Module 4 - Aircraft Basics

Aviation Quality Standards
Course Objectives:
At the end of the course participants will be able to understand:
• Basic terminology used in aerospace tech pub.
Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 1

Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub
Advisory Circular (AC)
Information issued by an authority that describes a change (e.g. improvement) to aircraft
operations and the means of accomplishment.
Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)

A publication issued by or with the authority of a state and containing aeronautical information
of a lasting character essential to air navigation. It is designed to be a manual containing
thorough details of regulations, procedures and other information pertinent to flying aircraft in
the particular country to which it relates. It is usually issued by or on behalf of the respective
civil aviation administration.
Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM)

The operating manual for a type of aircraft produced by the aircraft manufacturer and approved
by the applicable CAA that contains operational data, specifications, limitations, procedures
and information specific to the aircraft type.
Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)

Equipment aboard an aircraft that provides an audible and visual warning when there is a
threat of collision with another aircraft.
Aircraft Access Doors

Doors that provide access to the passenger cabin or lower compartment(s), which may be
actuated manually or by electrical, hydraulic or pneumatic means.
Aircraft Interior Areas

Bay – A subdivision of a compartment for the carriage of ULDs (containers or pallets).
Cabin – The area of an aircraft where passenger seats are installed.
Cabin Section – A division of the cabin into zones for the purpose of balance.
Compartment – A space designated within a hold.
Deck – A structured floor level. For aircraft having only one structured floor level, this level is
referred to as the main deck. For aircraft having more than one structural floor level, the
different levels shall be referred to as lower deck, main deck and upper deck, starting from
bottom to top.
Hold – The space confined by ceiling, floor, walls and bulkhead, used for carrying load.
Compartment section – A subdivision of a non-ULD compartment (i.e. net section).

Aircraft on Ground (AOG)
The highest priority designation to process a requirement (AOG) for a spare part or many
spare parts and/or maintenance action. Indicates that an aircraft is unable to continue or be
returned to revenue service until the appropriate action is taken.
Aircraft Technical Log

The record of reported or observed malfunctions, failures, or defects in the airframe,
powerplant, or appliances on an aircraft, including information concerning repairs,
replacements, adjustments, or deferrals. The log normally resides in the aircraft.
Aircraft Technical Records

Records associated with maintenance carried out on aircraft, aircraft engines and aircraft
components.
Aircraft Variant (within Type)

As used with respect to the licensing and operation of flight crew, means an aircraft of the
same basic certificated type which contain modifications not resulting in significant changes
of handling and/or flight characteristics, or flight crew complement, but causing significant
changes to equipment and/or procedures.
Airworthiness Directive (AD)

A directive issued by an NAA that requires specific action within a specific time frame for
specified aircraft, engines or components. ADs are usually issued to address a current or
possible deficiency.
Anti-Icing
A precautionary process for protecting clean aircraft surfaces against the formation of ice and
frost, and the accumulation of snow and slush for a limited period.
Approved Maintenance Organisation (AMO)

A Maintenance Organisation that has been approved by the NAA of a State to perform specific
maintenance on aircraft, engines and components.
Approved Maintenance Programme

A programme approved by the Original Equipment Manufacturer and/or the applicable NAA
that specifies required maintenance and maintenance intervals for aircraft, engines and
components.

Base Maintenance
Any maintenance task falling outside the criteria for Line Maintenance.
Note: Aircraft maintained in accordance with a "progressive" type programme need to be
individually assessed in relation to this paragraph. In principle, the decision to allow some
"progressive" checks to be carried out is determined by the assessment that all tasks within
the particular check can be carried out safely to the required standards at the designated line
maintenance station.
Cabin Access Door

Door in the aircraft fuselage utilised for gaining entry and exiting the passenger cabin.
Certificate of Airworthiness
A certificate applicable to a specific aircraft and issued by an NAA (or a delegate) based on
satisfactory evidence that the aircraft complies with the design aspects of the appropriate
airworthiness requirements, and which allows such aircraft to commence or continue flight
operations.
Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMR)

