This article was downloaded by:

On: 21 January 2011

Access details: Access Details: Free Access
Publisher Taylor & Francis
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered Number: 1072954 Registered office: Mortimer House, 37-
41 Mortimer Street, London W1T 3JH, UK

Drying Technology
Publication details, including instructions for authors and subscription information:
http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713597247

Electrohydrodynamic Drying—A Concise Overview

Tirtha R. Bajgaia; G. S. Vijaya Raghavana; Fumio Hashinagab; Michael O. Ngadia
a
Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, PQ, Canada b
Kagoshima Women's Junior College, Kagoshima, Japan

To cite this Article Bajgai, Tirtha R. , Raghavan, G. S. Vijaya , Hashinaga, Fumio and Ngadi, Michael O.(2006)
'Electrohydrodynamic Drying—A Concise Overview', Drying Technology, 24: 7, 905 — 910
To link to this Article: DOI: 10.1080/07373930600734091
URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07373930600734091

PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE

Full terms and conditions of use: http://www.informaworld.com/terms-and-conditions-of-access.pdf

This article may be used for research, teaching and private study purposes. Any substantial or
systematic reproduction, re-distribution, re-selling, loan or sub-licensing, systematic supply or
distribution in any form to anyone is expressly forbidden.

The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents
will be complete or accurate or up to date. The accuracy of any instructions, formulae and drug doses
should be independently verified with primary sources. The publisher shall not be liable for any loss,
actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly
or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material.
 Drying Technology, 24: 905–910, 2006
Copyright # 2006 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 0737-3937 print/1532-2300 online
DOI: 10.1080/07373930600734091

Electrohydrodynamic Drying—A Concise Overview

Tirtha R. Bajgai,1 G. S. Vijaya Raghavan,1 Fumio Hashinaga,2 and Michael O. Ngadi1
1
Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill University, Ste. Anne-de-Bellevue, PQ, Canada
2
Kagoshima Women’s Junior College, Kagoshima, Japan

foods is performed at lower temperatures and basically

Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying is a novel method of non-
thermal processing. The drying can be carried out using either AC
or DC high voltages. The thermodynamic considerations regarding
the lowering of temperature under EHD drying include rapid rates
of evaporation and exothermic interaction of the electric field with a
dielectric material. Multi-point and plate electrode systems are
efficient in accelerating drying of agricultural materials. Compared
to hot air (convective) drying systems, EHD drying systems offer
lower food production costs along with superior quality in terms
of physiochemical properties such as color, shrinkage, flavor, and
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011
low-energy consumption, but drying times are very long.
Reduction of energy usage in drying of biological mate-
rials is a major concern among environmentalists in terms
of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions.[7,8] As these
emissions are directly related to combustion of fossil fuels
to heat the drying air, the evaluation of energy perform-
ance of existing dryers, and analyzing the options of reduc-
ing energy consumption either by modifications to the
dryers design or dryer operation are of prime interest.[9]

nutrient content. Compared to convective and freeze-drying, EHD

drying systems, given their simpler design and lesser energy con-
sumption, show great potential for bulk and industrial drying
applications.
Keywords Air ions; Corona current; Drying rate; Non-thermal
drying; Rehydration; Shrinkage
INTRODUCTION
Conventional drying techniques are associated with con-
vective, conductive, radiative, and dielectric heating, as
well as drying in superheated steam and lyophilization
either alone or in various combinations. These artificial
drying methods are all based on hot air drying, which is
an energy-intensive process.[1] The use of higher drying
temperature produces drastic changes in the physical,
chemical, and biological properties of food.[2] Loss of tex-
ture, color, and volatiles occurs during thermal drying of
foods. Freeze-drying produces dehydrated products of
superior sensory quality but is often prohibitively expens-
ive at the commercial scale.[3,4] Energy losses in freeze-
drying include loss of radiant energy to dryer walls, energy
losses within the existing product, energy dissipation in
vacuum pumps, and energy released to the environment
from freezers and freeze dryer units.[5] Microwave drying
also generates heat during drying.[6] Osmotic drying of
Correspondence: G. S. Vijaya Raghavan, James McGill
Professor, Department of Bioresource Engineering, McGill
University, Macdonald Campus, 21,111 Lakeshore Rd., Ste.
Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada; E-mail: vijaya.
raghavan@mcgill.ca
Another option is a research toward technologies that are
based on electricity, especially when electric current can
be produced from clean energy sources such as wind or
hydro-power.
Aside from energy aspects, consumers demand superior
quality products with natural color and a full complement
of flavors and nutrients. This is particularly the case for
high-value foods for the outdoors, instant meals, neutra-
ceuticals, baby foods, and seasonal and perishable foods
and herbs.[10] Developing an alternative method of drying
such foods with a minimum adverse effect on indigenous
quality is one of the major concerns of the modern food
industry.
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying appears to comply
with both issues, namely low energy consumption and high
product quality, even though it is not a profoundly explored
method of drying. In EHD-drying, electric fields of high
intensity and standard industrial=domestic frequency (50
or 60 Hz) are applied so as to generate ionized forms of
air-constituents within the foodstuff.[11] The ionized air is
a cluster of molecules bound together by the Coulomb
force associated with an excess or deficiency of electrons.
The movement of the air ions in a strong electric field gen-
erates an ionic wind. Loss of water vapor takes place as the
water molecules orient themselves in the direction of an
electric field. During this process, a lowering of entropy
occurs, which in turn lowers the temperature of the
material being dried. The thermodynamic factors involved
in the drop in temperature which occurs under EHD
include the rapid rate of evaporation and the exothermic

