Journal of Scientific Research and Development (2020) Vol.

19 (2) 206-215

A bi-annual journal published by the Faculty of Science, University of Lagos, Nigeria

http://jsrd.unilag.edu.ng/index.php/jsrd

Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits in the Igarra area, Edo State, South-
South Nigeria

*Adewale Akinmosin, Samson I. Bankole, Abraham O. Opatola and David O. Ofoluwa

Department of Geosciences, University of Lagos, Nigeria

*Correspondence Author: Email: adewaleakinmosin@yahoo.com
(Received 15 May 2020/Revised 01 October 2020/Accepted 06 October 2020)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Abstract

Cathodoluminescence (CL) imaging and geochemical studies were carried out on some marble deposits
from the Igarra Area. Ten (10) representative samples were collected from different quarry sites located
within the study area. Techniques for CL involve the use of thick thin sections (~50 μm) viewed on a
Nuclide Corporation Luminoscope Model ELM2D. Pulverized representative samples were analyzed for
their major elements with the use of Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass Spectrometry (ICP – MS).
Cathodoluminescence result revealed the dominance of calcite marble over dolomite marble in the Igarra
Area. The CL colour of calcite ranges from yellow to orange whereas red to dark red is attributed to
dolomite. Blue to greyish colours are indicative of inclusion of forsterite in some of the studied marbles.
The forsterites are observed being replaced by calcite as a result of diagenesis in some of the samples.
Evidence from geochemical results revealed that the Ikpeshi marbles are more dolomitic than the Igarra
and Igwe marbles. A reducing depositional environments is indicated by the presence of pyrite in some of
the marble samples.

Keywords: Cathodoluminescence, Igarra, Dolomite, Calcite

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. Introduction
Cathodoluminescence (CL) petrography is
considered an essential study method in clastic
and carbonate sedimentary rocks investigations
(Boggs and Krinsley, 2006). This is often used as
invaluable tool for distinguishing detrital,
authigenic, and diagenetic phases and porosity
evolution in sedimentary rocks (Hiatt and Pufahl,
2014). In carbonate rocks, CL is employed in the
understanding of recrystallization and paragenetic
relationships (Hiatt and Pufahl, 2014).
Cathodoluminescence is also routinely used in
the study of marbles (metamorphosed carbonate
rocks) which are commonly calcite- (CaCO3) and
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2 bearing (Blanc et al., 2020;
Mercadal and Plumed, 2016; Houzar and
Leichmann, 2003; Barbin et al., 1992). The
method provides good results in distinguishing
calcite from dolomite and in the identification of
particular generation of carbonates (Houzar and
Leichmann, 2003). In archaeology, CL properties
of marbles have been used in unravelling the
provenance and identification of forgeries in
marbles used in ancient buildings and sculptures
(Blanc et al., 2020; Mercadal and Plumed, 2016;
Garcia-Guinea, 2010; Barbin et al., 1992).
Bombarded by an energy source, carbonates and
other minerals emit radiations; the process of

Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits Page 206

 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
luminescence is called cathodoluminescence
when the excitation source is a beam of high
energy electrons emitted by a cathode (Blanc et
al., 2020; Marcadal and Plumed, 2016; Hiatt and
Pufahl, 2014). This is owing to their (Minerals)
relative intense luminescence when bombarded
by accelerated electrons. Marbles display a broad
range of luminescence colours ranging from
purple through blue, green, white, and orange to
red (Houzar and Leichmann 2003 and references
therein; Habermann et al., 1996; Marshall, 1988).
Luminescence is caused by defects in a crystal
structure of a mineral (Houzar and Leichmann,
2003). The most common ones, responsible for
the effect of luminescence, are entrances of some
atoms (so called activators) in the crystal
structure and irregularities in the bonds between
particular atoms (Houzar and Leichmann, 2003).
Mn+2 is the most common activator in
carbonates (Hiatt and Pufhal, 2014 and
references therein), other cations such as Pb and
REE also play roles in causing CL activations in
some carbonates. The colour of calcite and
dolomite under CL can be described as yellow,
orange and red (Marcadal and Plumed, 2016).
Dolomite commonly exhibits red to dark red
luminescence, while calcite is typically yellow-
orange with occasional dull blue luminescence
(Blanc et al., 2020; Marcadal and Plumed, 2016;
Houzar and Leichmann, 2003).
Nigeria has vast deposits of marble which are
widely distributed across the Country. Igarra and
its environs in Edo State (Fig. 1) is one of the
areas hugely endowed with marble deposits in
Nigeria. Other States with massive marble
deposits of commercial quantity in the Country
are: Federal Capital Territory (FCT) Abuja, Kogi,
Oyo, Niger, Kwara, Nassarawa, Imo, Ebonyi,
Abia, Taraba and Ekiti.
A good number of publications exist on the
Nigerian marble deposits. Few of these studies
include geochemistry (Onimisi et al., 2013; Davou
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
and Ashano, 2009; Beltaro, 1968), volumetric
(Bell, 1963), mineralogy (Ogunlawo and Amadi,
1991). Depending on the purity of marbles based
on its chemical composition, it can be applied as
raw materials for various purposes such as
cement production, tiles and ceramic making and
as additives for some chemicals. The present
study investigates the compositional variation,
textural features, diagenesis, depositional
environments and geochemistry of the marble
deposits in the Igarra area.
2. Geology of the Study Area
The study area (Igarra) lies between latitudes
N7.150ºand N7.250º and longitudes E6.050° and
E6.200° (Fig. 1). The landforms comprise
undulating low lands separated by hill rocks
representing granites. The older granites occur in
ridges and rise between 20 m and 60 m above the
general ground level. Most of the hills occur in
the northeast and southeast of Igarra. The
geology of Igarra area has been studied by several
authors including Rahaman (1992), Odeyemi
(1988), Okeke and Meju (1985) and Ekwueme
(1990). These authors indicate the major rock
groups, their distribution and structural
relationships. The major rock groups in the area
are notably migmatite gneiss, schists (including
marble and calc gneiss), older granites and late
intrusions.
The schist (metasediments) occurs as a
supracrustal cover on the basement and consists
of quartz – biotite, calc-gneiss and marble,
metaconglomerates and mica schist (Okeke and
Meju, 1985; Odeyemi, 1988; Ekwere and
Ekwueme 1991; Imeokparia and Emofurieta
1991; Ocan et al., 2003).
The metasediments form part of the Nigerian
schist belts. Mandi et al. (1995) grouped most of
the rocks as younger metasediments or
unmigmatised and slightly migmatised schists,
indicating low-grade metasediments formed
during the Pan-African orogeny (600 ±150 Ma).
Page 207
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
Figure 1: Location Map of the Study Area.
3. Methods and Materials
3.1. Field study
The fieldworks at Igarra, Igwe and Ikpeshi was
carried out between October and November,
2014. The marble deposits at the three locations
vary in colour from whitish through pinkish to
greyish with the texture being generally coarse
grained.
3.1.2. Brief Samples Description
3.1.2.1. Igarra Samples
The Igarra samples range in colour from white
through black to grey. The samples are
massively-bedded with no distinct sedimentary
