UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS LIPA

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND ARCHITECTURE DEPARTMENT

Written Report No.2:

Theories and principles of tropical design

For the Subject Tropical Design 1

Prepared for

Ar. Joanne Cristabel S. Bernadino

Subject Adviser

Prepared by

John Paul Y. Campued

Researcher

September 27, 2022

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TABLE OF CONTENT

Introduction………………………………….………………………………………….1

Passive Cooling - Design Goals for various Climates...............................…...3

Pros and Cons of Passive Cooling………………………………………..….…….5

Active Cooling……………………………………………..……………...…………...5

Pros and Cons of Active Cooling……………..…………………………………...8

Principles of Passive Design…………………….………………………………...12

Orientation……….……………………………………………………………………12

Ventilation………………………………………………………..……………………13

Landscaping…………………………………………………………………………..13

Thermal Mass……………………..……………………………………………...…..14

Insulation…………………….…………………………………………...……………17

Windows…………………………………………………………………………….…18

Natural Lighting………………………………………………………………………18

Air Movement…………………………………………………………………………19

Principle of air flow………………….……………………………………………….20

Inducing Air Movement…………………………………..………..………………..22

Thermal Comfort……………….………………………………………………….…25

Sea and Land Breeze…………………………………………………………….…..26

Conclusion and Recommendations……………………………………………….28

References…………………………………………………………………………….29

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INTRODUCTION

The Background

Every building ideally is designed to be functional, safe, healthy, beautiful,

having aesthetic value, environmentally friendly, and comfortable. Comfort is one
of the main goals in architectural design. This includes thermal comfort that can be
achieved with passive cooling and active cooling strategies. Szokolay mentioned
that thermal comfort depends on climate variables (sun/radiation, air temperature,
humidity, and wind speed) and several individual factors such as clothes, age and
gender, obesity level, type of food and drink consumed, level of health, and skin
colour. However, active cooling which is by mechanical airing uses electricity which
mostly uses fossil energy that can have a negative impact on the environment and
sustainability. The design of the building should apply a passive cooling design by
adjusting the building to the climate and environment which achieves thermal
comfort in order to not have a negative impact on the environment. Building
construction and operation accounts for around 50% of all energy resources
consumed across the planet. It makes the construction industry the 'most
unsustainable industry on earth'.

Climate has a significant impact on building performance and energy

consumption. In building design it is important to identify, understand and regulate
climate because it has the advantage of reducing the burden of energy costs,
utilizes natural energy, as well as provides a healthy and comfortable environment.

The humid tropical climate has temperatures close to the comfortable

temperature range for humans in tropical climate regions. Hence, it provides
opportunities to design buildings with a local tropical climate approach. In tropical
climates the building should be designed to adapt to the environment and climate
by using the concept of tropical architecture to achieve thermal comfort. Tropical
architecture is a specific design of architectural work that leads to problem solving
caused by tropical climate

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The Purpose

The purpose of this study is to highlight and specify theories and principles
of tropical design and show the considerations and approach that can be made
throughout the process of designing.

The Scope

This study will be focusing on the theories and principles of tropical design.
The study includes passive and active cooling, principles and considerations in
passive design, the aspect of air movement which incorporate air flow, thermal
comfort, as well as the sea and land breeze. Through this research, future house
or building owners will be able to know such aspect of information and create
necessary internal comfort within their specific allotted budget not compromising
the future of their generations.

BODY/ CONTENT

Numerous considerations at all levels of the design phases are necessary

for the integration of passive systems in the architectural design process. Providing
high-efficiency thermal comfort or natural lighting is the goal of this integration.
Performances of passive systems are mostly dependent on ambient and natural
factors including the sun, wind, soil, and water. Therefore, it is important to
investigate and assess how passive systems relate to a construction site and
interact with natural components. After that, passive cooling systems must be
included in the design phase since many architectural features' orientation, height,
materials, shape, and other attributes have an impact on their performance
requirements.
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Passive Cooling - Design Goals for various Climates

Passive cooling or heating approaches play a major role in bringing

architecture closer to the original green, environmental, and vernacular
architecture by using surrounding environmental elements such as solar radiation
and natural ventilation. Passive cooling is an approach that focuses on providing
thermal comfort by controlling heat gains and heat dissipation without involving
mechanical or electrical devices. The performance quality of this approach
depends totally on the interaction of the building’s design and devices with the
surrounding environmental factors, such as sun rays, ambient air temperature,
wind, and humidity, to achieve energy balance for occupants. Therefore,
conducting a thorough analysis of a building’s local climatic conditions is essential
for any passive cooling approach to successfully fulfil its purpose.

