PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS

Portfolio

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

For the First Year College Second Semester
By:
BAYRANTE, KYLINE P.
LAGBAS, JOENEL A.
LASALA, KEN ARIES R.
MACEDA, RACHEL MAY B.
MONTANEZ, HANNAH MAE D.
REYES, MARK AHRON B.
OBLEPIAS, SHANE C.
REBELLON, HEAVEN ISAIAH F.
ZAMORA, CAROL A.

Presented to:
EMERSION B. ROBLES

1BNEW1-1BS PSCYHOLOGY S1
S.Y. 2022-2023
 
PRE-LIM
PART I: Introduction and Descriptive
Statistics
Chapter 1: Introduction to Statistics
Chapter 2: Frequency Distributions
Chapter 3: Central Tendency
Chapter 4: Variability
PART 2: Foundations of Inferential Statistics
Chapter 5: z-scores
Chapter 6: Probability
Chapter 7: The Distribution of Sample Means

MIDTERM
Chapter 8: Introduction to Hypothesis Testing
PART 3: Using t statistics for Inferences About Population
Means and Mean Differences
Chapter 9: Introduction to the t statistic
Chapter 10: The t test for Two Independent Samples
Chapter 11: The t test for Two Related Samples
PART 4: Analysis of Variance: Tests for Differences
Among Two or More Population Means
Chapter 12: Introduction to Analysis of Variance
Chapter 13: Repeated-Measures Analysis of Variance
Chapter 14: Two-Factor Analysis of Variance
(Independent Measure)

FINALS
PART 5: Correlations and Nonparametric Tests
Chapter 15: Correlation
Chapter 16: Introduction to regression
Chapter 17: The Chi-Square Statistic; Tests for Goodness of Fit and
Independence
Chapter 18: The Binomial Test
Chapter 19: Choosing the Right Statistics
 PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
IS APPLICATION OF FORMULAS, THEOREMS, NUMBERS AND LAWS TO
PSYCHOLOGY. STATISTICAL METHODS FOR PSYCHOLOGY INCLUDE DEVELOPMENT
AND APPLICATION STATISTICAL THEORY AND METHODS FOR MODELING
PSYCHOLOGICAL DATA. THESES METHODS INCLUDE PSYCHOMETRICS, FACTOR
ANALYSIS, EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS, MULTIVARIATE BEHAVIORAL RESEARCH.

THE IMPORTANCE OF STATISTICS IN PSYCHOLOGY

In psychology, YOU are interested in people, so you might get a group of people together and
measure their levels of:
stress (one variable)
anxiety (a second variable)
their physical health (a third variable)

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICS

Learning Outcomes
1. Know key statistical terms
2. Know key measurement terms
3. Know key research terms
4. Know the place of statistics in science
5. Understand summation notation

WHAT IS STATISTICS?
Statistics include numerical facts and figures.
For instance:
● The largest earthquake measured 9.2 on the Richter scale.
● Men are at least 10 times more likely than women to commit murder.
● One in every 8 South Africans is HIV positive.
● By the year 2020, there will be 15 people aged 65 and over for every new baby born.

STATISTICS
• AS A BRANCH OF MATHEMATICS THAT EXAMINES AND INVESTIGATES WAYS TO
PROCESS AND ANALYZE THE DATA GATHERED.
• IS A BASIC TOOL OF MEASUREMENT, EVALUATION AND RESEARCH.
• IS SOMETIMES USED TO REFER TO ANY MEASURE COMPUTED ON THE BASIS OF
THE DATA OBTAINED FROM A CHARACTERISTIC OF A POPULATION UNDER STUDY.
 STATISTICS
THE SCIENCE OF COLLECTING, ORGANIZING, PRESENTING, ANALYZING, AND
INTERPRETING DATA TO ASSIST IN MAKING MORE EFFECTIVE DECISIONS.