Maintenance tasks identified by the MSG3 analysis as a mandatory maintenance regime
imposed by the Maintenance Review Board (MRB) which is designed to alleviate identified
component or system failure modes. Examples of tasks to be completed are:
• lubrication/servicing.
• inspection/functional checks.
• restoration.
• operational checks.
• discarding.
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)

A flight recorder that records audio information on the flight deck.
Component Maintenance Manual (CMM)

A Manual produced and continuously updated by the manufacturer of a particular component
for use during maintenance of that component.
Configuration Deviation List (CDL)

A list established by the organisation responsible for the aircraft type design, with the approval
of the State of Design, which identifies any external parts of an aircraft type that may be

missing at the commencement of a flight, and which contains, where necessary, any
information on associated operating limitations and performance correction.
Continuing Airworthiness Data

Information required to continually maintain an aircraft in a state of airworthiness. Such
information includes, but is not limited to:
• Airworthiness Directives (AD).
• Manufacturers maintenance manuals.
• Repair Manuals.
• Supplementary Structures Inspection Documents, Service Bulletins (SB).
• Service Instructions.
• Service Information Letters (SIL).
• Modification Leaflets.
• Aircraft Maintenance Programme.
• Non-destructive Testing (NDT) Manual.
• others.
Defect
Any confirmed abnormal condition of an item whether or not this could eventually result in a
failure.
Defect, Major
A defect in relation to an aircraft that may affect the safety of the aircraft or cause the aircraft
to become a danger to person or property.
De-Icing
A process for removal of ice, snow, slush, or frost from the aircraft surfaces.
De-icing/Anti-icing
A process that combines both de-icing and anti-icing, which can be performed in one or two
steps.
Emergency Equipment
Aircraft equipment specifically used on aircraft for emergency situations.

Emergency Escape Path Lighting System
An aircraft cabin emergency lighting system designed to provide passengers with a visual
indication of the path to the emergency exits in the case of smoke or fire.
Emergency Lighting System

A system of lighting designed for use during emergency situations that is independent from
the aircraft main electrical supply and activates automatically upon loss of normal power.
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

A generic term describing equipment that broadcasts distinctive signals on designated
frequencies and depending on application, may be automatically activated by impact or be
manually activated. The types of ELT are defined as follows:
Automatic Fixed ELT – permanently attached to the aircraft and automatically activated.
Automatic Portable ELT – rigidly attached to an aircraft and automatically activated but may
be readily removed from the aircraft.
Automatic Deployable ELT – rigidly attached to the aircraft and automatically deployed and
activated by impact, in some cases, also by hydrostatic sensors. Manual deployment is also
provided.
Survival ELT – removable from the aircraft, stowed so as to facilitate its ready use in an
emergency, and manually activated by survivors.
Engineer, Aircraft Maintenance (AME)

A person employed to carry out the duties normally associated with the maintenance of aircraft
and not holding an aircraft maintenance engineer's licence.
Engineer, Licensed Aircraft Maintenance (LAME)

A person employed to carry out the duties normally associated with the maintenance of
aircraft, who holds an aircraft engineer's licence. Such person may be issued a maintenance
authority for the purpose of certifying maintenance on an aircraft type and category for which
the LAME is not rated.
Engineering Authorisation (EA)

The document issued by the design organisation from (or contracted by) the Operator that
indicates (on behalf of the Operator) how compliance is shown with applicable airworthiness
requirements in order to certify modifications or repairs on type designs under the
responsibility of the Operator.

