08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.

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CHAPTER 8
Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Getting Started, p. 446 b) y
40
1 1 30
1. a) 2 5
5 25 20
b) 1
c) !36 5 6
10
x
d) "3
125 5 5 –4 –3 –2 –1 0
–10
1 2
e) 2 !121 5 211
D 5 5xPR6, R 5 5yPR 0 y . 06,
f) a 3 b 5 a b 5
27 2 3 2 9
Å8 2 4 y-intercept 1, horizontal asymptote y 5 0
(215) 7 c) y
2. a) 3 5 3 5 2187 80
b) (22)(121 (210)) 5 (22)2 5 4 60
c) 10(926) 5 103 5 1000 40
d) 7(61 (23)2(21)) 5 74 5 2401 20 x
Q1 R
2
e) 8(2) 3 5 83 5 4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
Q34 1 4 2 2 R
5 4 5 !4 5 2
1 1 1
2
–20
D 5 5xPR6, R 5 5yPR 0 y . 226,
f) 4
3. a) (2m)(2m)(2m) 5 8m 3
1 y-intercept 21, horizontal asymptote y 5 22
b) a 28b 210 5 8 10 x16
ab 5. a) i) add 6, divide by 3; y 5
c) "16x 6 5 40 x 0 3
3
ii) add five, take the square root;
d) x (522)y (221) 5 x 3y y 5 6 !x 1 5
e) (2d 4 )a 2 b 5 2d (422)c 2 5 2d 2c 2
c2 x
Ä6
iii) divide by 6, take the cube root; y 5 3
d
21 iv) subtract 3, take the square root, add 4;
f) a 3 3 b 5 "
1
y 5 6 !x 2 3 1 4
3 3
x 5x
"x
4. a) y b) The inverses of (i) and (iii) are functions.
40 6. a) 12 h 4 4 h per doubling 5 3
30 (100)(23 ) 5 800 bacteria
20
b) 24 h 4 4 h per doubling 5 6
(100)(26 ) 5 6400 bacteria
10
x c) 3.5 days 3 24 h>day 4 4 h per doubling 5 21
–2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 (100)(221 ) 5 209 715 200
–10 d) 7 days 3 24 h>day 4 4 h per doubling 5 42
100(242 ) 5 4.4 3 1015
D 5 5xPR6, R 5 5yPR 0 y . 06, 7. x 5 time in years y 5 ending population
y-intercept 1; horizontal asymptote y 5 0 y 5 15 000(1 2 0.012)x
y 5 15 000(0.988)15
y 5 12 515 people

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8. Similarities Differences 2. To write the inverse in exponential form, replace

f(x) by y and then switch x and y. Then rewrite in
• same y-intercept • one is always increasing, the
• same shape other is always decreasing logarithmic form.
• same horizontal asymptote • different end behaviour a) i) y 5 4x
• both are always positive • reflections of each other x 5 4y
across the y-axis
ii) log4 x 5 y
b) i) y 5 8x
8.1 Exploring the Logarithmic x 5 8y
Function, p. 451 ii) log8 x 5 y
1 x
1. a) Inverse function: x 5 4 y or f 21 (x) 5 log4 x c) i) y 5 a b
3
y
1 y
1 x x5a b
3
–1 0 1 2 3 4 ii) log31 x 5 y
–1
1 x
–2
d) i) y 5 a b
–3 5
1 y
–4 x5a b
5
b) Inverse function: x 5 8 y or f 21 (x) 5 log8 x ii) log51 x 5 y
y 3. All the graphs have the same basic shape, but
1 the last two are reflected over the x-axis, compared
x
with the first two. All the graphs have the same
–1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 x-intercept, 1. All have the same vertical asymptote,
–2 x 5 0.
–3 4. Locate the point on the graph that has 8 as its
–4 x-coordinate. This point is (8, 3). The y-coordinate
of this point is the solution to 2y 5 8, y 5 3.
1 y
c) x 5 a b
y
c) Inverse function: x 5 ( 13) or f 21 (x) 5 log(13 ) x 5. a) x 5 3 y
y 4
4 b) x 5 10 y d) x 5 m y
3 6. a) log3 x 5 y c) log1 x 5 y
4
2 b) log10 x 5 y d) logm x 5 y
1 7. a) x 5 5 y c) x 5 3 y
x
1 y
–1 0 1 2 3 4 b) x 5 10 y d) x 5 a b
–1 4
x x
8. a) y 5 5 c) y 5 3
y
d) Inverse function: x 5 ( 15) or f 21 (x) 5 log(15 ) x 1 x
b) y 5 10 x d) y 5 a b
y 4
x x
4 9. a) 2 5 4; x 5 2 d) 5 5 1; x 5 0
1
3 x
b) 3 5 27; x 5 3 e) 2x 5 ; x 5 21
2 2
f) 3 5 !3; x 5
x x 1
1 c) 4 5 64; x 5 4
x 2
10. If a positive base is raised to any power, the
–1 0 1 2 3 4
–1 resulting value is positive. There is therefore no
way to raise positive 3 to a power and wind up with
negative 9.

8-2 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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11. a) 22 5 log2 x 8.2 Transformations of Logarithmic

2–2 5 x
1 Functions, pp. 457–458
x5
4 1. The general logarithmic function is
f(x) 5 a log10 (k(x 2 d)) 1 c
a , 22b
1
4 a) a 5 3; produces a vertical stretch by a factor of 3
21 5 log2 x b) k 5 2; produces horizontal compression by a
2–1 5 x factor of 12
1 c) d 5 25; produces a vertical translation 5 units
x5 down
2
d) c 5 24; produces a horizontal translation 4 units
a , 21b
1
left.
2
2. a) (a) A vertical stretch by a factor of 3 takes
0 5 log2 x
20 5 x
( 101 , –1) to ( 101 , –3) , (1, 0) to (1, 0), and (10, 1) to
(10, 3).
x51
(b) A horizontal compression by a factor of 12 takes
(1, 0)
1 5 log2 x ( 101 , –1) to ( 201 , –1) , (1, 0) to ( 12, 0) , and (10, 1) to
21 5 x (5, 1).
x52 (c) A vertical translation 5 units down takes ( 101 , –1)
(2, 1) to ( 101 , –6) , (1, 0) to (1, –5), and (10, 1) to (10, –4).
2 5 log2 x (d) A horizontal translation 4 units to the left takes
22 5 x ( 101 , –1) to (–3109 , –1), (1, 0) to ( –3, 0) , and (10, 1)
x54 to (6, 1).
(4, 2) b) (a) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
b) 22 5 log10 x (b) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
10–2 5 x (c) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
1 (d) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 246, R 5 5yPR6
x5
100 3. a) a 5 5; c 5 3; f(x) 5 5 log10 x 1 3
a
1 b) a 5 21 (reflection in the x-axis);
, 22b
100 k 5 3 (compression with a factor of 3);
21 5 log10 x f(x) 5 2log10 (3x)
10–1 5 x c) c 5 23; d 5 24; f(x) 5 log10 (x 1 4) 2 3
1 d) a 5 21; d 5 4; f(x) 5 2log10 (x 2 4)
x5 4. i) a) a 5 24 resulting in a reflection in the
10
x-axis and a vertical stretch by a factor of 4; c 5 5
a , 21b
1
10 resulting in a translation 5 units up.
0 5 log10 x b) A vertical stretch by a factor of 4 followed by a
0
10 5 x reflection in the x-axis and a translation 5 units up
x51 takes (1, 0) to (1, 5).
(1, 0) A vertical stretch by a factor of 4 followed by a
1 5 log10 x reflection in the x-axis and a translation 5 units up
1
10 5 x takes (10, 1) to (10, 1).
x 5 10 c) vertical asymptote is x 5 0
(10, 1) d) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
2 5 log10 x ii) a) a 5 12 resulting in a vertical compression by a
10 2 5 x factor of 12 ; d 5 6 resulting in a horizontal translation
x 5 100 6 units to the right; c 5 3 resulting in a vertical
(100, 2) translation 3 units up.