WHAT IS STATISTICS?
1. COLLECTING DATA
E.G., SURVEY
2. PRESENTING DATA
E.G., CHARTS & TABLES
3. CHARACTERIZING
DATA
E.G., AVERAGE

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
1) A new advertisement for Ben and Jerry's ice cream introduced in late May of last
year resulted in a 30% increase in ice cream sales for the following three months. Thus,
the advertisement was effective.

A major flaw is that ice cream consumption generally increases in the months of
June, July, and August regardless of advertisements.

1) The more churches in a city, the more crime there is. Thus, churches lead to crime.

A major flaw is that both increased churches and increased crime rates can be
explained by larger populations.

WHY DO WE STUDY STATISTICS?

• IT SERVES AS THE LINK BETWEEN A RESEARCH IDEA AND USABLE
CONCLUSIONS. WITHOUT STATISTICS, WE WOULD BE UNABLE TO
INTERPRET THE MASSIVE AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION CONTAINED IN
DATA. EVEN SMALL DATASETS CONTAIN HUNDREDS – IF NOT
THOUSANDS – OF NUMBERS, EACH REPRESENTING A SPECIFIC
OBSERVATION WE MADE.

• IT IS IMPORTANT TO “TAKE CONTROL OF YOUR LIFE.” WHAT DOES THIS

MEAN? PARTLY, IT MEANS BEING ABLE TO PROPERLY EVALUATE THE
DATA AND CLAIMS THAT BOMBARD YOU EVERY DAY. STATISTICS
PROVIDES TOOLS THAT YOU NEED IN ORDER TO REACT INTELLIGENTLY
TO INFORMATION YOU HEAR OR READ.
 • STATISTICS ARE OFTEN PRESENTED IN AN EFFORT TO ADD
CREDIBILITY TO AN ARGUMENT OR ADVICE. YOU CAN SEE THIS BY
PAYING ATTENTION TO TELEVISION ADVERTISEMENTS. MANY OF THE
NUMBERS THROWN ABOUT IN THIS WAY DO NOT REPRESENT CAREFUL
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS. THEY CAN BE MISLEADING AND PUSH YOU INTO
DECISIONS THAT YOU MIGHT FIND CAUSE TO REGRET.

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS IN THE FOLLOWING AREAS:

ACCOUNTING Insurance Sports
AGRICULTURE Laws Social Sciences
BUSINESS Medicine Sociology
ECONOMICS Politics
ENTERTAINMENT Psychology
GOVERNMENT Research
HEALTH Management

PSYCHOLOGICAL STATISTICS
In order to use statistics, we need data to analyze. Data come in an amazingly diverse range of
formats, and each type gives us a unique type of information. In virtually any form, data represent
the measured value of variables. A variable is simply a characteristic or feature of the thing we are
interested in understanding.

STATISTICAL DATA
● THE COLLECTION OF DATA THAT ARE RELEVANT TO THE PROBLEM BEING
STUDIED IS COMMONLY THE MOST DIFFICULT, EXPENSIVE, AND TIME-CONSUMING
PART OF THE ENTIRE RESEARCH PROJECT.
● STATISTICAL DATA ARE USUALLY OBTAINED BY COUNTING OR MEASURING ITEMS.
● PRIMARY DATA ARE COLLECTED SPECIFICALLY FOR THE ANALYSIS DESIRED
● SECONDARY DATA HAVE ALREADY BEEN COMPILED AND ARE AVAILABLE FOR
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

VARIABLE
• Is a characteristic of objects, people, or events that can take of different values. It can vary in
quantity (ex: weight of people) or in quality (hair color of people).
• Is a characteristic or condition that changes or has different values for different individuals
• Can be characteristics that differ from one individual to another such as height, weight, gender or
personality.
• Can be environmental conditions that change such as temperature, time of day, or the size of the
room in which the research is being conducted.