In simpler term, passive cooling is where the building design and materials
are used to control temperature in hot weather. To be comfortable, some buildings
require some form of cooling at some time of the year, and this need is increasing
with a warming climate. There are 2 basic components to passive cooling: cooling
the building, and cooling people.

Cooling buildings is about reducing heat gain (for example, by installing

insulation and shading windows, walls and roofs). In addition, it is also for
increasing heat loss and access to cooling sources (for example, by using earth
coupling and encouraging air movement).

On the other hand, Cooling people is about physiological comfort (the

physical factors necessary for comfort; for example, encouraging breezes to
evaporate perspiration and increase body cooling) (psychological factors that
affect our perception of comfort, for example, levels of acclimatisation and air
movement, radiation and conduction).

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Passive cooling is the least expensive means of cooling a home, especially

in environmental terms. There are many ways you can design or modify your home
to achieve comfort through passive cooling.

It is becoming more important as our climate changes. Climate change will

see our average temperatures increase, and extreme events such as heat waves
occur more often. With careful design for passive cooling, we can keep our homes
comfortable and reduce energy costs.

With passive cooling, building envelopes are designed to minimise daytime

heat gain, maximise night-time heat loss, and encourage cool breeze access
when available. Considerations include:

 Designing the floor plan and building form to respond to local climate and
site
 Zoning living and sleeping areas appropriately for climate
 Locating any air-conditioned rooms in thermally protected areas (i.e.
highly insulated, shaded and well-sealed)
 Maximising convective ventilation with high-level windows and ceiling or
roof space vents
 Designing ceilings and positioning furniture for optimum efficiency of fans,
cool breezes and convective ventilation.

Cooling requirements are dictated by climate, so different approaches to passive

cooling are required for:

 Hot humid climates (Climate zone 1), where no heating is required

 Temperate and warm climates (Climate zone 2−6) where both heating and
cooling are required
 Cool and cold climates (Climate zone 7−8) where heating needs are most
important.

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Pros and Cons of Passive Cooling

PROS CONS
 Can be installed as part of your  If using passive cooling with
heat pump system saving time, underfloor heating, care should
money and space. be taken as condensation can
 Low cost to run – only uses build up in the form of dew. We
energy to circulate the brine recommend using a dewpoint
through the system. measurement which will reduce
 100% carbon free if used with the temperature of the cooling
renewable electricity suppliers water to prevent condensation
such as Octopus Energy. of atmospheric moisture.
 Moves the warm energy from  Passive cooling is not as
the building and charges the effective as an Active Cooling
ground with it throughout the system as it doesn't operate at
summer ready to be extracted in the same low water
winter months, increasing temperatures.
efficiency.
 Increased comfort levels.

Active Cooling

An active cooling system uses energy to cool the house. Some examples of
active cooling systems include fans, evaporative air conditioners, and refrigerative
air conditioners such as ‘split systems’ and these systems consume varying
amounts of energy, water and money. Cooling the house needs to be taken into
account at the design stage to ensure that the most effective and efficient system
is installed during construction. This will avoid the need for residents to purchase
cheap, poor quality systems that require installation after construction and have
high running and maintenance costs.

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It can be provided by:

Earth-to-air heat exchanger (ground coupling)

This draws ventilation supply air through buried ducts or tubes (sometimes
referred to as earth tubes). As the temperature of the ground below 3 m is
practically constant, it can be used to substantially reduce ambient air
temperature fluctuations, with the incoming air being heated in the winter and
cooled in the summer.

Open or closed loop water-to-air heat exchanger

This exploits the relatively stable temperature of the earth to

provide water that can cool in the summer and heat in the winter.

Mechanical, or forced ventilation, driven by fans

This might be cooled below outside air temperature by the use of refrigerants,
or by thermal mass, such as thermal labyrinths, or by night time purging.

Chilled water

Chilled water is typically provided by chiller units using absorption

refrigeration or compression refrigeration. It can then be used to provide cool air,
in air handling units (to be ducted around the building), chilled beams, chilled
ceilings, and so on. Chiller units use a refrigerant that boils at a
low temperature and pressure, removing heat from the chilled water, and then
condenses to release that heat, which is rejected to the outside (or recovered).

