Because of this direct relationship we can convert angles-to-length and
length-to-angles
(Blue line) :- If you know the ratio of the sides (the sine value) then you can find the angle
(Red line) :- If you know the angle, then you can use the ratio of sides to find length of a side.

The ratio of “Adjacent” to “Hypotenuse” can be recorded in the same way.

3√11 4√6 2√21 8 6 4 2 1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

(i) 0-90 Imagining the base line as the “x-axis” then the horizontal distance,
o

i.e the adjacent is a “positive” x-value.

(Below are the ratio values for increasing angles from page 11 & 12)

-1 -2 -4 -6 -8 -2√21 -4√6 -3√11

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
-3√11 -4√6 -2√21 -8 -6 -4 -2 -1
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10

Figure 18
(ii) 90-180 The vertical and horizontal distance along the line same as 30 .
o o

With base line as the “x-axis” then horizontal distance is a “negative” x-

value. (Values rearranged in descending order)
(iii) 180-270 The vertical and horizontal distance along the line is exactly
o

the same as 30 , and imagining the base line as the “x-axis” then the
o

horizontal distance is a “negative” x-value.

(iv) 270-360 The vertical and horizontal distance along the line is exactly
o

the same as 30 , and imagining the base line as the “x-axis” then the
o

horizontal distance is a “positive” x-value.

1 2 4 6 8 2√21 4√6 3√11
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Figure 19
 So if we now take the values from the previous page and plot them from 0 o

to 360 then we get the familiar “Cos” graph

o

The ratio of “Opposite” to “Adjacent” can be recorded in the same way

considering
Figure 20
Ratio of “Adjacent” Ratio of “Opposite” Ratio of
and “Hypotenuse” and “Hypotenuse” “Opposite” and
(A & H) (A & H) “Adjacent”
(A & H)
3√11 1 1
10 10 3√11

0.9950 0.1 0.1005

Now consider

sin(x)=
Also

cos(x)=
Then

tan(x)=

O
H

A
H

O
A

Implies that Hsin(x)=O

Implies that Hcos(x)=A

Implies that tan(x)=

Hsin(x)
Hcos(x)

Hsin(x)
Hcos(x)
 =

And so

(Ratio of “Adj” & “Hyp” )

(Ratio of “Opp” & “Hyp” )

1/10
(3√11)/10

Ratio of “Opp”&”Adj”

So

Ratio“Opposite” & “Adjacent” =

(Ratio “Adj” & “Hyp” )
(Ratio “Opp” & “Hyp” )
 And so at this point we place an asymptote as it is a point we can get very
close to but never actual plot a point

tan (90) =
sin(90)
cos(90)
Then dividing the values and plotting, bur let us first consider a couple of
key value, At 90 degrees we have
=
1
0
NOT POSSIBLE
Again at this point we place an asymptote as it is a point we can get very
close to but never actual plot a point.

Now if we take the sine values from the previous pages and divide them by
the cosine values and then plot them the graph we get will be the one
below. Which is the familiar tan graph
tan (270) =
sin(270)
cos(270)
=
-1
0
NOT POSSIBLE

Figure 21
Summary
Remember the mnemonic
SOH-CAH-TOA
I am going to write this in a slightly different way.

SOH-CAH-TOA
So
Sin Value (Ratio)=

Cos Value (Ratio)=

Tan Value (Ratio)=

Opposite
Hypotenuse

Adjacent
Hypotenuse

Opposite
Adjacent

Sin (x) =

Cos (x) =

Tan (x) =

O
H

A
H
O
A
 Quadratic Formula
When using algebra any letter can be used for “the unknown” but the
commonly accepted letter as a place holder for the unknown is “X”. Why is
this? When a mathematical system for solving unknown quantities was
developed it was known as Al-Jebra which roughly translates to a “system
for reconciling unknown parts”, which then over the years morphed into the
more westernised version that strikes dread into many a school student
Algebra, but herein lies the explanation.

Completing the square

As a quick reminder let’s go through an example for the “complete the
square” process.

We will first factorise out the “2” to make it a little simpler

Now we will first just concentrate on the inside of the bracket

Complete the square form has to be in the form (x+a) ±b . We find the
2

number in the bracket by halving the integer in front of the “x” in this case
half of 8.

This was then taken into Europe via Spain and translated into Spanish. As
there is no “Sh..” sound in Spanish the “ck” sound was borrowed from
Greek. This looks like χ which then after further translation into Latin and
more use in the West changed into “X” as we know it today.
This Arabic character is the “SH...” sound.
Making an addition we get what is on the left pronounced “Shalan”. This
translates to “Something”

A further addition on the left. Now it’s pronounced “Al-Shalan”. Meaning

“the unknown thing”.
We need this to only equal x +8x, but if we multiply it out we get
2

So we need to make a minor adjustment

So

Then

. . .

. . .

. . .
Putting this back into the original
Which becomes
In General

Let’s follow exactly the same process but “in general”

We will first factorise out the “a”

Now we will first just concentrate on the inside of the bracket

We find the number in the bracket by halving the integer in front of the “x”
in this case half of b/a.