DISCRETE AND CONTINUOUS VARIABLES

• DISCRETE (IF IT IS THE RESULT OF COUNTING (THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS OF GIVEN
ETHNIC GROUP IN A CLASS, THE NUMBER OF BOOKS ON A SHELF, ...)
• CONTINUOUS (IF IT IS THE RESULT OF MEASURING (DISTANCE TRAVELED, WEIGHT OF
LUGGAGE, …)

TYPES OF VARIABLES
AN EXPERIMENTER MIGHT COMPARE THE EFFECTIVENESS OF FOUR TYPES OF
ANTIDEPRESSANTS IN THE RELIEF FROM DEPRESSION
In this example, the variable are the type of antidepressant and the relief from depression.

Moreover, the type of antidepressant is the independent variable while the relief from depression
is the dependent variable.

In general, the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter and its effects on the
dependent variable are measured.

EXAMPLE
CAN BLUEBERRIES SLOW DOWN AGING? A STUDY INDICATES THAT ANTIOXIDANTS
FOUND IN BLUEBERRIES MAY SLOW DOWN THE PROCESS OF AGING. IN THIS STUDY,
19-MONTH OLD RATS (EQUIVALENT TO 60-YEAR-OLD HUMANS) WERE FED EITHER THEIR
STANDARD DIET OR A DIET SUPPLEMENTED BY EITHER BLUEBERRY, STRAWBERRY, OR
SPINACH POWDER. AFTER EIGHT WEEKS, THE RATS WERE GIVEN MEMORY AND MOTOR
SKILLS TESTS. ALTHOUGH ALL SUPPLEMENTED RATS SHOWED IMPROVEMENT, THOSE
SUPPLEMENTED WITH BLUEBERRY POWDER SHOWED THE MOST NOTABLE
IMPROVEMENT.

DOES BETA-CAROTENE PROTECT AGAINST CANCER? BETA-CAROTENE SUPPLEMENTS

HAVE BEEN THOUGHT TO PROTECT AGAINST CANCER. HOWEVER, A STUDY PUBLISHED
IN THE JOURNAL OF THE NATIONAL CANCER INSTITUTE SUGGESTS THIS IS FALSE. THE
STUDY WAS CONDUCTED WITH 39,000 WOMEN AGED 45 AND UP. THESE WOMEN WERE
RANDOMLY ASSIGNED TO RECEIVE A BETA-CAROTENE SUPPLEMENT OR A PLACEBO,
AND THEIR HEALTH WAS STUDIED OVER THEIR LIFETIME. CANCER RATES FOR WOMEN
TAKING THE BETACAROTENE SUPPLEMENT DID NOT DIFFER SYSTEMATICALLY FROM THE
CANCER RATES OF THOSE WOMEN TAKING THE PLACEBO.

HOW BRIGHT IS RIGHT? AN AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURER WANTS TO KNOW HOW

BRIGHT BRAKE LIGHTS SHOULD BE IN ORDER TO MINIMIZE THE TIME REQUIRED FOR THE
DRIVER OF A FOLLOWING CAR TO REALIZE THAT THE CAR IN FRONT IS STOPPING AND
TO HIT THE BRAKES.

LEVEL OF AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE

IF AN EXPERIMENT COMPARES AN EXPERIMENTAL TREATMENT WITH A CONTROL
TREATMENT, THEN THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (TYPE OF TREATMENT) HAS TWO
LEVELS: EXPERIMENTAL AND CONTROL. IF AN EXPERIMENT WERE COMPARING FIVE
TYPES OF DIETS, THEN THE INDEPENDENT VARIABLE (TYPE OF DIET) WOULD HAVE 5
LEVELS. IN GENERAL, THE NUMBER OF LEVELS OF AN INDEPENDENT VARIABLE IS THE
NUMBER OF EXPERIMENTAL CONDITIONS.