NB: The use of chilled water to cool the building fabric itself is sometimes
described as 'active thermal mass'.

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Refrigerants

Refrigerants can be used to provide cooling directly to spaces in variable

refrigerant flow (VRF) systems. This is based on the flow of refrigerant between an
external condensing unit and multiple internal evaporators (typically fan coil units).

Evaporative cooling

This can be provided by simple systems, such as misting fans and by

spraying water over the roof of a building, or by
more complex packaged units that draw hot, dry air through a continually
dampened pad and supply cool, humid air to the building.

Indirect evaporative cooling can be provided by the incorporation of heat

exchangers, by the use of cooling towers, or by spraying water over
the cooling coils of conventional chiller units. Typically, evaporative cooling is best
suited to hot, dry climates.

Ice

Ice can be used as an effective means of thermal storage, storing ‘coolth’ in

colder parts of the day to provide cooling during warmer parts of the day.

Active cooling might be provided as part of a heating, ventilation and air

conditioning system (HVAC) which may also include air
filtration and humidity control. The cooling process itself can result
in dehumidification, as cool air is less able to ‘hold’ moisture than warm air. The
term air conditioning is sometimes taken to mean control over air
temperature and humidity, rather than just temperature control in the case
of comfort cooling.

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Pros and Cons of Active Cooling

PROS CONS
 More effective than passive  Requires slightly more energy to
cooling as a set cooling operate than passive cooling
temperature can be maintained making which increases running
 Higher performance in line with costs (still considerably less
traditional air conditioning than air-con)
 Can be installed as part of your  Can be limited by the minimum
heat pump system saving time, allowable temperature of the
money and space cooling circuit or the ability of
 100% carbon free if used with the borehole or water source to
renewable electricity suppliers disperse the heat.
such as Octopus Energy
 Moves the warm energy from
the building and charges the
ground with it throughout the
summer ready to be extracted in
winter months, increasing
efficiency.
 If the brine gets too warm, the
system will become inefficient.
This can be caused when the
building gets so hot that the
temperature of the brine
increases slightly with each
circulation and so the
compressor is unable to lower
the temperature so that it’s
suitably chilled.

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Principles of Passive Design

‘Passive design’ is design

that works with the environment
to exclude unwanted heat or
cold and take advantage of sun
and breezes, therefore avoiding
or minimising the need for
mechanical heating or cooling.
Passive design in the tropics
means designing a building to make the most of natural light and cooling breezes,
and using shading, orientation and appropriate building materials to reduce heat
gain and storage. The use of passive design principles in the tropics results in a
building that is comfortable, energy efficient and results in substantial savings in
running costs of both cooling and lighting.

In simpler term, ‘Passive design’ is design that works with the local climate to
maintain a comfortable temperature in the home. Good passive design should
reduce or eliminate the need for additional heating or cooling depending on your
location and often relies on an active occupant to work properly. A passively
designed home can deliver a lifetime of thermal comfort, low energy bills, and low
greenhouse gas emissions.

With passive design, building features such as orientation, thermal mass,

insulation and glazing work together to take advantage of natural sources of
heating and cooling, such as sun and breezes, and to minimise unwanted heat
gain and loss. It is best to use passive design principles when designing or building
a new home, but many features of passive design can be added through
renovations or simple home improvements.

Passive House is considered the most rigorous voluntary energy-based

standard in the design and construction industry today. Consuming up to 90% less

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heating and cooling energy than conventional buildings, and applicable to almost
any building type or design, the Passive House high-performance building
standard is the only internationally recognized, proven, science-based energy
standard in construction delivering this level of performance.

Passive design strategies are based on four basic principles, notably 1) climate
analysis and comfort; 2) passive heating; 3) passive cooling, and; 4) daylighting.
Clearly, many of the passive design strategies involving heating, cooling, and
daylighting are dependent upon climate, and thus climate analysis is of foremost
importance to the development and application of passive design technologies.
Various elements are associated with effective, passive designs for energy
conservation.

Specifically talking, the main principles of passive design for buildings in the
tropics are summarised below.

• Avoid heat gain

– Orient the building to reduce exposure to midday sun, particularly summer

sun.

– Use materials with low thermal mass (as a general rule). – Shade walls and
windows, particularly any walls with high thermal mass.

– Use glazing on windows that cannot be effectively shaded. – Use insulation,

light colours and heat reflective surfaces.

