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Friederich Gauss
The Prince of Mathematics
Pauca, sed matura
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Born 1777 in
Braunschweig
(Brunswick), Germany to
Gebhard Dietrich Gauss, a
gardener and bricklayer,
and Dorothea Gauss, the
daughter of a stonecutter
• Supposedly showed
extreme genius as a
toddler, correcting his
father’s arithmetic and
teaching himself to read.
Maybe.
Carl Friederich Gauss
• The classic Gauss story: • Gauss figured thusly:
• In his arithmetic class,
his teacher, a man
named Büttner, told the
class to write down all …and so on, giving a sum
the numbers from 1 to of 101 for each pair taken
100 and add them. form the beginning and
• Gauss wrote a single end of the sequence.
number (5050) on his There are 50 such pairs,
slate, and handed it in. and
Carl Friederich Gauss
• To his credit, Büttner was • In 1792 he began study at
impressed, and got Gauss a the Brunswick Collegium
better arithmetic book. Carolinum, with the help of
• Büttner’s assistant, Martin a stipend from Ferdinand,
Bartels, was also impressed. the Duke of Brunswick.
• Büttner and Bartels helped • Here, Gauss independently
Gauss get into the discovered Bode's law, the
Gymnasium (secondary binomial theorem and the
school) in 1788. arithmetic‐ geometric
mean, as well as the law of
quadratic reciprocity and
the prime number theorem.
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Entered University of
Göttingen in 1795,
where he became
friends with Farkas
Bolyai (with whom he
corresponded for
years).
• Here, Gauss’ teacher
was Abraham Gotthelf
Kästner, whom Gauss
didn’t think much of.
Carl Friederich Gauss
• He left Göttingen • Published a book on
without a degree, number theory,
returned to Brunswick, Disquisitiones
earned a degree, and at Arithmeticae , in 1801.
the request of the Duke, It was largely ignored
submitted a dissertation for 20 years.
to the University of • Used least‐squares
Helmstedt on what is approximation to
now known as the predict the location of
Fundamental Theorem Ceres, a dwarf planet
of Algebra. within the asteroid belt.
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Married Johanna Osthoff in 1805.
• In a letter to Bolyai: “A wondrously fair madonna
countenance, a mirror of spiritual peace and
health, kind, somewhat romantic eyes, a perfect
figure and size (that is something) a clear
understanding and an intelligent conversation
(that is also something), but a quiet, happy,
modest, and chaste angelic soul which can harm
no one, that is the best.”
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Gauss’ father, his wife • From a tear‐stained letter
Johanna, and one of their found by his grandson:
three children all died in “Lonesome, I sneak about
the next four years. the happy people who
• So did Ferdinand, the surround me here. If for
Duke who supported him. a few moments they
• Gauss remarried and had make me forget my
three more children, but sorrow, it comes back
life didn’t seem to hold as with double force….Even
much joy thereafter. the bright sky makes me
sadder…”
Carl Friederich Gauss
• “O, beseech the Eternal
– could he refuse you
anything? – only this
one thing, that your
infinite kindheartedness
may always hover and
float, living, before me,
helping me, poor son of
earth that I am, to
struggle after you as
best I can.”
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Was appointed head • His second wife died
astronomer at the after a long illness in
observatory in 1831.
Göttingen in 1807; • In 1831 Gauss began a
made astronomical 6‐year collaboration
observations up until with Wilhelm Weber,
age 70. probably Gauss’ closest
• Helped with a geodesic friend outside of Bolyai.
survey in the 1820’s.
Carl Friederich Gauss
• He became estranged • A second son left for
from one of his sons, America and eventually
who he encouraged not became successful in a
to go into mathematics St. Louis boot and shoe
in order that the family business with his
name remain unsullied. brother‐in‐law:
• His son left for America Fallenstein and Gauss.
and eventually became
a successful
businessman. They
later reconciled.
Description of Gauss as Teacher
• Did not enjoy teaching “... usually he sat in a
because he felt his students comfortable attitude, looking
were generally down, slightly stooped, with
underprepared. hands folded above his lap. He
• Richard Dedekind, one of spoke quite freely, very clearly,
his final doctoral students, simply and plainly: but when
wrote a description of he wanted to emphasize a new
Gauss as a teacher. viewpoint ... then he lifted his
head, turned to one of those
sitting next to him, and gazed
at him with his beautiful,
penetrating blue eyes during
the emphatic speech. “
Description of Gauss as Teacher
“If he proceeded from an explanation of principles
to the development of mathematical formulas, then
he got up, and in a stately very upright posture he
wrote on a blackboard beside him in his peculiarly
beautiful handwriting: he always succeeded
through economy and deliberate arrangement in
making do with a rather small space. For numerical
examples, on whose careful completion he placed
special value, he brought along the requisite data
on little slips of paper.”
Carl Friederich Gauss
• Died in his sleep in
Göttingen in 1855.
After His Death, The King Honored Him
• Georgius V. rex
Hannoverge
Mathematicorum
principi
(George V. King of
Hanover
to the Prince of
mathematicians)
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• At age 19, Gauss demonstrated a method for
constructing (with straightedge and compass)
a regular heptadecagon (17‐gon).
• In fact, he proved that regular n‐gons can only
be constructed when ,
where the ’s are Fermat primes of the form
.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• At age 19, Gauss proved the law of quadratic
reciprocity, which tells the conditions under
which is solvable.
• The same year, he independently discovered the
Prime Number Theorem, which states that
or in other words, that the prime numbers less
than x are distributed among the positive integers
roughly like
Prime Number Theorem
Graph of
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• Again at age 19, he proved that every positive
integer is representable as a sum of at most
three triangular numbers; or as he put it in his
notebook, “Heureka! .”