structure preserved. The calcite grains are coarse
in texture and show strong cleavage which
characterizes rock as marble.
3.1.2.2. Igwe Samples
Igwe samples are of two types, the black and the
pink coloured. The black coloured variety sample
is foliated and exhibits multiple laminations some
>5mm and some very fine (<1mm). The
laminations are planar. Both of these lamination
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
types are represented in similar amounts in the
rock sample. The pink coloured sample type is
massively-bedded with no distinct sedimentary
structure. The calcite grains in both the black and
pink varieties are coarse with strong cleavage.
3.1.2.3.
Ikpeshi Samples
Variation between Ikpeshi samples is based only
on colour. The two types are the grey and white
coloured varieties. The samples are massively-
bedded with no distinct sedimentary structure.
The calcite grains are also course in texture with
cleavages.
Ten (10) representative rock samples were
collected from quarry sites at the three locations
for laboratory analyses which included
cathodoluminescence and geochemical studies.
3.2. Geochemical Study
Geochemical analysis for major elements using
the Inductively Coupled Plasma – Mass
Spectrometry (ICP – MS) method was conducted
Page 208
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
on ten marble samples at the Large Tarmac
laboratory facility in Sagamu, Ogun State,
Nigeria. The analysis with ICP-MS was done by
using a fused lithium metaborate /discs
tetraborate fusion and nitric acid digestion of 0.2
g of each sample. The samples were put into the
inductively coupled plasma as aerosol and
through processes were ionized. The ions were
made to enter into the mass spectrometer from
where they were separated by the mass to charge
ratio after being fused in the ICP source. The
details of the ICP-MS methods are contained in
Nath et al. (1997). The elements determined
included Si, Al, Fe, Mg, Ca, Na, K and P (Table
1). Sulphur trioxide (SO3) was determined as
sulphur in the samples. Loss On Ignition (LOI)
indicated the amount of water in the samples.
3.3. Cathodoluminescence Study
Thin section preparation and
Cathodoluminescence Imaging Analysis were
carried out on 6 representative marble samples
selected from different quarry sites located in
Igarra, Ikpeshi and Igwe. The analysis was carried
out with the aid of a Nuclide Corporation
Luminoscope ELM2D at the Laboratory of
Calgary Rock and Materials services
Incorporation, Canada. Techniques for CL at
Calgary Rock involved the use of thick thin
sections (~50 μm) viewed on a Nuclide
Corporation Luminoscope Model ELM2D.
Images were captured using a Nikon D810.
Calgary Rock utilized a cold cathode optical
microscope cathodoluminescence system. In this
system the electrons were generated by an
electric discharge between two electrodes under a
low vacuum system (Marshall, 1988).
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
4 .Results and Discussion
4.1. Geochemical result
4.1.1. Igarra samples
The Igarra samples are characterized by low Si, Al,
Fe and Mg with relatively very high values of Ca
and considerable amount of LOI (43.29-43.48%).
Low values of Mg in marble indicate low dolomite
content CaMg (CO3)2. Boggs (2003) states that a
marble with less than 4% of MgCO3 is calcitic
while those greater than 4% is dolomitic.
4.1.2. Ikpeshi Samples
The Ikpeshi marble samples show variable
geochemical characteristics in which the Si values
range from 0.78% to 2.56%. The Si percentage
composition is comparatively high (2.56 %) in
the Ikpeshi White sample as compared to the
Ikpeshi off-white and grey samples. High silica
content has negative impact on the economic use
of marble for cement production.
The percentage composition of Ca varies from
one sample to the other thus having a range
found between 25.81 and 34.15%. Magnesium
(Mg) is relatively high, ranging from 25.81 to
34.15%. The high magnesium content in the
samples classify the Ikpeshi samples as dolomite
marble (Boggs. 2003; Davou and Ashano, 2009).
4.1.3. Igwe Samples
The geochemical data show that the Igwe marble
is characterized by high Si, Al and relatively high
values of Ca (29.53-52.96%) and LOI. This
characterizes these samples as calcitic marbles.
The high silica content in these rock samples
within a range of (3- 16.12%) indicates the
presence of silicious biomicrite.
Page 209
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)