• Encourage natural ventilation

– Orient the building and windows towards prevailing easterly winds.

– Include operable windows and ceiling vents that enable the building to
naturally ventilate.

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• Make use of natural light

– Install shaded windows.

– Install shaded skylights, light tubes and other natural lighting devices.

• Create cool outdoor areas

– Use verandahs and deep balconies to shade and cool incoming air. – Use
landscaping to provide shade without blocking cooling breezes and use planting
to reduce ground temperature and minimise reflected heat.

All these key principles are linked to and impact each other in the design.
No one principle can be neglected without having a negative impact on the rest.
To effectively create a Passive House building, the design should be looked at
holistically to incorporate all five design principles.

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Passive design consideration

Below are the considerations in passive design:

Orientation

 Orientation is
how a building
is positioned in
relation to the
sun’s paths in
different
seasons, as
well as to
prevailing wind
patterns. In
passive design,
it is also about
how living and
sleeping areas are designed and positioned, either to take
advantage of the sun and wind, or be protected from their effects. It
concerns the position of the building on the site as well as the
arrangement of the rooms within it. In the tropics, a building should
be oriented so that the majority of walls and windows can easily be
shaded from direct sun, while allowing maximum airflow and input of
natural light
 Understanding the daily and seasonal movements of the sun and the
wind assists in orientating a building for optimal efficiency and
comfort.

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 Good orientation can significantly improve your comfort and reduce

your heating and cooling needs. The best orientation for your home
is the one that suits your climate zone.

Ventilation

 Ventilation is the
intentional
introduction of
outdoor air into a
building. All
homes require
ventilation to
maintain good
indoor air quality.
It increases
oxygen levels and
dilutes and displaces carbon dioxide and airborne pollutants. It can also
be used to increase thermal comfort and reduce humidity.
 Designing a building in a way that maximises natural ventilation will
greatly reduce the need for energy-intensive air conditioning. Air
movement over the body, even if the air is not much cooler, creates a
feeling of cool due to the evaporation of moisture from the skin.

Landscaping

 Landscape design, also known as landscape architecture and landscaping,

is the arranging and modifying of features in a landscape, urban
area or garden. It involves the planning, designing and managing of open
spaces to create urban and rural environments.

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 Landscape design can be incorporated into a wide variety of projects,

from parks and green spaces, to gardens, sports sites and
large estates such as housing developments, business
parks, universities, hospital complexes, and so on. It may be used to
regenerate or improve sites such as brownfield sites or
contaminated sites and may be part of a biodiversity
offsetting programme to help mitigate for the loss of habitat that may result
from a new development.
 Among its many uses
and benefits, landscape can help soften spaces between buildings, can
provide links between spaces, can provide a route for people, water and
animals, can provide a space for contemplation, assembly or recreation,
can provide a space for gardening,
can help improve environmental quality, and so on. A well-designed and
maintained landscape can attract people to a site and can have a
positive impact on property value and personal wellbeing.
 Well planned landscaping can enhance the amenity and aesthetics of a
building, while promoting biodiversity, filtering storm water runoff and
providing habitat for native species.
 Landscaping can reduce the artificial cooling requirements of a building by
providing shade and channelling cool breezes through the building. Well
planned landscaping can help to lower temperatures in the vicinity of a
building, reduce the ground temperatures around a building, and can be
used to cool incoming air.

Thermal Mass

 Thermal mass describes the ability of a material to absorb, store and

release heat energy. Thermal mass can be used to even-out variations in
internal and external conditions, absorbing heat as temperatures rise and

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releasing it as they fall. In building design, this can be useful to even-out

and delay extremes in thermal conditions, stabilising the internal
environment and so reducing the demand for building services systems.
 Thermal mass can be used to store high
thermal loads by absorbing heat introduced by external conditions, such
as solar radiation, or by internal sources such as appliances and lighting, to
be released when conditions are cooler. This can be beneficial both during
the summer and the winter.
 Thermal mass can be introduced to store a specific aspect of
thermal energy. For example, a trombe wall placed in front of a south-
facing window will absorb solar radiation and then slowly re-release it into
the enclosed space.
 It can also be used in combination with ventilation strategies, for
example, concrete floor slabs can be used to absorb heat gains during the
day. This heat can then be vented to the outside during the night, leaving
the mass available to absorb more heat the following day.