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

• QUALITATIVE VARIABLES ARE THOSE THAT EXPRESS A QUALITATIVE ATTRIBUTE SUCH AS
HAIR COLOR, EYE COLOR, RELIGION, FAVORITE MOVIE, GENDER, AND SO ON. THE
VALUES OF A QUALITATIVE VARIABLE DO NOT IMPLY A NUMERICAL ORDERING. VALUES
OF THE VARIABLE “RELIGION” DIFFER QUALITATIVELY; NO ORDERING OF RELIGIONS IS
IMPLIED. QUALITATIVE VARIABLES ARE SOMETIMES REFERRED TO AS CATEGORICAL
VARIABLES.

QUALITATIVE DATA ARE GENERALLY DESCRIBED BY WORDS OR LETTERS. THEY ARE NOT
AS WIDELY USED AS QUANTITATIVE DATA BECAUSE MANY NUMERICAL TECHNIQUES DO
NOT APPLY TO THE QUALITATIVE DATA. FOR EXAMPLE, IT DOES NOT MAKE SENSE TO
FIND AN AVERAGE HAIR COLOR OR BLOOD TYPE.

QUALITATIVE DATA CAN BE SEPARATED INTO TWO SUBGROUPS:

DICHOTOMIC (IF IT TAKES THE FORM OF A WORD WITH TWO OPTIONS (GENDER - MALE
OR FEMALE)
POLYNOMIC (IF IT TAKES THE FORM OF A WORD WITH MORE THAN TWO OPTIONS
(EDUCATION - PRIMARY SCHOOL, SECONDARY SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY).

QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES

• QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES ARE THOSE VARIABLES THAT ARE MEASURED IN TERMS OF NUMBERS.
SOME EXAMPLES OF QUANTITATIVE VARIABLES ARE HEIGHT, WEIGHT, AND SHOE SIZE.
LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
BEFORE WE CAN CONDUCT A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS, WE NEED TO MEASURE OUR
DEPENDENT VARIABLE.
MEASUREMENT – IS THE PROCESS OF ASSIGNING VALUE TO A VARIABLE.
– is the process of assigning value to a variable.
1. NOMINAL SCALE – “having to do with names”, involves classifying individuals into categories
that have different names but are not related to each other in any systematic way.
- consists of a set of categories that have different names, measurement on the nominal scale
label and categorize observations, but do not make any quantitative distinctions between
observations.
Example: if you were measuring the academic majors for a group of college students, the categories
would be art, biology, business, chemistry and so on. Each student should be classified in one
category according to his or her major.

NOMINAL SCALE – can be named without particular order or ranking imposed on the data. Words,
letters, and even numbers are used to classify the data.

2. ORDINAL SCALE: Consists of a set of categories that are organized in an ordered sequence.
Measurements rank observations in terms of size or magnitude.
3. INTERVAL SCALE: CONSISTS of ordered categories that are all intervals of exactly the same
size, equal differences between numbers on a scale reflect equal differences in magnitude.
However, the zero point on an interval scale is arbitrary and does not indicate a zero amount of the
variable being measured.
 4. RATIO SCALE: is an interval scale with the additional feature of an absolute zero point. With a
ratio scale, ratios of numbers do reflect ratios of magnitude.

Answer the following:

1. A survey asks people to identify their age, annual income and marital status. For each of
these three variables identify the scale measurements that probably is used and identify
whether the variable is continuous or discrete,
Answer: Age and annual income are measured on ratio scales and are both continuous
variables. Marital status is measured in a nominal scale and is a discrete variable.

2. An English professor uses letter grades (A, B, C, D, and F) to evaluate a set of student
essays. What kind of scale is being used to measure the quality of the essay?
Answer: ORDINAL

3. The teacher in a communication class ask students to identify their favorite reality tv show.
The different tv shows up a ________ scale of measurement.
Answer: NOMINAL

4. A researcher studies the factors determine the number of children that couples decide to
have. The variable number of children is a _____________, (discrete/continuous) variable.
Answer: DISCRETE

WHAT LEVEL OF MEASUREMENT IS USED FOR PSYCHOLOGICAL VARIABLES?