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b) A vertical compression by a factor of 21 followed b) A reflection in the y-axis followed by a translation

by a translation 6 units to the right and a translation 2 units to the left takes (1, 0) to (23, 0)
3 units up takes (1, 0) to (7, 3). A reflection in the y-axis followed by a translation
A vertical compression by a factor of 12 followed by 2 units to the left takes (10, 1) to (212, 1).
a translation 6 units to the right and a translation c) vertical asymptote is x 5 22
3 units up takes (10, 1) to ( 16, 312) . d) D 5 5xPR 0x , 226, R 5 5yPR6
5. a) vertical stretch by a factor of 3;
c) vertical asymptote is x 5 6
d) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 66, R 5 5yPR6
vertical translation 3 units up
D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
iii) a) k 5 3 resulting in a horizontal compression
by a factor of 13; c 5 24 resulting in a vertical shift y
4 units down. 5
b) A horizontal compression by a factor of 13
followed by a translation 4 units down takes (1, 0) x
to ( 13, 24) . 0 5 10 15
A horizontal compression by a factor of 13 followed by
a translation 4 units down takes (10, 1) to ( 313, 23) . –5
c) vertical asymptote is x 5 0
d) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
iv) a) a 5 2 resulting in a vertical stretch by a factor –10
of 2; k 5 22 resulting in a horizontal compression
by a factor of 12 and a reflection in the y-axis; b) reflection in the x-axis;
d 5 22 resulting in a horizontal translation 2 units horizontal translation 6 units to the right
to the left. D 5 5xPR 0 x . 266, R 5 5yPR6
b) A horizontal compression by a factor of 12, a y
reflection in the y-axis, and a vertical stretch by a 10
factor of 2, followed by a translation 2 units to the
left takes (1, 0) to ( 2112, 0) .
5
A horizontal compression by a factor of 12, a
reflection in the y-axis, and a vertical stretch by a
factor of 2, followed by a translation 2 units to the x
left takes (10, 1) to (27, 2). 0 5 10 15
c) vertical asymptote is x 5 22
d) D 5 5xPR 0 x , 226, R 5 5yPR6 –5
v) a) log10 (2x 1 4) 5 log10 32(x 1 2)4k 5 2
resulting in a horizontal compression by a factor
of 12; d 5 22 resulting in a horizontal translation c) horizontal compression by a factor of 12
D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6
2 units to the left.
b) A horizontal compression by a factor of 12 y
followed by a translation 2 units to the left takes 5
(1, 0) to (2112, 0).
A horizontal compression by a factor of 12 followed x
by a translation 2 units to the left takes (10, 1) to 0 5 10 15
(3, 1).
c) vertical asymptote is x 5 22
d) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 226, R 5 5yPR6
–5
vi) a) log10 (2x 2 2) 5 log10 321(x 1 2)4k 5 21
resulting in a reflection in the x-axis; d 5 22, –10
resulting in a horizontal translation 2 units to
the right.

8-4 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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d) horizontal stretch by a factor of 2; 6. Graph the two functions.

vertical translation 1 unit down y
D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6 8 f(x)
y 6
5 4 g(x)
2
x
x
0 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
10 20 30 –2
–4
–5 –6
–8
–10
It appears from the graph that the functions are
inverses of each other. Attempt to verify this.
e) vertical stretch by a factor of 4; x
y 5 103y 1 1
horizontal stretch by a factor of 6;
x 5 103 1 1
vertical translation 2 units down x

D 5 5xPR 0 x . 06, R 5 5yPR6

x 2 1 5 103
y
y log (x 2 1) 5
3
x 3 log (x 2 1) 5 y
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 This verifies that the functions are inverses of each
other.
–5 7. a) The graph of g(x) 5 log3 (x 1 4) is the same
as the graph of f(x) 5 log3 x, but horizontally
translated 4 units to the left. The graph of
–10 h(x) 5 log3 x 1 4 is the same as the graph of
f(x) 5 log3 x, but vertically translated 4 units up.
b) The graph of m(x) 5 4 log3 x is the same as the
–15
graph of f(x) 5 log3 x, but vertically stretched by a
factor of 4. The graph of n(x) 5 log3 4x is the same
f) reflection in the y-axis; as the graph of f(x) 5 log3 x, but horizontally
vertical translation 2 units up; compressed by a factor of 14.
horizontal compression by a factor of 12 8. a) a 5 23 (vertical stretch and reflection in
D 5 5xPR 0 x , 226, R 5 5yPR6 x-axis); k 5 12 (horizontal stretch of 2); d 5 5
yx (horizontal translation); c 5 2 (vertical translation)
–16–14–12–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 f(x) 5 23 log10 ( 12 x 2 5) 1 2
–2 b) multiply the y coordinate by 23 (for the vertical
–4 stretch) and add 2 (for the vertical translation), add
–6 5 to the x-coordinate (for the horizontal translation)
–8 and multiply by 2 (for the horizontal stretch).
(10, 1) shifts to (30, 21)
c) D 5 5xPR 0 x . 56, R 5 5yPR6
9. Vertical compression by a factor of 12, reflection
in the x-axis, horizontal translation 5 units to the left.
10. domain, range, and vertical asymptote

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11. y b) log5 125; 5x 5 125; x 5 3

8 log5 25; 5x 5 25; x 5 2
6 log5 125 2 log5 25 5 3 2 2 5 1
4 c) log3 81; 3x 5 81; x 5 4
2 log4 64; 4x 5 64; x 5 3
x log3 81 1 log4 64 5 4 1 3 5 7
–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 1 1
–2 d) log2 ; 2x 5 ; x 5 22
–4 4 4
–6 log3 1; 3x 5 1; x 5 0
–8 1
log2 2 log3 1; 22 2 0 5 22
4
e) 5 5 "
x 3 1
5; x 5
3
8.3 Evaluating Logarithms, pp. 466–468 f) 3x 5 !27;

1. a) log4 16 5 2 d) log6
1
5 22 3x 5 "33
3
36 3x 5 32
1 3
b) log3 81 5 4 e) log 13 53 x5
27 2
1 6. a) 53 5 x; x 5 125
c) log8 1 5 0 f) log8 2 5
3 b) x 3 5 27; x 5 3
d) a b 5 216
1 23 1 1
2. a) 23 5 8 c) 4x 5 ; 4x 5 3 ; 4x 5 423; x 5 23
6 64 4
e) 6 2 5 !6
1 1 22
b) 522 5
d) a b 5 x; 42 5 x; x 5 16
1
25
4
c) 34 5 81 f) 100 5 1
e) 52 5 x; x 5 !5
1

3. a) 5x 5 5; x 5 1
b) 7x 5 1; x 5 0 f) 41.5 5 8
1 7. f(x) 5 3x can be written as log3 f(x).
c) 2x 5 ; x 5 22 a) f(x) 5 17. The point (2.58, 17) is on the graph.
4
log3 17 8 2.58.
d) 7x 5 !7; 7x 5 7 2; x 5
1 1
b) f(x) 5 36. The point (3.26, 36) is on the graph.
2
log3 36 8 3.26.
2 x
e) a b 5 ; x 5 3
8
c) f(x) 5 112. The point (4.29, 112) is on the
3 27
graph. log3 112 8 4.29.
f) 2x 5 "3
2 d) f(x) 5 143. The point (4.52, 143) is on the
1
5 23 graph. log3 143 8 4.52.
1 8. a) 4x 5 32; by guess and check x 8 2.50
x5
3 b) 6x 5 115; by guess and check x 8 2.65
1 c) 3x 5 212; by guess and check x 8 4.88
4. a) 10x 5 ; 10x 5 1021; x 5 21 d) 11x 5 896; by guess and check x 8 2.83
10
b) 10x 5 1; 10x 5 100; x 5 0 9. a) log3 35; 3x 5 35; x 5 5
c) 10x 5 1 000 000; 10x 5 106; x 5 6 b) Given that log5 25 5 2, 5log5 (25) 5 52 5 25
1

d) 10x 5 25; x 5 1.40 (typing log (25) into the c) Given that log4 161 5 22, 4log4 16 5 422 5 161
calculator); 101.40 8 25 d) The base m log of a value is the exponent you
e) 100.25 5 1.78; x 5 1.78 need to raise m to in order to get that value. You
f) 1022 5 0.01; x 5 0.01 need to raise m to the n power to get mn. Therefore,
5. a) 6x 5 !6 logm m n 5 n.
1
6x 5 6 2 e) The expression loga b means what power do you
1 need to raise a to in order to get b. If you substitute
x5 that answer into the expression a loga b the result is b.
2
8-6 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/19/08 8:41 PM Page 7

f) logn 1 5 0 for all non zero values for n. x

17. a) y 5 100(2)0.32
1 1
10. log2 163 5 log2 (2(4) )(3 ) b) y
60 000
4 4
log2 23 5 50 000
3
40 000
11. 40(10x ) 5 2000
10x 5 50 30 000
log10 50 5 x 20 000
x 8 1.7 weeks 10 000
n
x
12. To determine amount of decay, use ( 12) 1620 where –1 0 1 2 3 4
n is the number of years the radium has been
decaying. c) y
150
4
a) 5a b 5 4.68 g
1 1620
3
2
n 2
b) 5a b 5 4 g
1 1620
1
2 x
n
0
a b 5
1 1620 4

10 000
20 000
30 000
40 000
50 000
60 000
2 5
4 n
log0.5 5
d) y 5 0.32 log2 Q 100 R ; this equation tells how
x
5 1620
4 many hours, y, it will take for the number of
1620 log0.5 5 n
5 bacteria to reach x.
n 5 522 years e) Evaluate the inverse function for x 5 450.
13. A: s(0.0625) 5 0.159 1 0.118 log (0.0625)
y 5 0.32 log2 a b
450
Slope 5 0.017
100
B: s(1) 5 0.159 1 0.118 log (1)
Slope 5 0.159 y 8 0.69 h
B has a steeper slope log 5
18. a) log5 5 5
14. a) s(50) 5 93 log (50) 1 65 log 5
s(50) 8 233 mph 5 1.0000
b) 250 5 93 log d 1 65 log 10
b) log2 10 5
185 5 93 log d log 2
1.99 5 log d 5 3.3219
101.99 5 d log 45
d 5 98 miles c) log5 45 5
log 5
15. If log 365 5 32 log 150 2 0.7, then Kepler’s 5 2.3652
equation gives a good approximation of the time log 92
it takes for Earth to revolve around the sun. d) log8 92 5
log 8
log 365 5 2.562
5 2.1745
3
log 150 2 0.7 5 2.564 log 0.5
2 e) log4 0.5 5
log 4
3
16. a) log 2854 2 0.7 8 83 years 5 20.5000
2
log 325
3 f) log7 325 5
b) log 4473 2 0.7 8 164 years log 7
2
5 2.9723