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 In tropical climates, the use of lightweight construction materials with low

thermal mass is preferable, particularly on walls that are exposed to the sun.
This is because lightweight construction materials such as timber, respond
quickly to cooling breezes allowing the building to cool faster. These
materials still require insulation to prevent direct heat transfer and to
improve the efficiency of mechanical cooling if used.
 High thermal mass materials work best in temperate climates where there
is a significant change in temperature
between night and day. During summer,
the heat stored in thermal mass during
the day is flushed out by the cooler night
temperatures, and the cool stored in the
mass overnight is released into the
building during the day.
 Warm nights in the tropics mean that
heat is not flushed from the thermal
mass and instead radiates back into the
building.
 Use of high thermal mass construction
materials is therefore generally not
recommended in the tropics. If high
thermal mass materials are used, the
building should be well shaded to avoid
heat gain and insulated internally to
reduce heat transfer. Recent research
has shown that innovative, well
insulated and shaded thermal mass
designs have been able to lower night
time temperatures by 3 to 4°Cin tropical
areas with a low level of temperature fluctuation between day and night.
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Insulation

 Insulation is a material that resists or blocks the flow of heat energy.

Insulation is used to stop heat inside the home from escaping in winter,
and to stop heat outside the home from entering in summer.
 The best type and location of insulation will depend on your local climate,
and whether the insulation is mainly needed to keep heat out or in (or
both). The first step towards getting a good result from your insulation is
to understand how your climate will affect the building.
 For insulation to be effective, it should work in conjunction with good
passive design. For example, if insulation is installed but the house is
not properly shaded in summer, built-up heat can be kept inside by the
insulation, creating an ‘oven’ effect.
 Insulation acts as a barrier to heat flow and is essential for keeping your
home warm
in winter and
cool in
summer. A
well-
insulated
and well-
designed
home
provides
year-round
comfort,
cutting
cooling and
heating bills, and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

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Windows

 Encouraging natural air flow is integral to passive design in the tropics.

Windows are an important way to encourage and direct air flow into a
building.
 For many commercial buildings, air-conditioning will be used throughout the
year, however buildings can be designed to operate without air-conditioning
in cooler months. This allows for greater flexibility in catering to the needs
of building users, and will save energy and money by switching air-
conditioning off for part of the year.
 Louvres and casement style windows allow building users to control how
much natural air enters the building. Well-placed louvres or windows, at
floor level and at the highest point of the room, create convection air flow
which draws air into the building and creates breezes to cool occupants.
 In a tropical climate, windows should ideally be shaded from direct sunlight
all year round and should open to allow air flow. Where effective shading
cannot be achieved, insulating windows against heat transfer can reduce
cooling costs.
Natural Lighting

 Buildings should be designed to maximise the amount of natural light that

enters the building, particularly workplaces. This can lead to significant
energy savings by reducing the need for artificial lighting and has been
shown to improve productivity.
 In a naturally well-lit space, artificial lighting should not be required for
general activities during daylight hours. In larger buildings, task lighting may
be required at work areas not directly near a window, as windows are only
effective for letting natural light into a building up to a distance of 4-5 metres.
It is therefore recommended that light switching be designed to allow
perimeter lights to be adjusted separately from other lighting so that the
benefits of natural light can be realised.
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 The effectiveness of
natural light can be
improved by using light
colours on walls, floors
and horizontal
surfaces, and by
aligning internal walls
and ceilings to
maximise light
reflection from light
sources. The benefits
of natural light must be
balanced with
strategies to manage
glare and heat gain. For this reason, all glass should be shaded from direct
sun or incorporate glazing technologies that reduce heat transfer.
 In addition to windows, natural light access can be obtained through
skylights, light reflectors and similar installations.

Air Movement

The rising of warm air and the descending of cool air causes air movement.
Warmer air rising from the surface of the land causes a region of low pressure. As
air rises, it cools, goes toward water's surface where it falls, builds up a pressure
region, and pushes cold air in the direction of the land. The wind is produced by
the movement of these regions.

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Principles of air flow

In order for air to flow, a difference in pressure is required as well as a

continuous path between the two areas. Air flows from a high pressure to a low
pressure, never from a low pressure to a high pressure. The objective to keep in
mind when building a home is to reduce air flow from the interior to the exterior as
much as possible. By reducing the amount of air flow through a building, you are
reducing the amount of heat loss.