• And to round out his 19th year, he published a
result on the number of solutions of
polynomials with coefficients in finite fields.
• 1796 was a very good year (although many
results weren’t published until later – or ever).
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• For his doctoral dissertation, he proved the
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra. This one
the first of four proofs he provided through his
life, the last more rigorous (by modern
standards) than all the others.
• Every polynomial with complex coefficients
has at least one complex root.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• In his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae, he
introduced modular arithmetic, which
provided an organizational framework and
basis for much of elementary number theory.
• if and only if .
• and
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• Likely developed the technique of least‐
squares ten years before Legendre published
it (Legendre accused him of plagiarism). Used
it to help find Ceres again after it disappeared
behind the sun.
• Came to understand the logical consistency of
non‐Euclidean Geometry as a young man, but
never did publish it. We can look at this in
some detail.
Gauss on Geometry
• “On the supposition that Euclidean geometry is not
valid, it is easy to show that similar figures do not exist;
in that case, the angles of an equilateral triangle vary
with the side in which I see no absurdity at all. The
angle is a function of the side and the sides are
functions of the angle, a function which, of course, at
the same time involves a constant length. It seems
somewhat of a paradox to say that a constant length
could be given a priori as it were, but in this again I see
nothing inconsistent. Indeed it would be desirable that
Euclidean geometry were not valid, for then we should
possess a general a priori standard of measure.“ –
Letter to Gerling, 1816
Gauss on Geometry
• "I am convinced more and more that the
necessary truth of our geometry cannot be
demonstrated, at least not by the human intellect
to the human understanding. Perhaps in another
world, we may gain other insights into the nature
of space which at present are unattainable to us.
Until then we must consider geometry as of equal
rank not with arithmetic, which is purely a priori,
but with mechanics.“ – Letter to Olbers, 1817
Gauss on Geometry
• " There is no doubt that it can be rigorously established
that the sum of the angles of a rectilinear triangle
cannot exceed 180°. But it is otherwise with the
statement that the sum of the angles cannot be less
than 180°; this is the real Gordian knot, the rocks which
cause the wreck of all.... I have been occupied with the
problem over thirty years and I doubt if anyone has
given it more serious attention, though I have never
published anything concerning it. ”
• (“Over thirty years” puts the start date before 1794, or
before age 17.)
Gauss on Geometry
• "The assumption that the angle sum is less than 180°
leads to a peculiar geometry, entirely different from
Euclidean, but throughout consistent with itself. I have
developed this geometry to my own satisfaction so
that I can solve every problem that arises in it with the
exception of the determination of a certain constant
which cannot be determined a priori. The larger one
assumes this constant the more nearly one approaches
the Euclidean geometry, an infinitely large value makes
the two coincide. The theorems of this geometry seem
in part paradoxical, and to the unpracticed absurd; but
on a closer and calm reflection it is found that in
themselves they contain nothing impossible....”
Gauss on Geometry
• “All my efforts to discover some contradiction, some
inconsistency in this Non‐Euclidean geometry have been
fruitless, the one thing in it that seems contrary to reason is
that space would have to contain a definitely determinate
(though to us unknown) linear magnitude. However, it
seems to me that notwithstanding the meaningless word‐
wisdom of the metaphysicians we know really too little, or
nothing, concerning the true nature of space to confound
what appears unnatural with the absolutely impossible.
Should Non‐Euclidean geometry be true, and this constant
bear some relation to magnitudes which come within the
domain of terrestrial or celestial measurement, it could be
determined a posteriori.“ – Letter to F. A. Taurinus, 1824.
Gauss on Geometry
• “There is also another subject, which with me is nearly
forty years old, to which I have again given some thought
during leisure hours, I mean the foundations of geometry....
Here, too, I have consolidated many things, and my
convictions has, if possible become more firm that
geometry cannot be completely established on a priori
grounds. In the mean time I shall probably not for a long
time yet put my very extended investigations concerning
this matter in shape for publication, possibly not while I
live, for I fear the cry of the Bœotians which would arise
should I express my whole view on this matter.” ‐ Letter to
Bessel, 1829.
• Forty year earlier would have been about 1789, with Gauss
about 12 years of age.
Gauss on Geometry
• The “Bœotians” he refers to are the followers of the
philosopher Immanuel Kant, who insisted that “the
concept of [Euclidean] space is by no means of
empirical origin, but is an inevitable necessity of
thought.”
• Gauss never did make his work on non‐Euclidean
geometry known publicly, partly because he didn’t
want to be drawn into debates with the Kantians, and
partly because he was a perfectionist and only
published completed works of his mathematical
results. “Few but ripe” was his personal motto.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• Given a point on a
surface, find the normal.
All the planes containing
that normal intersect the
surface in curves. The
two curves with largest
and smallest radius of
curvature (R and r, say)
always meet at right
angles; their curvatures
are the principal
curvatures.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• The Gaussian curvature is
defined by .
• It can be positive, negative,
or zero.
• “Remarkable Theorem:”
Gaussian curvature of a
surface can be determined
from the measurements of
length on the surface itself.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• While working in astronomy, Gauss realized
that measurement errors produced a bell‐
shaped curve – now called a Gaussian
distribution or more popularly a normal
distribution.
• Made the first systematic investigation into
the convergence of a series.
Gauss’ Mathematical
Accomplishments
• Published works fill “only” 12 volumes, as
compared to Euler’s 70 volumes and Cauchy’s
27 volumes.
• “A cathedral is not a cathedral until the last
piece of scaffolding is removed.”
• “Thou, nature, are my goddess; to thy laws my
services are bound.”
Carl Friederich Gauss, or Mr. Darcey?