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19. a) positive for all values x . 1

b) negative for all values 0 , x , 1 function: y 5 22 log5 3x
c) undefined for all values x # 0 D 5 5xPR0 x . 06
20. a) 33 1 103 5 27 1 1000 5 1027 R 5 5yPR6
b) 51.292 2 33.24 5 8 2 35.14 5 227.14
asymptote: x 5 0
21. a) y 5 x 3
"2 1 2 x2
b)
3
inverse: y 5
3
(5 )
c)
x22
"0.5 D 5 5xPR6
x22
d) 2 1 3
3 R 5 5yPR0 y . 06
22. a) y asymptote: y 5 0
8
6 c) y
4 10
y = 3log (x + 6)
2 8
x 6
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 (x22)
——— 4
–2 y 5 10 3
x 2
–4 x
y = 10 3 – 6
–6
–8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6 8
–8 –2
–4
–6 y 5 2 1 3 logx
function: y 5 3 log (x 1 6) –8
D 5 5xPR0 x . 266
R 5 5yPR6
function: y 5 2 1 3 log x
D 5 5xPR0 x . 06
asymptote: x 5 26

inverse: y 5 10 3 26
x
R 5 5yPR6
D 5 5xPR6 asymptote: x 5 0
R 5 5yPR0 y . 266 (x 2 2)
inverse: y 5 10 3
asymptote: y 5 26
D 5 5xPR6
R 5 5yPR0 y . 06
b) y
8 asymptote: y 5 0
6 x
2— d) y
4 y 5 31 (5 2 )
6
2 y 520(8)x 4
x
–4 –2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 2
–2 x
–4 –6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
y 522 log53x –2
–6 x
–4 y5log8 (–20
— (
–8
–6

8-8 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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function: y 5 20(8)x function: y 5 25x 2 3

D 5 5xPR6 D 5 5xPR6
R 5 5yPR0 y . 06 R 5 5yPR0 y , 236
asymptote: y 5 0 asymptote: y 5 23
inverse:
inverse: y 5 log 8 Q R
x
y 5 log5 (2x 2 3)
D 5 5xPR0 x , 236
20
D 5 5xPR0 x . 06
R 5 5yPR6 R 5 5yPR6
asymptote: x 5 0 asymptote: x 5 23

e) y 23. Given the constraints, two integer values are

16 possible for y, either 1 or 2. If y 5 3, then x must
12 be 1000, which is not permitted.
8
y 52(3)x+2
4
x
8.4 Laws of Logarithms, pp. 475–476
–8 –4 0 4 8 12 16 1. a) log 45 1 log 68
–4 b) logm p 1 logm q
x
–8 y 5log3 (—
2 ( –2 c) log 123 2 log 31
d) logm p 2 logm q
function: y 5 2(3)x12 e) log2 14 1 log2 9
f) log4 81 2 log4 30
D 5 5xPR6 2. a) log (7 3 5) 5 log 35
R 5 5yPR0 y . 06 4
b) log3 5 log3 2
asymptote: y 5 0 2
c) logm ab
inverse: y 5 log 3 Q R 22
x
x
2 d) log
D 5 5xPR0 x . 06
y
R 5 5yPR6
e) log6 (7 3 8 3 9) 5 log6 504

f) log4 a b 5 log4 6
(10 3 12)
asymptote: x 5 0
20
3. a) 2 log 5
f) y
2
b) 21 log 7
x c) q logm p
–10 –8 –6 –4 –2 0 2 1
–2 d) log 45
3
y 525x23 –4
1
–6 e) log7 36
2
–8 1
–10 f) log5 125
5
y5log5(2x23) –12 135
–14 4. a) log3 135 2 log3 5 5 log3
5
5 log3 27
53
b) log5 10 1 log5 2.5 5 log5 (10 3 2.5)
5 log5 25
52

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c) log 50 1 log 2 5 log (50 3 2) 1

f) log8 2 1 3 log8 2 1 log8 16
5 log 100 2
52 5 log8 2 1 log8 23 1 log8 !16
d) log4 47 5 7 log4 4 5 log8 2 1 log8 8 1 log8 4
5731 5 log8 2 1 log8 4 1 1
57 5 log8 (2 3 4) 1 1
224 5 log8 8 1 1
e) log2 224 2 log2 7 5 log2
7 5111
5 log2 32 52
55 7. a) logb x 1 logb y 1 logb z
f) log !10 5 log 10
1 b) logb z 2 (logb x 1 logb y)
2 c) logb x 2 1 logb y 3 5 2 logb x 1 3 logb y
5 a b (1) d) logb "x 5yz 3 5 logb x 5yz 3
1 1
2 2
1 1
5 5 (logb x 5 1 logb y 1 logb z 3 )
2 2
5. y 5 log2 (4x) 5 log2 x 1 log2 4 5 log2 x 1 2, so 1
5 (5 logb x 1 logb y 1 3 logb z)
y 5 log2 (4x) vertically shifts y 5 log2 x up 2 units; 2
y 5 log2 (8x) 5 log2 x 1 log2 8 5 log2 x 1 3, so 8. log5 3 means 5x 5 3 and log5 13 means 5y 5 13;
y 5 log2 (8x) vertically shifts y 5 log2 x up 3 units; since 13 5 321, 5y 5 5x(21); therefore,
y 5 log2 Q R 5 log2 x 2 log2 2 5 log2 x 2 1, so
x
2 log5 3 1 log5 13 5 x 1 x(21) 5 0
y 5 log2 Q R vertically shifts y 5 log2 x down 1 unit 9. a) 3 log5 2 1 log5 7 5 log5 23 1 log5 7
x
2 5 log5 8 1 log5 7
6. a) log25 53 5 3 log25 5 5 log5 (8 3 7)
log25 5; 25x 5 5; x 5 0.5 5 log5 56
Therefore log25 53 5 3 log25 5 5 (3)(0.5) 5 1.5 b) 2 log3 8 2 5 log3 2 5 log3 82 2 log3 25
(54 3 2) 5 log3 64 2 log3 32
b) log6 54 1 log6 2 2 log6 3 5 log6
3 64
5 log3
5 log6 36 32
52 5 log3 2
c) log6 6 !6 5 log6 6 1 log6 !6 c) 2 log2 3 1 log2 5 5 log2 32 1 log2 5
5 1 1 0.5 5 log2 9 1 log2 5
5 1.5 5 log2 (9 3 5)
!36 5 log2 45
d) log2 !36 2 log2 !72 5 log2
!72
(12 3 2)
d) log3 12 1 log3 2 2 log3 6 5 log3
6
1
5 log3 4
Å2
5 log2
1
5 log2 220.5 e) log4 3 1 log4 8 2 log4 2
2
5 20.5 5 log4 3 1 log4 !8 2 log4 2
(3 !8)
e) log3 54 1 log3 a b 5 log3 54 1 log3 3 2 log3 2
3
5 log4
2 2
5 log3 54 2 log3 2 1 1 5 log4 (3 !2)
54 f ) 2 log 8 1 log 9 2 log 36
5 log3 11
2 5 log 82 1 log 9 2 log 36
5 log3 27 1 1 5 log 64 1 log 9 2 log 36
5311 (64 3 9)
5 log
54 36
5 log 16
8-10 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/23/08 10:47 AM Page 11

10. a) log2 x 5 log2 72 1 log2 5 1 1 3

So, loga x 1 loga y 2 loga x
log2 x 5 log2 49 1 log2 5 2 2 4
5 loga !x 1 loga !y 2 loga "
4 3
log2 x 5 log2 (49 3 5) z
log2 x 5 log2 245 !x !y
5 loga
"
x 5 245 4 3
z
b) log x 5 log 42 1 log 33
13. vertical stretch by a factor of 3 (the exponent
log x 5 log 16 1 log 27
that x is raised to); vertical shift 3 units up (the
log x 5 log (16 3 27)
coefficient 8 divided by the base of 2)
log x 5 log 432
14. Answers may vary. For example,
x 5 432
f(x) 5 2 log x 2 log 12
c) log4 x 5 log4 48 2 log4 12
x2
48 g(x) 5 log
log4 x 5 log4 12
12
2 log x 2 log 12 5 log x 2 2 log 12
log4 x 5 log4 4
x2
x54 5 log
12
d) log7 x 5 log7 252 2 log7 53
So, f(x) and g(x) have the same graph.
log7 x 5 log7 625 2 log7 125
15. Answers may vary. For example, any number
625
log7 x 5 log7 can be written as a power with a given base. The
125
base of the logarithm is 3. Write each term in the
log7 x 5 log7 5
quotient as a power of 3. The laws of logarithms
x55
make it possible to evaluate the expression by
e) log3 x 5 log3 102 2 log3 25 simplifying the quotient and noting the exponent.
log3 x 5 log3 100 2 log3 25
16. logx x m21 1 1 5 m 2 1 1 1 5 m
17. logb x !x 5 logb x 1 logb !x
100
log3 x 5 log3
25
1
log3 x 5 log3 4 5 logb x 1 logb x
x54 2
5 0.3 1 0.3a b
1
f) log5 x 5 log5 6 1 3 log5 2 1 log5 8
log5 x 5 log5 6 1 log5 23 1 log5 8 2
log5 x 5 log5 6 1 log5 8 1 log5 8 5 0.45
log5 x 5 log5 (6 3 8 3 8) 18. The two functions have different domains. The
log5 x 5 log5 384 first function has a domain of x . 0. The second
x 5 384 function has a domain of all real numbers except 0,
11. a) log2 xyz since x is squared.
uw 19. Answers may vary; for example,
b) log5 v Product law
log10 10 1 log10 10 5 1 1 1
a
c) log6 a 2 log6 bc 5 log6 52
bc
5 log10 100
x 2y 2
d) log2 5 log2 xy 5 log10 (10 3 10)
xy Quotient law
e) log3 3 1 log3 x 2 5 log3 3x 2 log10 10 2 log10 10 5 1 2 1
x 3x 2 50
f) log4 x 3 1 log4 x 2 2 log4 y 5 log4
y 5 log10 1
x5
5 log10 a b
5 log4 10
y
10
12. loga x 5 loga !x; loga y 5 loga !y;
1 1
2 2 Power law
log10 102 5 log10 100
loga z 5 loga "
3 4 3
z; 52
4
5 2 log10 10
Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-11
08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/19/08 8:41 PM Page 12