905
 906 BAJGAI ET AL.
interaction of electric fields with dielectric materials. The
effects of air ions on biological material is the area of inves-
tigation that has gathered the most interest.[12]
Krueger et al.[13] observed corona effects, namely an
ionic wind occurring within an electric field, by applying
air ions to microorganisms. Evaporation phenomena of
air ions with various liquid substances such as saline sol-
ution, ethyl alcohol, n-heptane, and water have been stud-
ied by Hart and Bachman.[14] Carlon and Latham[15]
observed that an increase in electric field strength increased
the drying rate of paper discs moistened with water. Chen
and Barthakur[16] and Chen et al.[17] studied drying of
potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) slabs with air ions using a
standard frequency electric field. Shigemitsu et al.[18]
showed the evaporation rate of distilled water to be directly
proportional to the discharge potential. It is postulated
that the large ion current and ionic wind velocity were
responsible for the faster evaporation rate. Barthakur
and Arnold[19] showed the evaporation rate of water due
to negative air ions to be greater than that associated with
positive air ions. Xue et al.[20] observed that increasing air
flow during drying of radish (Raphanus sativus L.) slices in
a corona discharge decreased the drying rate. Isobe et al.[2]
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011
observed accelerated drying and enhanced sublimation of
agar gel under a DC-powered electric field–generating sys-
tem. The evaporative effects of an electric field of standard
frequency (60 Hz) were found to be directly proportional to
the electric field strength and to the duration of its appli-
cation, but inversely proportional to the electrode gap. A
two-point electrode under an optimized electrode gap
allowed faster drying of an apple (Malus domestica Borkh.
cv. Fuji) slice than did a single-point electrode system.[11]
Drying rates obtained for radish and spinach (Spinacia
oleracea L.) under a multi-needle emitting electrode system
were as high as those achieved by oven drying.[21,22] How-
ever, the chlorophyll and ascorbic acid contents of the
EHD-dried spinach were greater than those of oven-dried
spinach. The EHD-dried radish slices also showed better
color, greater subsequent water reabsorption, less shrink-
age, and less loss of solids in rehydration than oven-dried
radish slices.
Single and multiple needle EHD configurations enhanced
drying compared to convective drying. The resulting negative
or positive corona-associated winds vary linearly with the
applied electric field strength.[23–26]. In further studies on
EHD-drying, Jumah et al.[27] demonstrated the effectiveness
of electro-osmosis under an AC current for dewatering of
tomato paste. Energy losses from coronal discharge during
the drying of agricultural materials was found to be lesser
than under conventional drying techniques.[20,23,28]
In EHD drying, either AC or DC high voltage of ordi-
nary frequency (60 Hz) can be used. Multiple point-to-plate
electrode systems are efficient in accelerating drying of fruit
and vegetables and present significant prospects for bulk
drying. Compared to oven (convective) drying, EHD-
drying lowers the cost of drying food and results in
superior food physiochemical properties such as nutrient
content, flavor, shrinkage, and color. Multiple electrode
system in EHD drying shows a high potential for industrial
drying given their simplicity of design and lesser energy
consumption compared to oven (convective) and freeze-
drying. The non-thermal nature of EHD-drying may
present a wide range of applications in industrial drying,
given its capacity to produce high-quality processed
products.[21,22]
In light of above discussion, this article seeks to examine
review the scope and prospects of EHD drying, considering
the need for new technologies of non-thermal processing of
biological materials.
EHD DRYING METHODS
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying consists of a verti-
cally moveable electrode with a sharply pointed needle pro-
jected to a fixed horizontal grounded metallic plate on
which the material to be dried is placed. The point elec-
trode is connected to an AC or DC high-voltage trans-
former. The DC high-voltage transformer supplies either
negative or positive high-voltage. In order to set the desired
high-voltage parameters for EHD drying, the transformer
is connected to a voltage regulator. The input to the volt-
age regulator is supplied from a 60-Hz, 110-V, AC source.