Air Leakage Locations

Some leakage areas within a home are unavoidable and will always occur.
Examples include: vents, drains, chimney, plumbing stacks, etc. Insulating around
these areas will ensure that the leakage area is reduced as much as possible. As
an insulator it is important to make sure that all areas that require insulation are
insulated or air sealed to reduce air flow. (This is because insulation should not be
used around chimneys for various reasons.)

Air Flow Effects

Air flow in buildings is complex, time dependent and multi-directional. A

perfectly airtight air barrier system is unlikely to be achieved in practice, so it is
also desirable to control the air pressure differences driving the air flow. A tight
building envelope minimizes the amount of air required to provide pressurization.
In winter, cold air coming in from the exterior through leakage is heated when
entering the conditioned space. The more air that is brought in, the greater the
heating load, the greater the operating cost and the greater the drying effect
(referred to as over-ventilation).

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There are three main factors that contribute to air flow in a home:

 Each effect creates pressure differences across the envelope

 Flow is always from high to low pressure

During the heating season, air infiltration generally occurs in the lower part of
the building while air exfiltration occurs in the upper part of a building.

For air flow to occur, there must be both:

 A pressure difference between two points

 A continuous flow path or opening connecting the points.

Primary mechanisms that generate the pressure differences required for air
flow within and through buildings include:

 Stack effect or buoyancy: pressures are generated by differences in air

density with temperature (i.e. hot air rises and cold air sinks).
 Mechanical air handling equipment and appliances: fans and blowers cause
the movement of air within buildings and through enclosures. If more air is
supplied to a room than is exhausted, the excess air leaks out of the space
and the room is said to be under a positive air pressure.
 The magnitude of the pressure difference can also vary considerably
depending on the shape of the building, the exposure, the height and local
conditions of outdoor temperature and humidity.

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Air Flow Control

Involves 3 interactive strategies:

 Preventing uncontrolled air leakage through the building envelope.

 Providing for fresh-air supply and the exhaust of stale air.
 Providing draft and combustion air for fuel-burning appliances.

Inducing Air Movement

Air movement through buildings result from the difference in pressure

indoors and outdoors, which may be created either by natural forces (wind induced
pressure difference and stack effect e.g. pressure difference induced by
temperature gradients between the inside and outside of the building) or
mechanical power (fan). Air flow patterns are the result of differences in the
pressure distribution around and within the building. Air moves from high pressure
regions to low pressure ones.

Forced air movement inside the building must be used when the natural
driving forces are inadequate or when an unacceptable noise or security problem
is generated by opening the windows. Box, oscillating and ceiling fans could
increase the interior air velocities and convection exchange improving the sense
of comfort. Increased air movement in a room may create comfortable conditions
with 2°C increase in allowable space temperature.

Successful design of naturally ventilated building requires a good

understanding of the air flow patterns around it and the effect of the neighboring
buildings. The objective is to ventilate the largest possible part of the indoor space.
Fulfilment of this objective depends on window location, interior design and wind
characteristics.

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New buildings generally allow for 0.2 to 0.5 air changes per hour (ACH) by
infiltration, while with the windows wide open during summer, it is possible to
achieve 15- 20 ACH. Even larger air changes, around 30 ACH, can be achieved
by natural means, but this requires a large number of window openings carefully
placed within the space.

Wind induced pressure differences

Positive pressure is created on the building sides that face the wind
(windward sides) whereas suction regions are formed on the opposite sides
(leeward sides) and on the side walls. This results in negative pressure inside the
building, which is sufficient to introduce large flows through the building openings.
In a general case, n airflow of air is induced on the windward side and an outflow
on the leeward side. Airflow through an external opening is mainly attributed to a
wind induced pressure difference across it.

The figure above illustrates the wind flow pattern distribution around a building
with no openings. As the wind flows past the building, a positive pressure is created
on the windward façade. The wind is diverted and a negative pressure is created
along the side walls due to the high speed of the flow along them. A large, slow-
moving eddy on the leeward facade produces a smaller suction.

Stack Effect

Stack effect relies on thermal forces set up by the density difference

(caused by temperature differences) between the indoor and the outdoor air. It can
occur simply through an open window (when the air is still); the warmer and lighter
indoor air will flow out at the top, and the cooler, denser outdoor air will flow in at
the bottom.

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This effect is utilized in multi-storey apartments for ventilation of the shafts of

toilets, bathrooms, kitchen, etc. Stack effect occurs in tall buildings, particularly at
places with vertical passages such as stairwells, elevators or shafts. The stack
pressure decreases with height.