Mid-Chapter Review, p. 479 8. Using the base 10 log key on the calculator
a) 0.602
1. a) log5 y 5 x b) 1.653
b) log13 y 5 x c) 2.130
c) log x 5 y d) 2.477
d) logp m 5 q 9. Using a guess and check strategy on the graphing
2. a) 3y 5 x calculator to estimate the result
b) 10y 5 x a) 2x 5 21; x 8 4.392
c) 10k 5 m b) 5x 5 117; x 8 2.959
d) s t 5 r c) 7x 5 141; x 8 2.543
3. a) a 5 2; c 5 24; vertical stretch by a factor of 2, d) 11x 5 356; x 8 2.450
vertical translation 4 units down 10. a) log (7 3 4) 5 log 28
b) a 5 21; k 5 3; reflection in the x-axis, 5
horizontal compression by a factor of 13 b) log 5 log 2.5
2
c) d 5 25; c 5 1; vertical compression by a factor
(11 3 4) 22
of 14, horizontal stretch by a factor of 4 c) log3 5 log3
6 3
d) k 5 2; d 5 2; horizontal compression by a factor d) logp (q 3 q) 5 logp q 2
of 12, horizontal translation 2 units to the right 33
e) a 5 14; k 5 14; horizontal translation 5 units to the 11. a) log11 5 log11 11 5 1
3
left, vertical translation 1 unit up b) log7 (14 3 3.5) 5 log7 49 5 2
f) a 5 5; k 5 21; c 5 23; vertical stretch by a
c) log5 a100 3 b 5 log5 25 5 2
1
factor of 5, reflection in the y-axis, vertical
translation 3 units down 4
4. a) y 5 24 log3 x 72
d) log12 5 log12 8
b) y 5 log3 (x 1 3) 1 1 9
1 x
c) y 5 log3 a xb
2 1 a b 58
3 2 2
d) y 5 3 log3 32 (x 2 1)4 x 5 23
e) log4 16 5 a b (2) 5
5. a) A vertical stretch by a factor of 4 followed by 1 1 2
a reflection in the x-axis takes (9, 2) to (9, 28). 3 3 3
b) A horizontal translation 3 units to the left followed f) log3 9 !27 5 log3 9 1 log3 !27
by a translation 1 unit up takes (9, 2) to (6, 3). 1
5 2 1 log3 27
c) A vertical compression by a factor of 23 followed 2
by a horizontal stretch by a factor of 2 takes (9, 2)
5 2 1 a b (3)
1
to (18, 43 ). 2
d) A vertical stretch by a factor of 3 followed by a 5 3.5
reflection in the y-axis and a horizontal translation 12. Compared with the graph of y 5 log x, the
1 unit to the right takes (9, 2) to (9, 6), then to graph of y 5 log x 3 is vertically stretched by a
(29, 6), and finally to (28, 6).
factor of 3.
6. It is vertically stretched by a factor of 2 and 13. Use the log button on a calculator to evaluate
vertically shifted up 2. each expression.
7. a) 3x 5 81; x 5 4 a) log 48 5 4.82
1
b) 4x 5 ; x 5 22 b) log 200 4 log 50 5 1.35
16
c) log"40 5 0.80
c) 5x 5 1; x 5 0
d) (log 20)2 5 1.69
2x 27
d) 5 ; x 5 23 e) log 94 5 3.82
3 8 f) 5 log 5 5 3.49

8-12 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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8.5 Solving Exponential Equations, (1 2 x)(0.699) 5 1

0.699 2 0.699x 5 1
pp. 485–486 20.699x 5 0.301
1. a) x 5 4 x 5 20.431
x
b) (22 )2x 5 252x f) log 6 3 5 log 30
24x 5 252x x
log 6 5 log 30
4x 5 5 2 x 3
5x 5 5 x
x51 (0.778) 5 1.477
3
2 x11
c) (3 ) 5 (33 )2x23 x 5 5.695
2x12
3 5 36x29 x
3. a) 3 5 243
2x 1 2 5 6x 2 9 3x 5 35
11 5 4x x55
11 x
x5 b) 6 5 216
4 6x 5 63
1
3 x21
d) (2 ) 5 (24 )3 x53
4
23x23 5 23 c) 5x 5 5!5
4 5x 5 51.5
3x 2 3 5 x 5 1.5
3
9x 2 9 5 4 d) 2x 5 " 5
8
9x 5 13 2 5 "2
x 5 3
3
13 2x 5 25
x5
9 3
3x 21
x5
e) 2 5 2 5
3x 5 21 x 1
e) 2 5
1 4
x52 2x 5 222
3
2x
f) 4 5 4 22 x 5 22
2x 5 22 1
f ) 3x 5
x 5 21 !3
1
2. a) log 2x 5 log 17 3x 5 322
x log 2 5 log 17 1
x52
0.301x 5 1.230 2
t
x 5 4.088
200 5 300a b
1 8
x
b) log 6 5 log 231 4. a)
2
x log 6 5 log 231 t

5a b
2 1 8
0.778x 5 2.364
x 5 3.037 3 2
t
x
5 log a b
c) 5 5 5 2 1 8
log
x51 3 2
d) 5.25 5 1.5x
5 log a b
2 t 1
log 1.5x 5 log 5.25 log
3 8 2
x log 1.5 5 log 5.25
0.176x 5 0.720 t
20.176 5 (20.301)
x 5 4.092 8
e) log 512x 5 log 10 t 5 4.68 h
(1 2 x) log 5 5 log 10

Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-13

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t
3
100 5 300a b
1 8 22x 2 8 5
b) 2
2
t 24x 2 16 5 3
5a b
1 1 8
24x 5 19
3 2 x 5 24.75
t
2x14
5 36x
log 5 log a b
1 1 8 d) 36
3 2 2x 1 4 5 x
x 5 24
5 log a b
1 t 1
log e) 22x12 5 64
3 8 2 22x12 5 26
t 2x 1 2 5 6
20.477 5 (20.301)
8 x52
t 5 12.68 h f) (32 )2x11 5 (34 )(33 )x
34x12 5 33x14
t

75 5 300a b
1 8
c) 4x 1 2 5 3x 1 4
2
t x52
5a b
1 1 8 6. a) 1000 5 500(1.08)t
4 2 2 5 1.08t
t
log 2 5 log 1.08t
log 5 log a b
1 1 8
4 2 log 2 5 t log 1.08
0.301 5 0.033t
5 log a b
1 t 1
log t 5 9.12 years
4 8 2
b) 5000 5 1000(1.01)t
t 5 5 1.01t
20.602 5 (20.301)
8 log 5 5 log 1.01t
t 5 16 h log 5 5 t log 1.01
t