Table 1: Elemental composition and LOI of the studied samples

Samples
Name Al% Ca% Fe% K% Mg% Na% P% SO3% Si% Total LOI%
Igwe 4.13 29.53 1.7 0.94 2.09 0.33 0.09 1.03 16.12 99.5 43.76
Black
Igwe 0.85 52.96 0.64 0.11 1.46 0.14 0.06 0.28 2.23 101.3 42.04
White
Igwe 0.87 51.94 0.63 0.12 1.48 0.12 0.04 0.15 3 100.4 41.88
Pink
Igwe 0.52 47.94 0.38 ND 7.25 0.07 0.02 0.06 0.64 101.1 43.86
Grey
Igarra 0.54 55 0.41 ND 2.45 0.08 0.04 0.03 0.11 101.2 43.48
White
Igarra 0.53 48.9 0.39 ND 7.06 0.09 0.03 0.05 1.17 102.4 43.33
Black
Igarra 0.56 53.55 0.38 ND 2.4 0.8 0.03 0.02 0.78 101.9 43.29
Grey
Ikpeshi 0.54 34.15 0.44 ND 21.56 0.1 0.05 ND 0.78 108.4 45.28
Offwhite
Ikpeshi 0.49 32.45 0.38 ND 23.27 0.09 0.01 ND 2.56 1089.2 42.25
White
Ikpeshi 0.49 25.81 0.36 0.08 15.73 0.08 0.21 0.06 0.87 107.2 59.35
Grey
Note: ND = Not Detected, LOI = Loss On Ignition

4.4.2. Cathodoluminiscence mainly on the crystal exterior where it is slightly

4.2.1. Igarra– White Sample (Plates 1A and B)
The Igarra white marble consists of calcite and
forsterite (Plates 1a and b). The sample is
massively-bedded with no distinct sedimentary
structures. This sample consists of sparry
interlocking crystals of calcite with detrital olivine
(forsterite) distributed throughout. Calcite is the
main mineral observed and under electron
bombardment, it luminesces primarily orange-
yellow to orange coloration (Mercadal and
Plumed, 2016). The CL pattern is heterogeneous,
variation in calcite CL is observed and is found
higher luminescence compared to the interior
(Plates 1A and B). Olivine is present in the
sample and is present in its Mg-rich form which
is characterized as forsterite. Forsterite is
observed as euhedral laths/faces and exhibits a
blue luminescence. Blue CL is characteristic of
foresterite that has incorporated aluminum into
its structure (Personal communication Citation
needed). Observation in the two plates shows the
extensive replacement of forsterite by calcite (see
the arrows in plates 1A and B).

A B
Cal
Ca
l
Fst
Ca
l Fst

Plates 1A and B: CL photomicrographs of Igarra White marble. Arrows show the replacement of
forsterite with calcite. NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Fst = Forsterite.

Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits Page 210

 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
4.2.2. Igarra– Black (Sample TS2)
The Igarra Black sample is composed mainly of
calcite with minor amounts of dolomite and
forsterite (Plates 2A and B). The sample is
massively-bedded, no distinct sedimentary
structure is observed. The sample consists of
sparry interlocking crystals of mainly calcite with
minor amounts of dolomite (finer crystalline) and
detrital olivine (forsterite). The forsterite has also
been subjected to a high amount of chemical
alteration in the form of calcite replacement.
Calcite is the main mineral observed. The Mn2+
ion is the most important activator in calcite
where the ratio of Mn2+/Fe2+ determines overall
luminescence (Mercadal and Plumed, 2016; Hiatt
and Pufhal, 2014). There is minimal variation in
CL textures on the calcite crystals (e.g. no
twinning, zoning, etc.) which infers a
homogenous composition of calcite.
A B
Non-Lum
Cal
Fst
Plates 2A and B: CL photomicrographs of Igarra Black marble. Arrows show the replacement of
forsterite with calcite. NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Dol = Dolomite, Fst = Forsterite, Non-Lum = Non-
luminescence.
4.2.3 Igwe– Pink Sample
This sample consists mainly of calcite with minor
amounts of dolomite and pyrite (Plates 3A and
B). The sample is massively-bedded with no
distinct sedimentary structure. Calcite is the main
mineral observed showing CL colour of primarily
orange-yellow to orange. There is a specific
morphology of calcite observed on the exterior
of the rock sample that is unique. This distinct
morphology is comprised of multiple elongate
laths in which some appear to have “collapsed on
themselves” forming a mass of elongate crystals
(Plate 3A). These crystals exhibit mainly dark
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
The CL pattern is heterogeneous showing minor
textural variation in calcite CL that appears on
the crystal exterior as slightly higher
luminescence when compared to the interior.
The CL coloration of the calcite crystals range
from dark orange-red to bright orange-red
luminescence (Plate 2B). However, in plate 2A,
the CL colouration of Calcite is yellowish. These
indicate slight compositional variations in the
ratio of Mn2+/Fe2+ of the calcite crystals.
Forsterite is observed as laths and exhibits a blue
luminescence (Plate 2A). Dolomite is observed in
the sample having subhedral to anhedral crystal
faces (Plate 2B). The two carbonate crystals
(calcite and dolomite) are readily discriminated
under electron bombardment as highly
luminescent crystals (calcite) and dimly
luminescent crystals (dolomite).
Dol
Dol
Dol
Cal
Dol
orange to bright red luminescence (Mn2+
enriched) with minor amounts of crystals devoid
of luminescence (Fe2+). In terms of a general
paragenetic sequence it appears the initial
precipitation was a Fe2+ enriched calcite,
followed by precipitation of Mn2+ enriched
elongate sparry crystals, then the crystals were
subjected to brittle deformation (collapse) and
finally precipitation of Fe2+ enriched calcite
(Personal communication).
Dolomite (finer crystalline) is observed in the
sample as smaller rhombs with subhedral to
anhedral crystal faces (Plate 3B). Dolomite is
Page 211
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)

mainly observed as dimly or non-luminescent (Mercadal and Plumed, 2016; Hiatt and Pufhal,
which infers a higher Fe2+ composition 2014; Houzar and Leichmann, 2003).

A B
Cal
Cal Dol Dol

Cal
Cal
Dol Dol

Pyt
Non-Lum Dol

Plates 3A and B: CL photomicrographs of Igwe Pink marble.

NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Dol = Dolomite, Pyt =Pyrite, Non-Lum = Non-luminescence.

4.2.4. Igwe– Black Sample

This sample consists of a carbonate rock
composed mainly of calcite with minor amounts
of dolomite and pyrite. The sample is foliated
and exhibits multiple laminations some >5mm
and some very fine (<1mm). These laminations
are planar and are composed of alternating
bands of dolomite-rich and calcite-rich
carbonates. The primary mineral is calcite
interlocking with minor amounts of dolomite
(finer crystalline). Calcite here under electron
bombardment exhibits CL pattern which is
primarily orange-yellow to orange coloration
(Plate 4). Dolomite grains in the sample are
observed as smaller rhombs with subhedral to
anhedral crystal faces. They are observed as
dimly or non-luminescent which infers a higher Plates 4: CL photomicrographs of Igwe Black
Fe2+ composition. Calcite is mainly observed as marble.
highly luminescent orange crystals. NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Dol = Dolomite, Pyt
=Pyrite.

Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits Page 212

 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
4.2.5. Ikpeshi– White Sample
The Ikpeshi White sample is composed mainly of
calcite and minor amounts of dolomite and
forsterite (Plate 5A and B). The calcite crystals
are largely coarse with heterogeneous CL pattern.
CL variation on the crystal exterior is slightly
A B
Cal
Fst
Fst
Cal
Dol
Plates 5A and B: CL photomicrographs of Igwe White marble.
NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Dol = Dolomite, Fst = Forsterite
4.2.6. Ikpeshi– Grey Sample
The dominant mineral in the sample as observed
under electron bombardment is calcite. It
luminesces primarily grading from yellow to
orange. Most of the dolomite crystals appear
uniform, fine grained and dark red in
luminescence colour. Calcite is observed as
bright orange-red luminescent crystals and
healing fractures. Some variation in calcite CL
appears on the crystal exterior which is slightly
higher in luminescence compared to the interior.
A crystal interior to yellow at the exterior. In
Dol
Dol
Cal
Cal Cal Cal
Plates 6: CL photomicrographs of Ikpeshi-Grey
marble.
NOTE: Cal = Calcite, Dol = Dolomite
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
higher in luminescence compared to the interior.
This indicates a slightly higher Mn2+ ion
concentration and may infer two stage
paragenetic sequence for calcite precipitation.
Forsterite is observed as euhedral laths/faces
with a blue luminescence (Plate 5A).
Dol
Cal
Cal
5. Conclusion
The marble deposits of the study area are largely
calcite marbles with few fine grained dark red
dolomite crystals in interlocking relationship with
calcite crystals. The calcite crystals are much
larger in comparison with the dolomite crystals
which show rhomb with subhedral to anhedral
crystal faces. Forsterites are being diagenetically
replaced by calcite crystals in some of the marble
samples. Cathodoluminiscence (CL) colour and
pattern in the calcite marbles are generally
heterogeneous, grading from dark orange at the
contrast, the dolomite crystals are generally
homogeneous in CL colour. The percentage
calcium contents for the Igarra and Igwe are
higher than the Ikpeshi samples. Geochemically,
the Ikpeshi marbles are more dolomitic than the
Igarra and Igwe marbles. The percentage
magnesium content is fairly higher in the Ikpeshi
marbles when compared with both the Igarra and
Igwe marbles. Reducing depositional
environments, probably during the accumulation
of the metamorphosed limestone is recorded
with the inclusion of pyrites in the marble
deposits. Evidence of diagenesis (compaction) is
also revealed in the interlocking relationship
Page 213
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
exhibited between the calcite and dolomite
crystals.
6. References
Barbin, V., Ramseyer, K., Decrouez, D., Burns,
S. J. Chamay, J. and Maier, J. L. (1992).
Cathodoluminescence of white marbles:
An overview. Archaeometry, 34, 175-
183.
Blanc, P., Mercadal, M. P. L. and Garcia-Moreno,
A. G. (2020). A new database of the
quantitative cathodoluminescence of the
main quarry marbles used in antiquity.
Minerals 10, 381; DOI:
10.3390/min10040381.
Bell, J. P. (1963). Summary of the Principal
Limestone and Marble Deposits in
Nigeria. G.S.N Unpubl. Rpt., 1192: 8p.
Beltaro, F. (1968). The Taka-Lafia East
Dolomitic Marble with notes on Kasada,
Kasumi and Taka-Lafia West Deposits,
G.S.N. Rpt., 1476: 22pp.
Bogg, S. Jr. (2003). Petrology of sedimentary
rocks. The Blackburn Press, 707 pp.
Cheung, S. and Strom, R. (2015). Personal
communication.
Boggs Jr., S. and Krinsley, D. (2006). Application
of Cathodoluminescence Imaging to the
Study of Sedimentary Rocks. Cambridge
University Press, New York, p 79.
Davou, D. D and Ashano, E. C. (2009). The
geochemical chararateristics of the
marble deposits east of Federal Capital
Territory (FCT), Nigeria. Global Journal of
Geological Sciences, 7(2): 189 – 198.
Ekwueme, B. N. (1990). Rb-Sr ages and