The electrode gap can be adjusted to the desired distance
by moving the pointed electrode up and down (Fig. 1)[21].
The greater the voltage applied under EHD drying, the
greater the drying rate; however, the voltage is maintained
until the occurrence of sparkover. Optimum electrode gap
and sharpness of the corona-generating needles are impor-
tant in achieving faster drying.
FIG. 1. Diagram of electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying.
 ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC DRYING—AN OVERVIEW
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Drying rates (moisture loss) under EHD, oven (convec-
tive), and ambient air drying methods are shown in Fig. 2.
The rate of drying with a five-needle electrode under ambi-
ent condition (25C and 65% RH) demonstrates the effec-
tiveness of EHD drying compared to ambient air (25C)
and convective (60C) drying.[21] Lai and Wong[23]
observed a similar drying rate by corona discharge from
a needle electrode under ambient conditions and with air-
flow. Under ambient conditions, until the occurrence of
sparking, as the applied voltage increased the drying due
to the corona effect was enhanced, but at high air flow
velocities drying was independent of the applied voltage.
Barthakur and Arnold[19] showed ionic current and electric
wind velocities to be greater for negative air ions than for
positive air ions. Under 5.25 kV applied voltage with elec-
trode gaps of 5, 10, and 20 mm, the electric wind velocities
for negative and positive air ions were 2.5, 1.7, and 0.8 m s 1
and 2.1, 1.5, and 0.7 m s 1, respectively. Under identical
conditions ionic currents for the negative and positive air
ions were 16.2, 7.8, and 2.4 mA and 9.0, 5.0, and 1.9 mA,
respectively.
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011
After the introduction of a certain number of pointed
electrodes for a fixed drying area, the rate of drying did
not increase with the addition of further pointed electrodes,
indicating the importance of intra-electrode separation.[21]
Hashinaga et al.[11] observed maximum drying under a
13-mm electrode gap. The optimum electric field strengths
they noted for sharp and blunt needles in the experiment
were 4.4  105 and 4.7  05 V m 1, respectively. In previous
studies on evaporating water and alcohol, Hashinaga
et al.[29] used a wire electrode instead of a needle electrode.
Wire electrodes are blunt at their ion emitting ends,
whereas needle electrodes are sharper. Further studies
FIG. 2. EHD, oven (convective), and ambient drying pattern of radish
slices.
907
carried out by Hashinaga et al.[11] and Bajgai and
Hashinaga[21,22] showed the higher drying efficiency of
sharp needles. Thus, the intra-electrode separation, elec-
trode gap, electric field strength, and electrode sharpness
were determinant factors for EHD drying.
More studies on the drying characteristics of wire and
needle electrodes in EHD-drying are needed to understand
their influence on the drying mechanism. Various studies in
this area show that both AC and DC currents are
employed with high voltages. Figure 2 shows the EHD
(25C and RH 65%), oven (convective) (60C) and ambient
air (25C) drying pattern of radish slices dried in an ordi-
nary fluorescent tube lighted chamber. The EHD drying
was more effective compared to convective and ambient
air drying. A good agreement in slope was found between
the EHD and convective drying pattern of radish slice.
However, further studies on AC and DC high-voltage mul-
tiple needle electrode–to–plate electrode system with air
flow or reduced atmospheric conditions would be required
to fully assess the superior EHD drying protocol.
As consumers prefer foods with greater nutrient content,
natural color, texture, and flavor, a demand for develop-
ment of new technologies is obvious. Food quality is one
of the main preoccupations in food research. To address
these issues, the relevant data on the effects of EHD drying
on food quality were compiled and examined in view of
assessing its future potential from an energy and environ-
mental prospective.
Conventional hot air drying of fruits and vegetables
leads to irreversible textural damage due to high shrinkage
which is related to the water volume removed during the
process.[30] Figure 3 shows the shrinkage pattern under
EHD (25C) and oven (60C) drying of radish slices. After
7 h of drying, EHD and oven drying caused 55 and 80%
shrinkage, respectively.[21] These results are comparable
FIG. 3. Shrinkage pattern for EHD- and oven (convective)-dried radish
slices.
 908 BAJGAI ET AL.