20 5 300a b
1 8 0.699 5 0.0043t
d)
2 t 5 162.6 months 5 13.5 years
t
c) 7500 5 5000(1.025)t
5a b
1 1 8
15 2 1.5 5 1.025t
t log 1.5 5 log 1.025t
5 log a b
1 1 8 log 1.5 5 t log 1.025
log
15 2 0.176 5 0.0107t
t 5 16.44 quarters or 4.1 years
5 log a b
1 t 1
log d) 1500 5 500(1.0023)t
15 8 2
t 3 5 1.0023t
21.176 5 (20.301) log 3 5 log 1.0023t
8
t 5 31.26 h log 3 5 t log 1.0023
0.477 5 0.000998t
5. a) (72 )x21 5 71.5 t 5 477.9 weeks or 9.2 years
72x22 5 71.5
2x 2 2 5 1.5
7. 20(2t ) 5 163 840
2t 5 8192
2x 5 3.5
log 2t 5 log 8192
x 5 1.75
t log 2 5 log 8192
b) 2 3x24
5 222 0.301t 5 3.913
3x 2 4 5 22 t 5 13 quarter hours or 3.25 h
2 x
8. a) 4 (4 1 1) 5 160
x5
3 4x 5 32
3
22 x14
c) (2 ) 5 22 log 4x 5 log 32
222x28 5 22
3
x log 4 5 log 32
8-14 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
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0.602x 5 1.505 d) 2x 5 53.2

x 5 2.5 log 2x 5 log 53.2
x 2
b) 2 (2 1 1) 5 320 x log 2 5 log 53.2
2x 5 64 0.301x 5 1.726
log 2x 5 log 64 x 5 5.734
x log 2 5 log 64 11. a) If 5 Io (0.95)t where If is the final intensity,
0.301x 5 1.806 Io is the original intensity, and t is the thickness
x56 b) 0.6 5 1(0.95)t
x 2
c) 2 (2 2 1) 5 96 log 0.6 5 log 0.95t
2x 5 32 log 0.6 5 t log 0.95
log 2x 5 log 32 20.222 5 20.0222t
x log 2 5 log 32 t 5 10 mm
0.301x 5 1.505 12. 32x 2 5(3x ) 1 6 5 0
x55 (3x 2 3)(3x 2 2) 5 0
x
d) 10 (10 2 1) 5 9000 3 2 3 5 0 or 3x 2 2 5 0
x

10x 5 1000 3x 5 3 3x 5 2
log 10x 5 log 1000 x51 log 3x 5 log 2
x log 10 5 log 1000 x log 3 5 log 2
x53 0.477x 5 0.301
x 2 x 5 0.631
e) 3 (3 1 1) 5 30 y y
13. a 5 x, so log a 5 log x; y log a 5 log x;
3x 5 3
log x
x51 y5
log a
x 3
f ) 4 (4 2 1) 5 63 A graphing calculator does not allow logarithms of
4x 5 1 base 5 to be entered directly. However, y 5 log5 x
x50 log x
can be entered for graphing, as y 5 .
9. a) Solve using logarithms. Both sides can be log 5
divided by 225, leaving only a term with a variable 14. a) log (2x )2 5 log 332(24x )4
in the exponent on the left. This can be solved using log 2x 1 log 2x 5 log 32 1 log 24x
logarithms. x log 2 1 x log 2 5 log 32 1 4x log 2
b) Solve by factoring out a power of 3 and then 0.301x 1 0.301x 5 1.505 1 4x(0.301)
simplifying. Logarithms may still be necessary in a x 5 2.5
x 2 120
situation like this, but the factoring must be done b) 3 5 (323 )3x
first because logarithms cannot be used on the 2
x 1 20 5 29x
equation in its current form. x 2 1 9x 1 20 5 0
10. a) log 5t21 5 log 3.92 (x 2 5)(x 2 4) 5 0
(t 2 1) log 5 5 log 3.92 x 5 5 or x 5 4
0.699(t 2 1) 5 0.593 c) log 2 1 log 3x 5 log 7 1 log 5x
t 2 1 5 0.849 log 2 1 x log 3 5 log 7 1 x log 5
t 5 1.849 0.301 1 0.477x 5 0.845 1 0.699x
b) 3x 5 25 20.222x 5 0.544
log 3x 5 log 25 x 5 22.45
x log 3 5 log 25 15. Let loga 2 5 x. Then a x 5 2. (a x )3 5 23, or
0.477x 5 1.398 a 3x 5 8. Since loga 2 5 logb 8, logb 8 5 x. So b x 5 8.
x 5 2.931 Since each equation is equal to 8, a 3x 5 b x and a 3 5 b.
c) log 42x 5 log 52x21 16. 3(52x ) 5 6(43x )
2x log 4 5 (2x 2 1) log 5 52x 5 2(43x )
0.602(2x) 5 0.699(2x 2 1) log 52x 5 log 2(43x )
1.204x 5 1.398x 2 0.699 log 52x 5 log 2 1 log (43x )
20.194x 5 20.699 2x log 5 5 log 2 1 3x log 4
x 5 3.606
Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-15
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2x(0.699) 5 0.301 1 3x(0.602) e) 2x 5 8

1.398x 5 0.301 1 1.806x x53
x 5 20.737 f) log2 x 5 log2 !3
Substitute to determine y x 5 !3
y 5 3(5(23 (20.737)) ) 4
2. a) x 5 625
y 5 3(521.475 ) x 4 5 54
y 5 0.279 x55
17. a) log 63x 5 log 42x23 1
b) x2 2 5 6
3x log 6 5 (2x 2 3) log 4 1
!x
3x(0.778) 5 (2x 2 3)(0.602) 56
2.33x 5 1.204x 2 1.806 1 5 6 !x
1.13x 5 21.806
5 !x
1
x 5 21.60
6
b) log (1.2)x 5 log (2.8)x14 1
x log 1.2 5 (x 1 4) log 2.8 5x
36
0.079x 5 (x 1 4)(0.447)
c) 52 5 2x 2 1
0.079x 5 0.447x 1 1.789
25 5 2x 2 1
20.368x 5 1.789
26 5 2x
x 5 24.86
x 5 13
c) log 3(2)x 5 log 4x11 d) 103 5 5x 2 2
log 3 1 log 2x 5 (x 1 1) log 4 1000 5 5x 2 2
log 3 1 x log 2 5 (x 1 1) log 4 1002 5 5x
0.477 1 0.301x 5 (x 1 1)(0.602) x 5 200.4
0.477 1 0.301x 5 0.602x 1 0.602 e) x 22 5 0.04
20.125 5 0.301x 1
x 5 20.42 5 0.04
x2
18. (2x )x 5 10 1 5 0.04x 2
2
2x 5 10 25 5 x 2
2
log 2x 5 log 10 x55
x2 log 2 5 1 f) 2x 2 4 5 36
1 2x 5 40
x2 5
log 2 x 5 20
1 a
3. 6.3 5 log 1 4.2
Å log 2
x56 1.6
a
x 5 61.82 2.1 5 log
1.6
2.1 a
8.6 Solving Logarithmic Equations, 10 5
1.6
pp. 491–492 125.89 5
a
1.6
1. a) log2 x 5 log2 52
201.43 5 a
x 5 25 3

b) log3 x 5 log3 34 4. a) x2 5 33
x 5 81 x 3 5 (33 )2
c) log x 5 log 23 x 3 5 (32 )3
x58 x 3 5 93
d) log (x 2 5) 5 log 10 x59
2
x 2 5 5 10 b) x 5 5
x 5 15 x 5 !5

8-16 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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c) 33 5 3x 1 2
f) log3 c d 54
(4x)(5)
27 5 3x 1 2 2
25 5 3x log3 10x 5 4
25 34 5 10x
x5
3 81 5 10x
d) 104 5 x x 5 8.1
x 5 10 000 6. log6 3x(x 2 5)4 5 2
1 x
e) a b 5 27 log6 (x 2 2 5x) 5 2
3 62 5 x 2 2 5x
32x 5 33 36 5 x 2 2 5x
2x 5 3 2
x 2 5x 2 36 5 0
x 5 23 (x 2 9)(x 1 4) 5 0
1 22
f) a b 5 x
x 5 9 or x 5 24
2 Restrictions: x . 5 (x 2 5 must be positive) so x 5 9
x54 7. a) log7 3 (x 1 1)(x 2 5)4 5 1
5. a) log2 3x 5 3 log7 (x 2 2 4x 2 5) 5 1
23 5 3x 71 5 x 2 2 4x 2 5
8 5 3x x 2 2 4x 2 12 5 0
8 (x 2 6)(x 1 2) 5 0
x5 x 5 6 or x 5 22
3
b) log 3x 5 1 As x must be . 5, 22 is inadmissible. x 5 6
10 5 3x b) log3 3 (x 2 2)x4 5 1
10 log3 (x 2 2 2x) 5 1
x5 31 5 x 2 2 2x
3
c) log5 2x 1 log5 !9 5 2
2
x 2 2x 2 3 5 0
log5 3 (3)(2x)4 5 2 (x 2 3)(x 1 1) 5 0
log5 6x 5 2 x 5 3 or x 5 21
52 5 6x As x must be . 2, 21 is inadmissible. x 5 3
25 5 6x x
c) log6 51
25 (x 2 1)
x5 x
6 61 5
x (x 2 1)
d) log4 5 2 6x 2 6 5 x
2
x 5x 5 6
42 5 6
2 x5
5
d) log 3(2x 1 1)(x 2 1)4 5 log 9
x
16 5
2
2x 2 2 x 2 1 5 9
x 5 32
2x 2 2 x 2 10 5 0
e) log x 3 2 log 3 5 log 9
(2x 2 5)(x 1 2) 5 0
x3
log 5 log 9 x 5 2.5 or x 5 22
3 As x must be . 1, 22 is inadmissible. x 5 2.5
x3
59 e) log 3(x 1 2)(x 2 1)4 5 1
3 101 5 x 2 1 x 2 2
x 3 5 27 x 2 1 x 2 12 5 0
x 3 5 33 (x 1 4)(x 2 3) 5 0
x53 x 5 24 or x 5 3
As x must be . 1, 24 is inadmissible. x 5 3

Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-17

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f) log2 x 3 2 log2 x 5 8 12. log5 3 (x 2 1)(x 2 2)4 5 log5 (x 1 6)

x3 (x 2 1)(x 2 2) 5 x 1 6
log2 58
x x 2 2 3x 1 2 5 x 1 6
log2 x 2 5 8 x 2 2 4x 2 4 5 0
28 5 x 2 Using the quadratic formula
(2 ) 5 x 2
4 2 4 6 !16 2 (4)(24)
x5
x 5 24 5 16 2
8. a) Use the rules of logarithms to obtain 4 6 !32
log9 20 5 log9 x. Then, because both sides of the x5
2
equation have the same base, 20 5 x. x 5 4.83 or x 5 20.83
x
b) Use the rules of logarithms to obtain log 5 3. As x must be . 2, 20.83 is extraneous; x 5 4.83
2
Then use the definition of a logarithm 13. log3 (28) 5 x; 3x 5 28; Raising positive 3 to
x x any power produces a positive value. If x $ 1, then
to obtain 10 3 5 ; 1000 5 ; 2000 5 x.
2 2 3x $ 3. If 0 # x , 1, then 1 # x , 3. If x , 0, then
c) Use the rules of logarithms to obtain
0 , x , 1.
log x 5 log 64. Then, because both sides of the
14. a) x . 3
equation have the same base, x 5 64.
b) If x is 3, we are trying to take the logarithm of 0.
9. a) 50 5 10 log a 212 b
I
If x is less than 3, we are trying to take the logarithm
10
of a negative number.
5 5 log a 212 b
I 15. 12 (log x 1 log y) 5 12 log xy 5 log !xy so
5 !xy
10 x1y
and x 1 y 5 5!xy. Squaring both
5 5 log I 2 log 10212 5
5 5 log I 2 (212) sides gives (x 1 y)2 5 25xy. Expanding gives
27 5 log I x 2 1 2xy 1 y2 5 25xy; therefore, x2 1 y2 5 23xy.
1027 5 I 16. log (35 2 x 3 ) 5 3 log (5 2 x)
log (35 2 x 3 ) 5 log (5 2 x)3
b) 84 5 10 log a 212 b
I
35 2 x 3 5 (5 2 x)3
10
35 2 x 3 5 2x 3 1 15x 2 2 75x 1 125
8.4 5 log a 212 b
I 15x 2 2 75x 1 90 5 0
10 x 2 2 5x 1 6 5 0
8.4 5 log I 2 log 10212 (x 2 3)(x 2 2) 5 0
8.4 5 log (I 1 12) x 5 3 or x 5 2
23.6 5 log I 17. log2 a 1 log2 b 5 4; log2 ab 5 4; 24 5 ab;
1023.6 5 I 16 5 ab. The values of a and b that satisfy the
10. loga c d 5 loga (8 2 2x)
x12 original equation are pairs that have a product of 16,
x21 but a and b must also both be positive. The possible
x12 pairs are: 1 and 16, 2 and 8, 4 and 4, 8 and 2, and
5 8 2 2x 16 and 1.
x21
x 1 2 5 22x 2 1 10x 2 8 18. log2 (5x 1 4) 5 3 1 log2 (x 2 1)
2
22x 1 9x 2 10 5 0 log2 (5x 1 4) 2 log2 (x 2 1) 5 3
2x 2 2 9x 1 10 5 0 5x 1 4
log2 53
(2x 2 5)(x 2 2) 5 0 x21
x 5 2.5 or x 5 2 5x 1 4
23 5
11. a) x 5 0.80 x21
b) x 5 26.91 8(x 2 1) 5 5x 1 4
c) x 5 3.16 8x 2 8 5 5x 1 4
d) x 5 0.34 3x 5 12
x54

8-18 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/19/08 8:41 PM Page 19

Substituting 4 in for x in the first equation I I

y 5 log2 ((5)(4) 1 4)
4. 69 5 10 log 212 60 5 10 log 212
10 10
y 5 log2 24 6.9 5 log I 2 log 10212 6 5 log I 2 log 10212
2y 5 24 6.9 5 log I 1 12 6 5 log I 1 12
log 2y 5 log 24 25.1 5 log I 26 5 log I
y log 2 5 log 24 1025.1 5 I 1026 5 I
0.301y 5 1.38 I 5 7.9 3 1026 I 5 1 3 1026
y 5 4.58 A heavy snore is 7.9 times louder than a normal
19. a) 50 5 log3 x conversation.
log3 x 5 1 5. a) 9 5 2log H
31 5 x 29 5 log H
x53 1029 5 0.000 000 001 5 H
b) 21 5 log4 x b) 6.6 5 2log H
log4 x 5 2 26.6 5 log H
42 5 x 1026.6 5 0.000 000 251 5 H
x 5 16 c) 7.8 5 2log H
20. (221 )x1y 5 24 (x 2 y)23 5 8 27.8 5 log H
1 23 10 27.8 5 0.000 000 016 5 H
22x2y 5 24 (x 2 y)23 5 a b
2 d) 13 5 2log H
1 213 5 log H
2x 2 y 5 4 x2y5 10 213 5 0.000 000 000 000 1 5 H
2
Adding the two equations gives 6. a) pH 5 2log 0.000 32 5 3.49
1 b) pH 5 2log 0.000 3 5 3.52
22y 5 4 c) pH 5 2log 0.000 045 5 4.35
2
y 5 22.25
d) pH 5 2log 0.005 5 2.30
Substituting into the first equation 7. a) pH 5 2log 1027 5 7
2x 1 2.25 5 4
b) Tap water is more acidic than distilled water as
2x 5 1.75
it has a lower pH than distilled water (pH 7).
I I
x 5 21.75 8. 109 5 10 log 212 118 5 10 log 212
10 10
10.9 5 log I 2 log 10212 11.8 5 log I 2 log 10212
8.7 Solving Problems with Exponential 10.9 5 log I 1 12 11.8 5 log I 1 12
and Logarithmic Functions, pp. 499–501 21.1 5 log I 20.2 5 log I
1. First earthquake: 5.2 5 log x; 105.2 5 158 489 1021.1 5 I 1020.2 5 I
Second earthquake; 6 5 log x; 106 5 1 000 000 I 5 0.079 I 5 0.63
Second earthquake is 6.3 times stronger than the An amplifier is 7.98 times louder than a lawn mower.
first. 9. a) y 5 5000(1.0642)t
2. pH 5 2log (H 1 ) Investment Growth
pH 5 2log 6.21 3 1028 12 000
pH 5 2 (27.2) 10 000
pH 5 7.2
Amount ($)

8000
3. 1 000 000 3 10212 W>m2 5 1026 W>m2; the
6000
intensity of the sound
1026 4000
L 5 10 log 212
10 2000
L 5 10 log 106 0
L 5 (10)(6) 5 60 dB 2 4 6 8 10
Year

Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-19

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b) 6.42% 14. 4000 5 2500(1.065)t

c) 10 000 5 5000(1.0642)t 1.6 5 (1.065)t
2 5 1.0642t log 1.6 5 log 1.065t
log 2 5 log 1.0642t log 1.6 5 t log 1.065
log 2 5 t log 1.0642 0.204 5 0.0273t
log 2 7.4 5 t
5t
log 1.0642 7.4 years
t 5 11.14 years 15. 20 5 80(1020.023t )
10. 4.2 5 10120.13x 0.25 5 1020.023t
log 4.2 5 log 10120.13x log 0.25 5 log 1020.023t
log 4.2 5 (1 2 0.13x) log 10 log 0.25 5 (20.023t) log 10
0.623 5 1 2 0.13x 20.602 5 20.023t
20.376 5 20.13x 26.2 5 t
2.90 5 x 26.2 days
11. a) Average growth is 15%. 16. Answers may vary. For example: (1) Tom
Equation is y 5 850(1.15)x invested $2000 in an account that accrued interest,
Bacteria Growth compounded annually, at a rate of 6%. How long
300 000 will it take for Tom’s investment to triple? (2) Indira
invested $5000 in a stock that made her $75 every
Number of bacteria

250 000 month. How long will it take her investment to

200 000 triple?
The first problem could be modelled using an
150 000
exponential function. Solving this problem would
100 000 require the use of logarithms. The second problem
50 000 could be modelled using a linear equation. Solving
the second problem would not require the use of
0 10 20 30 40
logarithms.
Number of hours I
17. 70 5 10 log 212
10
b) 1700 5 850(1.15)x 7 5 log I 2 log 10212
2 5 1.15x 7 5 log I 1 12
log 2 5 log 1.15x 25 5 log I
log 2 5 x log 1.15 1025 5 I
0.301 5 x(0.061) I 5 0.000 01
x 5 4.9 h Therefore, the intensity of the sound of the second
12. a) 1.22, 1.43, 1.69, 2.00, 2.18, 2.35 car is 0.000 02.
b) Add the growth factors and divide by 7 5 1.81 0.000 02
c) w 5 5.061 88(1.0618)t x 5 10 log
10212
d) w 5 5.061 88(1.0618)t x 5 log 20 000 000
e) 2 5 (1.0618)t x 5 73 dB
log 2 5 t log 1.0618 18. a) C 5 P(1.038)t where P is the present cost of
0.301 5 0.026t goods and services and t is the number of years.
t 5 11.5 °C b) C 5 400(1.038)10
13. 0.5 5 (0.979)x C 5 $580.80
x 5 number of cycles c) 47.95 5 P(1.038)10
log 0.5 5 log 0.979x 47.95 5 P(1.45)
log 0.5 5 x log 0.979 P 5 $33.07
20.301 5 20.009x
33 5 x
33 cycles