FOR EXAMPLE, EXPERIMENTAL SUBJECTS MAY BE ASKED TO RATE THEIR LEVEL OF
PAIN, HOW MUCH THEY LIKE A CONSUMER PRODUCT, THEIR ATTITUDES ABOUT
CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, THEIR CONFIDENCE IN AN ANSWER TO A TEST QUESTION.

Typically these ratings are made on a 5-point or a 7-point

scale and these scales are ordinal scales.
POPULATION OR SAMPLE???
1. SCORES OF ENTIRE STUDENTS OF TERTIARY LEVEL
Answer: POPULATION
2. Scores of students in a class
Answer: SAMPLE
3. All children of any age who have older or younger siblings
Answer: POPULATION
4. The 40 children who actually participated in one specific study about siblings.
Answer: SAMPLE

WHAT IS POPULATION?
•THE ENTIRE SET OF INDIVIDUALS OR OBJECTS OF INTEREST OR THE
MEASUREMENTS OBTAINED FROM ALL INDIVIDUALS OR OBJECTS OF INTEREST
•IS THE SET OF ALL INDIVIDUALS OF INTEREST IN A PARTICULAR STUDY.
•CAN OBVIOUSLY VARY IN SIZE FROM EXTREMELY LARGE TO VERY SMALL
DEPENDING ON HOW THE RESEARCHER DEFINES THE POPULATION.

WHAT IS SAMPLE?
•A PORTION, OR PART, OF THE POPULATION OF INTEREST SELECTED FOR ANALYSIS.
•IS A SET OF INDIVIDUALS SELECTED FROM A POPULATION, USUALLY INTENDED TO
REPRESENT THE POPULATION IN A RESEARCH STUDY.

REASONS FOR DRAWING A SAMPLE

1. A SAMPLE IS LESS TIME CONSUMING THAN CENSUS
2. A SAMPLE IS LESS COSTLY TO ADMINISTER THAN A CENSUS
3. A SAMPLE IS LESS CUMBERSOME AND MORE PRACTICAL TO ADMINISTER THAN A
CENSUS OF THE TARGETED POPULATION
LEARNING CHECK:
A RESEARCHER IS INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A TREATMENT FOR
ADOLESCENT BOYS WHO ARE TAKING MEDICATION FOR DEPRESSION. A GROUP OF
30 BOYS IS SELECTED AND HALF RECEIVE THE NEW TREATMENT IN ADDITION TO
THEIR MEDICATION WITHOUT ANY TREATMENT. FOR THIS STUDY,
a. IDENTIFY THE POPULATION
b. IDENTIFY THE SAMPLE

SAMPLING
A SAMPLE SHOULD HAVE THE SAME CHARACTERISTICS AS THE POPULATION IT IS
REPRESENTING. SAMPLING CAN BE:
• WITH REPLACEMENT: A MEMBER OF THE POPULATION MAY BE CHOSEN MORE
THAN ONCE (PICKING THE CANDY FROM THE BOWL)
• WITHOUT REPLACEMENT: A MEMBER OF THE POPULATION MAY BE CHOSEN ONLY
ONCE (LOTTERY TICKET)

SAMPLING METHODS
SAMPLING CAN BE:
• RANDOM (EACH MEMBER OF THE POPULATION HAS AN EQUAL CHANCE OF BEING
SELECTED)
• NONRANDOM

THE ACTUAL PROCESS OF SAMPLING CAUSES SAMPLING ERRORS. FOR EXAMPLE,

THE SAMPLE MAY NOT BE LARGE ENOUGH OR REPRESENTATIVE OF THE
POPULATION. FACTORS NOT RELATED TO THE SAMPLING PROCESS CAUSE
NON-SAMPLING ERRORS. A DEFECTIVE COUNTING DEVICE CAN CAUSE A
NONSAMPLING ERROR.

RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS

• SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLE (EACH SAMPLE OF THE SAME SIZE HAS AN EQUAL
CHANCE OF BEING SELECTED)
• STRATIFIED SAMPLE (DIVIDE THE POPULATION INTO GROUPS CALLED STRATA AND
THEN TAKE A SAMPLE FROM EACH STRATUM)
• CLUSTER SAMPLE (DIVIDE THE POPULATION INTO STRATA AND THEN RANDOMLY
SELECT SOME OF THE STRATA. ALL THE MEMBERS FROM THESE STRATA ARE IN THE
CLUSTER SAMPLE.)
• SYSTEMATIC SAMPLE (RANDOMLY SELECT A STARTING POINT AND TAKE EVERY
N-TH PIECE OF DATA FROM A LISTING OF THE POPULATION)

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING METHODS

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING –RECRUITMENT OF PARTICIPANTS OCCUR ALL OF A
SUDDEN AS THE RESEARCHER MAY OUGHT THEM TO BE USEFUL DESPITE OF BEING
UNABLE TO GENERALIZE THE RESULTS FOUND FROM SUCH SAMPLE
•CONVENIENCE SAMPLING – DIRECT SELECTION OF
PARTICIPANTS UNTIL THE DESIRABLE AMOUNT IS REACHED BY
THE RESEARCHER
•QUOTA SAMPLING – SIMILAR TO CONVENIENCE SAMPLING, BUT IT ENSURES EQUAL
REPRESENTATIVENESS.
•SNOWBALL SAMPLING – A SAMPLING BASED ON
RECOMMENDATIONS

PARAMETERS AND STATISTICS

PARAMETER VS STATISTIC;
PARAMETER – IS A NUMERICAL INDEX DESCRIBING A CHARACTERISTIC OF A
POPULATION.
● IS A VALUE USUALLY A NUMERICAL VALUE, THAT DESCRIBES A
POPULATION.
● USUALLY DERIVED FROM MEASUREMENTS OF THE INDIVIDUALS IN
THE POPULATION

STATISTIC – is a numerical index describing a characteristic of a sample.

•Is a value usually a numerical value, that describes a sample.
•Is usually derived from measurements of the individuals in the sample

PARAMETER VS STATISTIC
EVERY POPULATION PARAMETER HAS A CORRESPONDING SAMPLE STATISTIC, AND
MOST RESEARCH STUDIES INVOLVE USING STATISTICS FROM SAMPLES AS THE
BASIS FOR ANSWERING QUESTIONS ABOUT POPULATION PARAMETERS.

1. A RESEARCHER IS INTERESTED IN THE TEXTING HABITS OF HIGH SCHOOL

STUDENTS IN REGION IV. IF THE RESEARCHER MEASURES THE NUMBER OF TEXT
MESSAGES THAT EACH INDIVIDUAL SENDS EACH DAY AND CALCULATE THE
AVERAGE NUMBER FOR THE ENTIRE GROUP OF HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS, THE
AVERAGE NUMBER BE AN EXAMPLE OF A ________
Answer: PARAMETER

2. A RESEARCHER IS INTERESTED IN HOW WATCHING THE REALITY TELEVISION

SHOW FEATURING FASHION MODELS INFLUENCES THE EATING BEHAVIOR OF
13-YEAR OLD GIRLS.
A. A GROUP OF 30 13-YEAR OLD GIRLS IS SELECTED TO PARTICIPATE IN A
RESEARCH STUDY. THE GROUP OF 30 13-YEAR OLD IS AN EXAMPLE OF A ________
Answer: SAMPLE