FIG. 5. Rehydration ratio for EHD- and oven (convective)-dried radish

 slices at 25C.
FIG. 4. Water absorption of radish slices dried with EHD (25 C) and
oven (convective) (60C).

to those obtained for apple slice shrinkage under EHD dry- Color is an important attribute of dried fruit and vege-
ing.[11] Many dehydrated products in the market with
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011

tables. Deterioration of color in dried fruits and vegetables

notably shrunken structures are due to the collapse of
capillaries. Such permanent damage brings loss of proto-
plasmic membrane permeability and loss of turgor pressure
in the cell of the dried material. Protein denaturation,
starch crystallization, and hydrogen bonding are associated
with excessive shrinkage.[31] The lesser shrinkage under
EHD-drying represents the retention of the natural struc-
ture of the biological material.
Water absorption and rehydration properties of EHD
and oven (convective)-dried radish slices at ambient tem-
perature (25C) are compared in Figs. 4 and 5. EHD dried
radish slices showed greater water absorption and rehydra-
tion ratios compared to oven-dried slices. High tempera-
ture drying of fruits and vegetables ruptures the subjected
plant cells, which results in loss of their water absorption
properties. The reduced absorption of water and rehydra-
tion ratio in oven-dried material is associated with a
collapse in structure and reduction in porosity.[32] Greater
shrinkage also affects aroma retention, caking and sticki-
ness, puffiness, and final moisture content of the
material.[33]
also indicates loss of nutrients. Carotenoids, and chloro-
phylls are among the most widely distributed pigments in
fruits and vegetables. Lycopene, carotenoids, and antho-
cyanins have antioxidant properties that may aid in reduc-
ing the risk of cancer.[34] Table 1 shows the Hunter color
‘‘a’’ values of spinach during 7 h of EHD, oven and ambi-
ent air drying. The alteration of color of the dried spinach
after 7 h of drying was highly reduced for EHD drying
compared to oven (convective) drying, which in turn main-
tained better color than ambient air drying. Total chloro-
phyll, chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and ascorbic acid
were higher in EHD-dried than oven-dried spinach.[22] In
a different study, EHD-dried radish showed less loss in
solids during soaking, greater water absorption, and better
color than oven-dried radish.[21] In another study, EHD-
dried apple slices did not show any observable product
degradation, important color change, or formation of
foreign substances.[11] An HPLC analysis carried out for
organic acids and sugars in EHD and oven-dried spinach
samples (Table 2) showed identical peaks for organic acids,

TABLE 1
Hunter color value ‘‘a’’ for EHD (5C), oven (convective) (60C) and ambient air–dried (25C) spinach
Drying time (h)
Drying methods 0 3 5 7
EHD 20.5  1.9 18.5  2.1 17.5  2.1 16.3  2.2
oven (convective) 20.5  1.9 17.2  2.4 14.7  2.2 08.5  2.4
Ambient air 20.5  1.9 18.4  1.7 17.6  2.2 16.1  1.7
 ELECTROHYDRODYNAMIC DRYING—AN OVERVIEW 909

TABLE 2
HPLC profile for organic acids and sugar for EHD and oven (convective)-dried spinach samples
Retention time (min) Peak area (relative)
Organic compounds EHD dried Oven (convective) dried EHD dried Oven (convective) dried
a
Organic acids
Citric 13.664 13.624 5472 1479
L:Malic 15.798 15.802 12,322 19,607
Succinic 18.676 18.638 3438 11,449
Fumaric 21.128 21.024 29,672 79,662
Propionic 25.275 25.244 17,671 29,913
Sugarsb
Fructose 6.924 6.806 1,791,548 1,506,103
a
Shimadzu LC-10AS chromatograph equipped with a Shodex SC-125S column, size, 4.6 mm  500 mm; mobile phase, 0.1% H3PO4,
flow rate, 0.3 ml=min; column temperature, 55C; detector, Shimadzu SPD-6A at 210 nm; recorder, Shimadzu Chromatopack C-R4A.
b
Shimadzu SCL-10 chromatograph equipped with a Shim-pack CLC-NH2(M) column; size, 6.0 mm  150 mm; mobile phase, 70%
CH3CN; flow rate, 0.3 ml=min; column temperature, 40C, detector, Shimadzu SPD-6A at 192 nm; recorder, Shimadzu Chromatopack
C-R8A.