Air flow through large openings is usually bi- directional. In the general case,
cold air flows in at the lower part of the opening, while warmer air flows out from
the upper part. In general, the air velocity decrease and becomes zero at a height
of hn from the bottom of the opening. At that level, the so called neutral level, the
pressure difference across the opening is zero.

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Thermal Comfort

According to the international standard EN ISO 7730, thermal comfort is:

“that condition of mind which expresses satisfaction with the thermal environment”.
In simple words, is the comfortable condition where a person is not feeling too hot
or too cold.

Human thermal comfort cannot be expressed in degrees and can’t be

defined by an average range of temperatures. It is a very personal experience and
a function of many criteria, which differs from person to person in the same
environmental space. The Health and Safety Executive estimates that reasonable
comfort can be established when a minimum of 80% indoor occupants are feeling
comfortable with the thermal environment.

Thermal comfort is a cumulative effect resulting from a series of environmental

and personal factors. Environmental factors include:

 Air temperature — The air contact temperature measured by the dry bulb
temperature (DBT)
 Air velocity (AV) — The air contact velocity measured in m/s
 Radiant temperature (RT) — The temperature of a person’s
surroundings; generally expressed as mean radiant temperature (MRT)
which is a weighted average of the temperature of the surfaces
surrounding a person and any strong mono-directional radiation, such
as the solar radiation
 Relative humidity (RH) — The ratio between the current amount of vapor
in the air and the maximum amount of water vapor that the air can hold
at that air temperature, expressed as a percentage

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This section looks at the

thermal aspects of buildings. The
basic model is shown in the
diagram and consists of three
parts, Climate, Buildings and
People. All these parts interact
both directly and indirectly.

In order to help the

designer. a DESIGN MATRIX is
provided, which helps to pull
together the three basic aspects of
the model so as to help the
designer to make a successful
building.

Another tool is provided, the

PERFORMANCE ANALYSER
which shows how different
elements of the building - thermal
mass, insulation, window size,
orientation and shading help to
optimise indoor comfort and
energy use in different climates.

Sea and Land Breeze

Sea Breeze

In coastal areas, during the day, land gets heated up faster than water, while
water takes time to acquire the same temperature as there in the land. Hence, the
air above the land gets warmed up and rises, while making a region of low pressure
above land. Comparatively, the air above the sea is cooler and has a higher
pressure. Thus, once the air above the land rises up by convection, it creates a
space for the cool breeze from the sea to flow in. This is called Sea Breeze.

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Land Breeze

At night, the water cools down more slowly than the land. So, the cool air
from the land moves towards the sea. The heating capacity of water is higher than
that of sand. Hence, the sea water will retain heat much better as compared to the
sand present at the land, During the night, the land cools down faster as compared
to water while creating a high-pressure region over land and resulting in a low-
pressure zone above sea water. The air above the water is comparatively warmer
and rises up, thus creating space for cool wind over land to move in towards the
sea. This is called Land Breeze.

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CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS

This study examined and addressed a variety of passive cooling systems in

terms of their design implications and architectural enhancements. The constant
growth in the energy consumption of climate control requires a deeper examination
of the urban environment and its impacts on buildings, as well as a broader use of
passive cooling technologies. As a result, this paper suggests that it should focus
on better understanding the weather systems that surround buildings as well as
the comfort demands that occur throughout the cyclical circumstances of summer.

It is critical to improve quality, develop improved passive and dynamic

cooling systems, and eventually develop improved building envelope materials.

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COOLmob, Northern Territory Government, Darwin.

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Australia. Acumen, Issue 02, May. Australian Institute of Architects.

 Katlin Klingenberg (2022), Retrieved from

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 Koenigsberger O, Ingersoll T, Mayhew A & Szokolay S (1974). Manual of

tropical housing and building — Part 1 climatic design, Longman, London.

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 Northern Territory Government of Australia, Building and energy efficiency.

 Prelgauskas E (2003). Arid climates and enhanced natural ventilation.

Environment design guide, DES 20. Australian Institute of Architects,
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 Prelgauskas E (2010). Climate responsive design: cooling systems for hot

 Shashua-Bar L, Pearlmutter D, Erell E (2009) The cooling efficiency of

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 Thani, SKSO, Mohamad NHN, Idilfitri S (2012) Modification of urban

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 Your Home, Australian Government (2022) Retrieved from

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