3. A RESEARCHER IS INTERESTED IN HOW WATCHING THE REALITY TELEVISION

SHOW FEATURING FASHION MODELS INFLUENCES THE EATING BEHAVIOR OF
13-YEAR OLD GIRLS.
B. IN THE SAME STUDY, THE AMOUNT OF FOOD EATEN IN ONE DAY IS MEASURED
FOR EACH GIRL AND THE RESEARCHER COMPUTES THE AVERAGE SCORE FOR THE
30 13- YEAR OLD GIRLS. THE AVERAGE SCORE IS AN EXAMPLE OF A ______
Answer: STATISTICS
 DESCRIPTIVE VS INFERENTIAL
STATISTICAL METHODS ARE CLASSIFIED INTO TWO MAJOR CATEGORIES:
A. DESCRIPTIVE
B. INFERENTIAL
IDENTIFY THE FOLLOWING AS DESCRIPTIVE OR INFERENTIAL:
1.According to the court administration of the Philippines, 14% of trial ready civil actions and
equity cases in Metro Manila during 1993 were decided in less than 6 months.
ANSWER: DESCRIPTIVE
2. Cigarettes were associated with 29% of the 4,470 civilian fire deaths in 1989.
ANSWER: DESCRIPTIVE
3. The National eye institute has halted a clinical trial on a type of eye surgery, calling it
ineffective and possibly harmful to a person’s vision
ANSWER: INFERENTIAL
4. Allergy therapy may make bees go away
ANSWER: INFERENTIAL
5. Drinking decaffeinated coffee can raise cholesterol levels by 7% (Philippine Heart
Association).
ANSWER: INFERENTIAL

TYPES OF STATISTICS
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS – METHODS OF ORGANIZING, SUMMARIZING, AND
PRESENTING DATA IN AN INFORMATIVE WAY
•IS THE TOTALITY OF METHODS AND TREATMENTS EMPLOYED IN THE COLLECTION,
DESCRIPTION, AND ANALYSIS OF NUMERICAL DATA.
• ARE TECHNIQUES THAT TAKE RAW SCORES AND ORGANIZE OR SUMMARIZE THEM
IN A FORM THAT IS MORE MANAGEABLE.
• ANOTHER COMMON TECHNIQUE IS TO SUMMARIZE A SET OF SCORES BY
COMPUTING AVERAGE

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
•COLLECT DATA
E.G., SURVEY
•PRESENT DATA
E.G., TABLES AND GRAPHS
•SUMMARIZE DATA
E.G., SAMPLE MEAN

TYPES OF STATISTICS
• INFERENTIAL STATISTICS – THE METHODS USED TO DETERMINE SOMETHING
ABOUT A POPULATION ON THE BASIS OF A SAMPLE
• IS THE LOGICAL PROCESS FROM SAMPLE ANALYSIS TO A GENERALIZATION OR
CONCLUSION ABOUT A POPULATION. IT IS ALSO CALLED STATISTICAL INFERENCE OR
INDUCTIVE STATISTICS.
• CONSISTS OF TECHNIQUES THAT ALLOW US TO STUDY SAMPLES AND THEN MAKE
GENERALIZATIONS ABOUT THE POPULATION FROM WHICH THEY WERE SELECTED.
• BY ANALYZING THE RESULTS FROM THE SAMPLE, WE HOPE TO MAKE GENERAL
STATEMENTS ABOUT THE POPULATION.
• RESEARCHERS USE SAMPLE STATISTICS AS THE BASIS FOR DRAWING
CONCLUSIONS ABOUT POPULATION PARAMETERS.

SAMPLING ERROR:

•IS THE NATURALLY OCCURRING DISCREPANCY,

OR ERROR, THAT EXISTS BETWEEN A SAMPLE
STATISTIC AND THE CORRESPONDING
POPULATION PARAMETER.
•THE UNPREDICTABLE, UNSYSTEMATIC DIFFERENCES THAT EXIST FROM ONE
SAMPLE TO ANOTHER.
 STATISTICS IN THE CONTEXT OF RESEARCH

DATA STRUCTURES,RESEARCH METHODS,AND STATISTICS

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES
EXAMPLE:
1.IS THERE A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE AMOUNT OF VIOLENCE THAT CHILDREN
SEE ON TELEVISION AND THE AMOUNT OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR THEY DISPLAY?
2.IS THERE A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE QUALITY OF BREAKFAST AND LEVEL OF
ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE OF ELEMENTARY SCHOOL CHILDREN?
3.IS THERE A RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE NUMBER OF HOURS OF SLEEP AND
GRADE
POINT AVERAGE FOR COLLEGE STUDENTS?