indicating that EHD drying did not generate new undesir- of air ions, energy dissipation, post-dried food quality, and
able substances compared to convective drying. scale-up–related problems are needed.
The currents and voltage measured in various EHD dry-
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011

ing systems designed and employed by Lai and Wong,[23]

Bajgai and Hashinaga,[21,22] Hashinaga et al.,[11,29] Isobe
et al.,[2] Chen and Barthakur,[16] Chen et al.,[17] and
Carlong and Latham[15] showed the existing ionic current
under EHD drying to be small in magnitude. Although
the voltage applied remains high, the small current reduces
the consumption of electrical energy to fairly low levels
during the drying process. The Townsend effect of second-
ary charge generation, which amplifies the charges between
the pointed and the plate electrode, has made this an inher-
ently energy-efficient method.[17] Energy dissipation during
high-voltage generation requires attention in terms of the
modification of old-type generators. However, the electri-
cal power used in EHD drying is very small compared to
oven- and freeze-drying techniques.[4,23] The lower cost of
the EHD drying apparatus with a simple needle and plate
assembly, the convenience of its use at room temperature
and normal atmospheric pressures, and zero CO2 emissions
all are excellent attributes of this method.
CONCLUSIONS
Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying is a new non-
thermal method of drying with the potential to be applied
to the industrial drying of high-value agricultural products.
EHD drying produces superior quality food products with
high nutritional value and natural color and textural char-
acteristics. This method of drying is energy efficient and
environmentally friendly, whereas conventional drying
methods are energy intensive and environmentally
unsound. However, more research on the biological aspects
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial sup-
port from Natural Sciences and Engineering Research
Council (NSERC) and Fonds Québécois de la Recherche
sur la Nature et les Technologies (FQRNT).
REFERENCES
1. Raghavan, G.S.V. Commercial grain dryers. In Handbook of Postharvest
Technology: Cereals, Fruits, Vegetables, Tea, and Spices; Chakraverty,
A.; Mujumdar, A.S.; Raghavan, G.S.V.; Ramaswamy, H.S., Eds.;
Marcel Dekker: New York, 2003; 167–182.
2. Isobe, S.; Barthakur, N.; Yoshino, T.; Okushima, L.; Sase, S. Electro-
hydrodynamic drying characteristics of agar gel. Food Science and
Technology Research 1999, 5 (2), 132–136.
3. Ratti, C. Hot air and freeze-drying of high-value foods: A review.
Journal of Food Engineering 2001, 49, 311–319.
4. Flink, J.M. Energy analysis in dehydration process. Food Technology
1977, 31 (3), 77–84.
5. Ďaz-Maroto, M.C.; Palomo, E.S.; Castro, L.; Vinas, MA.G.; Perez-
Coello, M.S. Changes produced in the aroma compounds and struc-
tural integrity of basil (Ocimum basilicum L.) during drying. Journal
of the Science of Food and Agriculture 2004, 84, 2070–2076.
6. Sunjka, P.S.; Rennie, T.J.; Beaudry, C.; Raghavan, G.S.V. Microwave-
convective and microwave-vacuum drying of cranberries: a comparative
study. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (5), 1217–1231.
7. Raghavan, G.S.V.; Rennie, T.J.; Sunjka, P.S.; Orsat, V.; Phaphuang-
wittayakul, W.; Terdtoon, P. Overview of new techniques for drying
biological materials with emphasis on energy aspects. Brazilian
Journal of Chemical Engineering 2005, 22 (2), 195–201.
8. Baker, C.G.J. Energy efficient dryer operation—An update on devel-
opments. Drying Technology 2005, 23 (9–11), 2071–2087.
9. Kudra, T. Energy aspects in drying. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (5),
917–932.
 910 BAJGAI ET AL.