We need this to only equal x +(b/a) x, but if we multiply it out we get

2

As (b/2a) is the same as “½ (b/a)” then

So we need to make a minor adjustment

Then
Becomes

Combine
into one term, remember that (2a ) = 4a
2 2

To combine we need a common denominator, multiply the top and bottom

of c/a by 4a to achieve an equivalent fraction

Let’s factorise out the “-“

Then combine
Substitute back in

Putting this back into the original

To find the roots of this equation we make y=0

Then divide both sides by “a”

Rearrange

Square root both sides

As 4a = (2a) then
2 2

Becomes

. . .

. . .

. . .

As “2a” is the common denominator we can combine into one term

This is the quadratic formula given in text books.

 Calculus, Differentiation
The general idea of calculus has roots as far back as the ancient Greeks and the
Egyptian civilisation, but calculus as we know it today was first born during the
18th – 19th centuries. This amazing mathematical idea was discovered at the
same time by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and the mental
sparring that went on between these two mathematical giants is often referred to
as the “calculus wars”. Newton was a true genius in every sense of the word and
was the author of one of the seminal works that much of modern day
mathematics finds its roots in, “Principia Mathematica”. He was not just the fella
who had an apple drop on his head, he founded and inspired many ideas within
maths and physics. During one of his conversations with a few other
mathematicians he was challenged to explain the movement of the planets. He
did not have an answer to hand and said that he would work on it and come back
with answer, He went back to his family home in Lincolnshire and within a few
months had devised a framework for explaining the movement on the planets.
Let’s just take a moment to think about that, when you first learn about calculus
it can take you quite a while to grasp the concepts and fully understand the way
it works, and Newton devised calculus from nothing in less time that it takes the
average student to get to grips with the idea. Newton was an intellectual
powerhouse even within his own lifetime. This power was then used when
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz proposed the same ideas at the same time. Newton
accused Leibniz of plagiarism, even though it was proved beyond doubt later
that Leibniz had independently devised the ideas. During this time Newton asked
for both of the papers to be submitted to the Royal society to be properly
assessed, even though at the time Newton himself was president of the Royal
society and so during this time it was no surprise what the findings were.

Leibniz and Newton are now both credited with the invention of calculus.
Newton was the first to apply it to physics. Leibniz’s notation is the notation that
we use today. They both arrived at the idea of calculus at the same time but from
different directions. Newton starting with differentiation and Leibniz starting
with integration

Differentiation
What follows now is the idea of calculus from a general function point of view,
and then the same theory applied to a specific function
If we would like to find the gradient at a point on a curve (the lower green
dashed line) then we could start by taking a rough estimate (the steeper
black solid line) and find the gradient of the line between the points where
it crosses the curve.
If we take the first, lower, input value of and name it “x” and the second,
upper, input value a distance of “a” away from the first point and name it
“x+a”
Then the corresponding outputs would be f(x) for the first input, and f(x+a)
for the second input. Then the gradient would be.

Simplified

(i)
Figure 22
(ii)
(iii)
Now if we take an actual equation of a specific curve and apply the theory
discussed above

Figure 23
As before if we would like to find the gradient at a point on a curve then we
could start by taking a rough estimate of the gradient, but this time using
the equation

(i)
(ii)
If we take the first, input as “x” and the second input as “x+a”. Then the
corresponding outputs would be f(x) and f(x+a) Then the gradient would be

Taking

(iii)
(iv)
And
Divide through by “a”

Simplifies to
As the inputs move closer together ( vi,v & vi) our rough estimate gets
closer to the actual gradient and so this occurs when the distance between
them is zero. i.e. when “a=0”.
(v)
(vi)
So as “a” tends to zero

Becomes
Giving what we would expect when differentiating.
Double differentiation

We all remember being taught that if you double differentiate an equation

and take the result of the zero gradients from the first differential it will tell
us if we have a maximum or a minimum,

But why ? Let’s take a general cubic. The highest, and therefore most
dominant term, is x3. So when this is differentiated it will produce an
equation where the highest, most dominant term, is x2. Don’t forget that a
differentiated equation is an equation to calculate the gradient at any point
on that curve.
 Figure 24

This maps to the quadratic below it with the solid part of the line on the left
having large positives and steadily getting smaller until they reach zero.

The dotted part of the cubic curve starts at zero gradient and gets steadily steeper
negative gradient until it reaches the steepest gradient at the inflection point
where upon it gets shallower until it reaches zero gradient again at the min point.

Then repeat with the solid part of the curve on the right.
This process is then repeated again from the quadratic to the linear, the negative
gradients to the left of the min map to everything below the x-axis on the linear
and everything to the right of the min maps to everything above the x-axis.
But when we trace from the cubic to the linear (i.e. it’s double differential)
it can be seen that the maximum maps to a negative value, and the
minimum maps to a positive value.
On the cubic the solid line part of the curve on the left will be steep positive
gradients on the far left getting steadily shallower until they reach the max
where the gradient is zero.
 Table of Contents
Title page
copyright
Contents
Page 1
Page 2
Pythag triples
Pythag triples 2
Trigonometry
Trigonometry 2
Trigonometry 3
Trigonometry 4
Trigonometry 5
Trigonometry 6
Trigonometry 7
Trigonometry 8
Trigonometry 9
Quadratic formula 1
Quadratic formula 2
Quadratic formula 3
Quadratic formula 4
Quadratic formula 5
Qyadratic formula 6
Calculus 1
Calculus 2
Calculus 3a
Calculus 3b
Calculus 3c
Double differentiation