8-20 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

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8.8 Rates of Change in Exponential iii) y 5 1000(1.06)10

y 5 1790.85
and Logarithmic Functions, pp. 507–508
1790.85 2 1000.00
16 2 75 5 79.08
1. a) 5 27.375 10 2 0
10 2 2 b) The rate of change is not constant because the
32 2 125 value of the account each year is determined by
b) 5 223.25
521 adding a percent of the previous year’s value.
10 2 16 24
6. a) M(t) 5 500(0.5)5.2 5 20.40 g
c) 5 22
13 2 10 47.9
b) M(47.9) 5 500(0.5) 5.2 M(48.1) 5 500(0.5) 5.2
48.1

2. The instantaneous rate of decline was greatest in M(47.9) 5 0.8434 M(48.1) 5 0.8212
year 1. The negative change from year 1 to year 2
5 20.111 g> h
0.8434 2 0.8212
was 50, which is greater than the negative change in 47.9 2 48.1
any other two-year period.
5 1.59 g> day
30.21 2 0.0002
3. Use the equation y 5 (96.313)(0.8296)x, which 7. a)
20 2 1
was obtained from doing an exponential regression
b) y 5 0.0017(1.7698)x, where x is the number of
on the data.
days after the egg is laid
a) y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)1.9 y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)2.1
c) i) y 5 0.0017(1.7698)3.9 y 5 0.0017(1.7698)4.1
y 5 67.5360 y 5 65.0593
y 5 0.015 75 y 5 0.017 65
67.5520 2 65.0764
5 0.0095 g> day
5 212.378 0.015 75 2 0.017 66
1.9 2 2.1
3.9 2 4.1
b) y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)6.9 y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)7.1
ii) y 5 0.0017(1.7698)11.9 y 5 0.0017(1.7698)12.1
y 5 26.5610 y 5 25.5876
y 5 1.5162 y 5 1.6995
26.5610 2 25.5876
5 0.917 g> day
5 24.867 1.5162 2 1.6995
7.9 2 8.1
11.9 2 12.1
c) y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)11.9
iii) y 5 0.0017(1.7698)19.9 y 5 0.0017(1.7698)20.1
y 5 10.4436
y 5 145.93 y 5 163.58
y 5 (96.314)(0.8297)12.1
5 88.25 g> day
145.93 2 163.58
y 5 10.0608
10.4436 2 10.0608 19.9 2 20.1
5 21.914 d) 6 5 0.0017(1.7698)x
11.9 2 12.1
3529 5 1.7698x
4. a) A(t) 5 6000(1.075)t
log 3529 5 log 1.7698x
b) A(t) 5 6000(1.075)9.9 A(t) 5 6000(1.075)10.1
log 3529 5 x log 1.7698
y 5 12 277.08 y 5 12 455.95
3.548 5 0.248x
12 277.08 2 12 455.95
5 894.35 x 5 14.3 days
9.9 2 10.1
8. a) 50 5 100(1.2)2t
c) A(t) 5 6000(1.0375)t
0.5 5 (1.2)2t
A(t) 5 6000(1.0375)19.9 A(t) 5 6000(1.0375)20.1
log 0.5 5 log (1.2)2t
12 482.87 2 12 575.12
5 461.25 log 0.5 5 2t log (1.2)
19.9 2 20.1 20.301 5 2 (0.079)t
5. a) i) y 5 1000(1.06)2 t 5 3.81
y 5 1123.60 b) y 5 100(1.2)23.80 y 5 100(1.2)23.82
1123.60 2 1000.00 y 5 50.02 y 5 49.83
5 61.80
220
5 9.5 % > year
50.02 2 49.83
ii) y 5 1000(1.06)5 3.80 2 3.82
y 5 1338.23
1338.23 2 1000.00
5 67.65
520

Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-21

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9. a) y 5 12 000(0.982)t 12. To calculate the instantaneous rate of change

for a given point, use the exponential function to
b) y 5 12 000(0.982)9.9 y 5 12 000(0.982)10.1 calculate the values of y that approach the given
y 5 10 025.01 y 5 9988.66 value of x. Do this for values on either side of the
5 2181.7 people> year
10 025.01 2 9988.66 given value of x. Determine the average rate of
9.9 2 10.1 change for these values of x and y. When the
c) 6000 5 12 000(0.982)t average rate of change has stabilized to a constant
0.5 5 (0.982)t value, this is the instantaneous rate of change.
log 0.5 5 log (0.982)t 13. a) and b) Only a and k affect the instantaneous
log 0.5 5 t log 0.982 rate of change. Increases in the absolute value of
20.301 5 20.0079t either parameter tend to increase the instantaneous
38.1 5 t (yrs for pop to decrease by half) rate of change.
y 5 12 000(0.982)38.0 y 5 12 000(0.982)38.2
y 5 6017.5 y 5 5995.7
Chapter Review, pp. 510–511
5 2109 people> year
6017.5 2 5995.7
38.0 2 38.2 1. a) x 5 4y; y 5 log4 x
10. Both functions approach a horizontal asymptote. b) x 5 a y; y 5 loga x
3 y
c) x 5 a b ; y 5 log 34 x
Each change in x yields a smaller and smaller
change in y. Therefore, the instantaneous rate of 4
change grows increasingly small, toward 0, as x d) q 5 P m; m 5 logp q
increases. 2. a) a 5 23; k 5 2; vertical stretch by a factor of
11. a) 3, reflection in the x-axis, horizontal compression
300
by a factor of 12
Speed (miles/hour)

250 b) d 5 5; c 5 2; horizontal translation 5 units to the

200 right, vertical translation 2 units up
c) a 5 12; k 5 5; vertical compression by a factor of
150 1 1
2 , horizontal compression by a factor of 5
100 d) k 5 2 13; c 5 23; horizontal stretch by a factor
of 3, reflection in the y-axis, vertical shift 3 units
50
down
0 2 2
20 40 60 80 100 3. a) a 5 ; c 5 23; y 5 log x 2 3
Distance (km) 5 5
b) a 5 21; k 5 ; d 5 3; y 5 2log c (x 2 3)d
1 1
b) S(d) 5 93 log 10 1 65; S(d) 5 158 mph 2 2
S(d) 5 93 log 100 1 65; S(d) 5 251 mph c) a 5 5; k 5 22; y 5 5 log (22x)
251 mph 2 158 mph 5 93 mph d) k 5 21; d 5 4; y 5 log (2x 2 4) 22
93 mph>90 m 5 1.03 miles> hour> hour 4. Compared to y 5 log x, y 5 3 log (x 2 1) 1 2 is
c) S(d) 5 93 log 9.9 1 65 S(d) 5 93 log 10.1 1 65 vertically stretched by a factor of 3, horizontally
S(9.9) 5 157.59 S(10.1) 5 158.40 translated 1 unit to the right, and vertically
5 4.03 miles> hour> hour
157.59 2 158.40 translated 2 units up.
9.9 2 10.1 5. a) 7x 5 343; 7x 5 73; x 5 3
S(d) 5 93 log 99.9 1 65 S(d) 5 93 log 100.1 1 65 1 x 1 x 1 22
S(99.9) 5 250.96 S(100.1) 5 251.04 b) a b 5 25; a b 5 a b ; x 5 22
˛ ˛ ˛

2 2 2
5 0.403 miles> hour> hour
250.96 2 251.04 c) 19x 5 1; 19x 5 190; x 5 0
99.9 2 100.1 1
d) The rate at which the wind changes during shorter d) 4x 5 ; 4x 5 424; x 5 24
256
distances is much greater than the rate at which the 6. a) 3x 5 53
wind changes at farther distances. As the distance log 3x 5 log 53
increases, the rate of change approaches 0. x log 3 5 log 53

8-22 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/23/08 10:51 AM Page 23