10. Cohen, J.S.; Yang, C.S. Progress in food dehydration. Trends in Food
Science and Technology 1995, 6, 20–25.
11. Hashinaga, F.; Bajgai, T.R.; Isobe, S.; Barthakur, N.N. EHD-drying
of apple slices. Drying Technology 1999, 17 (3), 479–495.
12. Bracken, D.T. Small air ion properties. In Air Ions Physical and Bio-
logical Aspects; Jonatthan, M.J.M.; Kavet, R., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca
Raton, FL, 1987; 1–11.
13. Krueger, A.P.; Hicks, W.W.; Beckett, J.C. Effect of unipolar air ions
on microorganisms and on evaporation. Journal of the Franklin Insti-
tute 1958, 266, 9–19.
14. Hart, F.X.; Bachman, Ch.H. The effect of air ions on liquid evaporation
rates. International Journal of Biometeorology 1968, 12, 251–261.
15. Carlon, H.R.; Latham, J. Enhanced drying rates of wetted materials in
electrical fields. Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Physics 1992,
54 (2), 117–118.
16. Chen, Y.H.; Barthakur, N.N. Potato slab dehydration by air ions
from corona discharge. International Journal of Biometerology
1991, 35, 67–70.
17. Chen, Y.; Barthakur, N.N.; Arnold, N.P. Electrohydrodynamic
(EHD) drying of potato slabs. Journal of Food Engineering 1994,
23, 107–119.
18. Shigemitsu, T.; Watanabe, Y.; Hasuike, K. The effect of corona dis-
charge on water evaporation. Biology Laboratory, Abiko, Chiba,
Japan, 1994, Rep., No. 486011 (in Japanese).
19. Barthakur, N.N.; Arnold, N.P. Evaporation rate enhancement of
water with air ions from a corona discharge. International Journal
of Biometerology 1995, 39, 29–33.
Downloaded At: 03:31 21 January 2011
20. Xue, G-R.; Uchino, T.; Matsuo, M. Drying promotion of radish using
corona discharge. Nougyou Kishou Gakkai Si 1994, 56 (5), 35–42 (in
Japanese).
21. Bajgai, T.R.; Hashinaga, F. High electric field drying of Japanese rad-
ish. Drying Technology 2001, 19 (9), 2291–2301.
22. Bajgai, T.R.; Hashinaga, F. Drying of spinach with a high electric
field. Drying Technology 2001, 19 (9), 2331–2341.
23. Lai, F.C.; Wong, D.S. EHD enhanced drying with needle electrode.
Drying Technology 2003, 21 (7), 1291–1306.
24. Lai, F.C.; Huang, M.; Wong, D.S. EHD-enhanced water evaporation.
Drying Technology 2004, 22 (3), 597–608.
25. Alem-Rajabi, A.; Lai, F.C. EHD-enhanced drying of partially wetted
glass beads. Drying Technology 2005, 23 (3), 597–609.
26. Balcer, B.E.; Lai, F.C. EHD-enhanced drying with multiple-wire elec-
trode. Drying Technology 2004, 22 (4), 821–836.
27. Jumah, R.; Al-Asheh, S.; Banat, F.; Al-Zoubi, K. Electro-osmotic
dewatering of tomato paste suspension under AC electric field. Drying
Technology 2005, 23 (7), 1465–1475.
28. Li, F.; Li, L.; Sun, J.; Tatsumi, E. Electrohydrodynamic (EHD) drying
characteristics of okara cake. Drying Technology 2005, 23 (3), 565–580.
29. Hashinaga, F.; Kharel, G.P.; Shintani, R. Effect of ordinary frequency
high electric fields on evaporation and drying. Food Science and
Technology 1995, 1 (2), 77–81.
30. Kechaou, N.; Roques, M.A. A variable diffusivity model for drying of
highly deformable materials. In Drying ‘89, Mujumdar, A.S.; Roques,
M.A., Eds.; Hemisphere: New York, 1989; 332–338.
31. Jayaraman, K.S.; Gupta, D.K.D. Drying of fruits and vegetables. In
Handbook of Industrial Drying; Mujumdar, A.S., Ed.; Marcel Dekker:
New York, 1995; 643–690.
32. Rahman, M.S. Toward prediction of porosity in foods during drying:
a brief review. Drying Technology 2001, 19 (1), 1–13.
33. Bellows, J.R.; King, C.J. Product collapse during freeze-drying of
liquid foods. AICHE Symposium Series 1973, 132, 33–41.
34. Yi, W.; Joan, F.; Gerard, K.; Casimir, C.A. Phenolic compounds from
blueberries can inhibit colon cancer cell proliferation and induce
apoptosis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 2005, 53
(18), 7320–7329.