TWO DATA STRUCTURES

DEFINITION:
CORRELATIONAL METHOD, TWO
DIFFERENT VARIABLES ARE
OBSERVED TO DETERMINE
WHETHER THERE IS A RELATIONSHIP
BETWEEN THEM
LIMITATIONS OF THE CORRELATIONAL
METHOD:
-A CORRELATIONAL STUDY CANNOT
DEMONSTRATE A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP.
-THE RESULTS FROM A
CORRELATIONAL STUDY CAN
DEMONSTRATE THE EXISTENCE OF A
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO
VARIABLES, BUT THEY DO NOT
PROVIDE AN EXPLANATION

II. COMPARING TWO (OR MORE) GROUPS OF

SCORES: EXPERIMENTAL AND
NONEXPERIMENTAL METHODS.
- THE SECOND METHOD FOR EXAMINING THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO
VARIABLES INVOLVES THE COMPARISON OF
TWO OR MORE GROUPS OF SCORES.
-THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VARIABLES IS
EXAMINED BY USING ONE OF THE
VARIABLES TO DEFINE THE GROUPS AND
THEN MEASURING THE SECOND VARIABLE TO
OBTAIN SCORES FOR EACH GROUP
TWO DATA STRUCTURES

THE EXPERIMENTAL METHOD: (THE

EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
STRATEGY)
-THE GOAL OF EXPERIMENTAL STUDY IS TO
DEMONSTRATE A CAUSE�AND-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TWO VARIABLES.
-ATTEMPTS TO SHOW THAT CHANGING THE
VALUE OF ONE VARIABLE
CAUSES CHANGES TO OCCUR IN THE
SECOND VARIABLE.

TWO CHARACTERISTICS THAT DIFFERENTIATE EXPERIMENTS FROM

OTHER TYPES OF RESEARCH STUDIES

1. MANIPULATION: THE RESEARCHER MANIPULATES ONE VARIABLE BY CHANGING

ITS VALUE FROM ONE LEVEL TO ANOTHER. A SECOND VARIABLE IS OBSERVED
(MEASURED) TO DETERMINE THE MANIPULATION CAUSES CHANGES TO OCCUR.
2. CONTROL: THE RESEARCHER MUST EXERCISE CONTROL OVER THE RESEARCH
SITUATION TO ENSURE THAT OTHER, EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES DO NOT INFLUENCE
THE RELATIONSHIP BEING EXAMINED

TWO GENERAL CATEGORIES OF

VARIABLES THAT RESEARCHERS
MUST CONSIDER
1. PARTICIPANT VARIABLE: THESE
CHARACTERISTICS SUCH AS AGE,
GENDER, AND INTELLIGENCE THAT
MAY VARY FROM INDIVIDUAL
TO ANOTHER.
2. ENVIRONMENTAL VARIABLE: THESE
CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ENVIRONMENT SUCH AS LIGHTING,
TIME OF DAY AND WHETHER
CONDITIONS.

TWO DATA STRUCTURES

DEFINITION:
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD, ONE VARIABLE IS MANIPULATED WHILE ANOTHER
VARIABLE IS OBSERVED AND MEASURED. TO ESTABLISH A CAUSE-AND-EFFECT
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE TWO VARIABLES, AN EXPERIMENT ATTEMPTS TO
CONTROL ALL OTHER VARIABLES TO PREVENT THEM FROM INFLUENCING THE
RESULTS