petrologic features of Precambrian rocks
of Oban Massif Southeastern Nigeria.
Precambrian Research, 47: 267-286.
Ekwere, S.J. and Ekwueme, B. N. (1991).
Geochemistry of Precambrian gneiss in
the eastern part of the Oban massif,
south eastern Nigeria, Geological Mijnb,
70: 105-114.
Garcia‐Guinea, J., Crespo‐Feo1, E., Correcher,
V., Iordanidis, A., Charalampides, G.
and Karamitou‐Mentessidi, G. (2010).
New data on the cathodoluminescence
of white marbles: Interpretation of peaks
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
and relationships to weathering.
Mediterranean Archaeology and Archaeometry,
4, 107‐114.
Habermann, D., Neuser, R. D. and Richter, D.
K. (1996). REE- activated
Cathodoluminescence of calcite and
dolomite: high-resolution spectrometric
analysis of cathodoluminescence
emission (HRS- CL). Sed. Geol.101:1-7
Hiatt, E. E. and Pufahl, P. K. (2014).
Cathodoluminescence petrography of
carbonate rocks: application to
understanding diagenesis, reservoir
quality, and pore system evolution: in
Coulson, I. (ed,), cathodoluminescence
and its application to geoscience. Mineral
Association of Canada, Short Course Series,
45, 75-96.
Houzar, S. and Leichmann, J. (2003). Application
of cathodoluminescence to the study of
metamorphic textures in marbles from
the eastern part of the Bohemian Massif.
Bulletin of Geosciences, 78(3), 241-250.
Imeokparia E. G. and Emofurieta W. O. (1991).
Protoliths and Petrogenesis of
Precambrian gneisses from the Igbeti
area. Southwestern Nigeria. Geochemical
Journal, Erde, 51: 337-347.
Mandi, V., Vassliou, A., Maniatis, Y and
Grimanis, A. P. (1995). An evaluation of
the contribution of trace elements to the
determination of marble provenance. In
Y. Maniatis, N. Herz and Y. Basiakos
(eds), the study of marble and other
stones used in antiquity: 207-12.Asmosia
iii Athen. Transactions of the 3rd
international symposia of the association
for the study of marble and other stones
used in antiquity. London. Archtype.
Marshall, D. J. (1988). Cathodoluminescence of
Geological Materials. Boston, MA:
Unwin-Hyman. 67pp.
Mercadal, M. P. L. and Plumed, H. R.
(2016). Cathodoluminescence for the
characterization of ancient marble:
Problems and research perspective: in
Ismaelli, T. and Acardozzi, G. (ed),
Ancient QuarriesAnd Building Sites in
Asia Minor Research on Hierapolis in
Page 214
 Akinmosin et al., J. Sci. Res. Dev. (2020)
Phrygia and other Cities in South-
western Anatolia: Archaeology,
Archaeometry, Conservation. Bibliotheca
Archaeologica, 45, 75 ISBN 978-88-7228-
819-1.
Nath, B.N., Bau, M., Ramalingeswara, R. B. and
Rao, C.M. (1997). Trace and rare earth
elemental variation Arabian sea
sediments through a transect across the
oxygen minimum zone. Geochimica et
Cosmochimica Acta, 61(12): 2375-2388
Ocan C. O, Coker S. L. and Egbuniwe I. G.
(2003). The geology of Igarra-Auchi
area, Excursion guide of the Annual
Conference of the Nigerian Mining and
Geosciences Society, Itakpe, Nigeria.
52pp.
Odeyemi, I. B. (1988). Lithostratigraphic and
structural relationships of the upper
Precambrian metasediments in Igarra
area, Western Nigeria. In Ogezi in the
Cathodoluminescence and geochemistry of marble deposits
Precambrian Geology of Nigeria.
Geological survey of Kaduna, 123.
Ogunlawo, S. I. and Amadi, U. M. P. (1991).
Geological properties and pre-mining
evaluation of Burum East marble
deposits, FCT, Central Nigeria. J. Min.
and Geol., 27: 105-120.
Okeke P. O. and Meju M. A. (1985). Chemical
evidence for the sedimentary origin of
Igarra supracrustal rocks, Southwest,
Nigeria. J. of Min. and Geol. 22(142): 97-
104.
Onimisi M., Obaje N. G. and Daniel A. (2013).
Geochemical and petrogenetic
characteristics of the marble deposit in
Itobe area, Kogi state, Central Nigeria.
Advances in Applied Science Research, 4(5):
44-57.
Rahaman, M. A. (1992). Precambrian geology of
Nigeria. Proceedings of high grade
terrains Benin- Nigeria traverse,
programme and lecture series. 150-200
Page 215