0.477x 5 1.724 5x 5 4x 2 2
x 5 3.615 x 5 22
1 d) (35x )(32 )2 5 33
b) 4x 5
10 35x14 5 33
1 5x 1 4 5 3
log 4x 5 log x 5 20.2
10
x
1 11. a) log 6 5 log 78
x log 4 5 log x log 6 5 log 78
10
0.602x 5 21 0.778x 5 1.892
x 5 21.661 x 5 2.432
c) 6x 5 159 b) log (5.4)x 5 log 234
log 6x 5 log 159 x log (5.4) 5 log 234
x log 6 5 log 159 0.732x 5 2.369
0.778x 5 2.201 x 5 3.237
x 5 2.829 c) log (8)(3x ) 5 log 132
d) 15x 5 1456 log 8 1 log 3x 5 log 132
log 15x 5 log 1456 log 8 1 x log 3 5 log 132
x log 15 5 log 1456 0.903 1 0.477x 5 2.121
1.176x 5 3.163 0.477x 5 1.218
x 5 2.690 x 5 2.553
7. a) log 3 (5)(11)4 5 log 55 d) (1.23)x 5 2.7
log (1.23)x 5 log 2.7
20
b) log 5 log 5 x log 1.23 5 log 2.7
4 0.0899x 5 0.4314
(6)(8) x 5 4.799
c) log5 5 log5 4
12 12. a) Multiple through by 4x: 42x 1 6 5 5(4x )
d) log 32 1 log 24 5 log 9 1 log 16 42x 2 5(4x ) 1 6 5 0
5 log 3 (9)(16)4 (4x 2 3)(4x 2 2) 5 0
5 log 128 4x 2 3 5 0 4x 2 2 5 0
x
42 4 53 4x 5 2
8. a) log6 5 log6 6 x log 4 5 log 3 x log 4 5 log 2
7
51 0.602x 5 0.477 0.602x 5 0.301
(5)(18) x 5 0.79 or x 5 0.5
b) log3 5 log3 9 b) 8(52x ) 1 8(5x ) 2 6 5 0
10
52 (4(5x ) 2 2)(2(5x ) 1 3) 5 0
4(5x ) 2 2 5 0 2(5x ) 1 3 5 0
c) 13 log7 49; log7 49 in exponential form: 7x 5 49, x
4(5 ) 5 2 2(5x ) 5 23
x 5 2, so 13 log7 49 5 ( 13) (2) 5 23 1 3
5x 5 5x 5 2
d) log4 82 5 log4 64 2 2
53 1
log 5x 5 log (no solution)
9. It is shifted 4 units up. 2
10. a) 5x 5 55; x 5 5 1
b) log 4x 5 log 16 1 log !128
x log 5 5 log
2
1 0.699x 5 20.301
x log 4 5 log 16 1 log 128
2 x 5 20.43
0.602x 5 1.204 1 1.054 13. 7 5 20(0.5)t
0.602x 5 2.258 0.35 5 (0.5)t
x 5 3.75 log 0.35 5 t log 0.5
c) 4 5 (42 )2x21
5x
20.456 5 20.301t
45x 5 44x22 t 5 (1.52)(3.6) 5 5.45 days

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14. a) 53 5 2x 2 1 10 5 log I 2 log 10212

125 5 2x 2 1 10 5 log I 1 12
x 5 63 log I 5 22
b) 104 5 3x I 5 1022 W> m2
10 000 5 3x
17. 82 5 10 log a 212 b
I
10 000 10
x5
3
8.2 5 log a 212 b
I
c) log4 (3x 2 5) 5 log4 3 (11)(2)4 10
log4 (3x 2 5) 5 log4 22
8.2 5 log I 2 log 10212
3x 2 5 5 22
8.2 5 log I 1 12
3x 5 27
log I 5 23.8
I 5 1023.8 W> m2
x59
d) log (4x 2 1) 5 log 32(x 1 1)4
106.2
log (4x 2 1) 5 log (2x 1 2) 18. 5.5 5 5 times
4x 2 1 5 2x 1 2 10
2x 5 3 107
19. 6.4 5 3.9 times
x 5 1.5 10
(x 1 9) 104.7 1012.5
15. a) log 51 20. 2.3 5 251.2 5 251.2
x 10 1010.1
(x 1 9) The relative change in each case is the same. Each
101 5 change produces a solution with concentration
x
10x 5 x 1 9
251.2 times the original solution.
9x 5 9
21. It is exponential as there is a common ratio
(8 5) when comparing the y-values.
x51
b) log 3x(x 2 3)4 5 1 Doing an exponential regression gives y 5 3(2.25x )
22. 15 000 5 20 000(0.984)t
log (x 2 2 3x) 5 1
0.75 5 0.984t
101 5 x 2 2 3x log 0.75 5 log 0.984t
2
x 2 3x 2 10 5 0 log 0.75 5 t log 0.984
(x 2 5)(x 1 2) 5 0 20.125 5 20.007t
x 5 5 or x 5 22 t 5 17.8 years
As x must be . 3, x 5 22 is inadmissible: x 5 5 514 013 2 132 459
c) log (x 2 1)(x 1 2) 5 1 23. a) 5 8671 people per year
1994 2 1950
log (x 2 1 x 2 2) 5 1 345 890 2 132 459
101 5 x 2 1 x 2 2 b) 5 7114
1980 2 1950
2
x 1 x 2 12 5 0 The rate of growth for the first 30 years is slower
(x 1 4)(x 2 3) 5 0 than the rate of growth for the entire period.
x 5 24 or x 5 3 c) Doing an exponential regression
As x must be . 1, x 5 24 is inadmissible: x 5 3 y 5 134 322(1.03x ), where x is the number of years
1 after 1950
d) log (x 2 2 1) 5 2
2 d) i) y 5 134 322(1.0319.9 ) y 5 134 322(1.0320.1 )
log (x 2 2 1) 5 4 y 5 241 884 y 5 243 318
104 5 x 2 2 1 241 884 2 243 318
10 001 5 x 2 5 7171 people per year
19.9 2 20.1
x 5 6 !10 001 ii) y 5 134 322(1.0339.9 ) y 5 134 322(1.0340.1 )
16. 100 5 10 log a 212 b
I y 5 436 870 y 5 439 460
10 436 870 2 439 460
5 12 950 people per year
10 5 log a 212 b
I 39.9 2 40.1
10

8-24 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

08-035_08_AFSM_C08_001-026.qxd 7/19/08 8:41 PM Page 25

24. a) The increases from year to year are not the b) log7 343 1 log7 492
same, so a linear model is not best. Doing an log7 (343)(2401)
exponential regression gives y 5 23(1.17x ), where log7 823 543
x is the number of years since 1998. 7x 5 823 543
b) y 5 23(1.1717 ) 7x 5 77
331 808 DVD player owners x57
c) Answers may vary. For example, I assumed that
5. log4 x 2 1 log4 c (y)a b (3)d 2 log4 x
1
the rate of growth would be the same through 2015. 3
This is not reasonable. As more people buy the 5 log4 x 2 1 log4 y 2 log4 x
players, there will be fewer people remaining to buy
x 2y
them, or newer technology may replace them. 5 log4
43 2 27 x
d) 5 5.3 about 5300 DVD players per year 5 log4 xy
421
e) y 5 23(1.171.9 ) y 5 23(1.17 2.1 ) 6. log 5x12 5 log 6x11
y 5 30.99 y 5 31.98 (x 1 2) log 5 5 (x 1 1) log 6
30.99 2 31.98 0.699(x 1 2) 5 0.778(x 1 1)
5 4.95 about 4950 DVD players per year x 1 2 5 1.113x 1 1.113
1.9 2 2.1
f) Answers may vary. For example, the prediction 0.887 5 0.113x
in part e) makes sense because the prediction is for x 5 7.85
a year covered by the data given. The prediction 7. a) log4 (x 1 2)(x 2 1) 5 1
made in part b) does not make sense because the log4 (x 2 1 x 2 2) 5 1
prediction is for a year that is beyond the data 41 5 x 2 1 x 2 2
given, and conditions may change, making the 4 5 x2 1 x 2 2
model invalid. x2 1 x 2 6 5 0
(x 1 3)(x 2 2) 5 0
x 5 23 or x 5 2
Chapter Self-Test, p. 512 As x must be . 1, x 5 23 is inadmissible; x 5 2
1. a) x 5 4 y; log4 x 5 y b) log3 3 (8x 2 2)(x 2 1)4 5 2
b) original function in exponential form: x 5 6y log3 (8x 2 2 10x 1 2) 5 2
inverse y 5 6x; log6 y 5 x 32 5 8x 2 2 10x 1 2
2. a) k 5 2; d 5 4; c 5 3; horizontal compression by 8x 2 2 10x 2 7 5 0
a factor of 12, horizontal translation 4 units to the right, 10 6 !100 2 (4)(8)(27)
vertical translation 3 units up x5
16
b) a 5 2 12; d 5 25; c 5 21; vertical compression 28 3 1
by a factor of 12, reflection in the x-axis, horizontal x5 5 1 or x 5 2
16 4 2
translation 5 units to the left, vertical translation
As x must be . 1, x 5 2 12 is inadmissible; x 5 134
1 unit down
8. a) 50g
1
3. a) 3x 5 ; 3x 5 322; x 5 22 b) A(t) 5 100(0.5)5730
t

9
t
100 c) 80 5 100(0.5)5730
b) log5 t
4 0.8 5 (0.5)5730
log5 25 t
log 0.8 5 log (0.5)5730
5x 5 25
t
x55 log 0.8 5 log (0.5)
5730
(15 3 40)
20.0969 5 a b (20.301)
4. a) log t
6
5730
log 100 5 2
t 5 1844 years

Advanced Functions Solutions Manual 8-25

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99.9 100.1

b) 0 5 log a b 4 log (0.75)

d) A(t) 5 100(0.5) 5730 A(t) 5 100(0.5) 5730 T 2 22
A(t) 5 98.799 A(t) 5 98.796 75
5 20.015 g> year
98.799 2 98.796
5 log a b
T 2 22
99.9 2 100.1 0
75
9. a) t 5 log a b 4 log (0.75)
35 2 22 T 2 22
75 100 5
75
20.761 75 5 T 2 22
t5 5 6 min
20.125 T 5 97°

8-26 Chapter 8: Exponential and Logarithmic Functions