Engineering Instruction (EI)
The documents produced by Operator’s Technical Service or Engineering Department
specifying
instructions to comply with:
• Airworthiness Directives (AD) and Service Bulletins (SB);
• aircraft modifications and/or repairs;
• component modifications and/or repairs;
• time Limits involving design considerations;
• inspections in lieu of modifications; or
• inspections which may be terminated by repair or modification action;
• advice or authority to the Supply Department, and/or Production Department to cover
provisioning, warranty or manufacturing criteria.
Extended Range Operations (EROPS)

An approval granted by the Authority to operate an aircraft type within a certain distance in
flying time to an alternate airport.
ETOPS
The operation of multiengine aircraft on routes that are, at some point, more than the flying
time from a landing airport as specified by the State; ETOPS requires regulatory approval.
Note: the acronym ETOPS has multiple definitions, including Extended Operations of Turbine-
engined Aircraft (ICAO), Extended Twin Engine Operations, Extended-range Twin-engine
Operations, Extended Operations of Multiengine Airplanes (FAA) and Extended-range Twin-
engine Operation Performance Standards, Extended Diversion Time Operations (CASA
Australia).
FOD (Foreign Object Damage)

Damage to any part of an aircraft caused by impact, collision or contact with, or ingestion of,
debris or other items.
Flight Data Analysis (FDA) Programme

A non-punitive programme for gathering and analysing data recorded during routine flights to
improve flight crew performance, operating procedures, flight training, air traffic control
procedures, air navigation services, or aircraft maintenance and design.
Flight Data Recorder (FDR)

A flight recorder used to record specific aircraft performance parameters.

Flight Deck
The area of an aircraft designed to enable the pilot(s) to operate the aircraft, which contains
the required instrumentation, controls, systems and equipment, and is separated from other
areas of the aircraft.
Flight Management System (FMS)

A computerised aircraft navigation system that uses positional data from inertial navigation
systems or GPS to locate the position of the aircraft and display data and information to the
flight crew for the purpose of navigation.
Flight Simulator
A device that replicates the flight deck of a specific type or make, model and series of aircraft
and simulates the experience of operating the aircraft; includes the assemblage of equipment
and computer programs necessary to represent the aircraft in ground and flight operations, a
visual system providing an out-of-the-cockpit view, and a force cuing system that provides
motion cues at least equivalent to that of a three degrees-of-freedom motion system.
Fuelling Safety Zone

An area with associated restrictions that is established on the ramp around the aircraft fuelling
receptacles, tank vents, and around the fuelling equipment, during aircraft fuelling operations.
General Operations Manual (GOM)

A separate manual or the general section of the Operations Manual (OM) that contains flight
crew policies and procedures, not related to a specific type of aircraft, relevant to the following
operations personnel as applicable:
• flight crew.
• cabin crew.
• flight operations officer/flight dispatcher.
• other operational personnel as determined by the operator or required by the State.
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

An aircraft system that automatically provides a timely and distinctive warning to the flight crew
when the aircraft is in potentially hazardous proximity to the earth’s surface.
Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) with a Forward-Looking Terrain Avoidance

(FLTA) Function

A GPWS that provides a forward-looking capability and terrain clearance floor, and
automatically provides the flight crew with an alerting time necessary to prevent a potentially
hazardous proximity to the earth’s surface and controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) events.
Ground Support Equipment (GSE)

Any motor vehicle or piece of equipment, fixed, mobile or towed, that's use is exclusively for
aircraft ground handling operations. Equivalent Terms: Aircraft Ground Support Equipment
(AGSE)
Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC)

Parts list produced by the manufacturer of an aircraft, engine or component.
Incident
An occurrence other than an aircraft accident, associated with the operation of an aircraft,
which affects or could affect the safety of operations.
Inspect
To look upon, to view closely and critically, to scrutinise, to determine the condition, accuracy
and efficiency of a part or unit, all to the end that equipment shall not be used unless it is in
the best of condition and complies with an approved standard.
Line Maintenance
Any maintenance that must be carried out before flight to ensure the aircraft is fit for the
intended flight. It may include:
• troubleshooting.
• defect rectification.
• component replacement with use of external test equipment if required.
• component replacement (may include components such as engines and Propellers);
• scheduled maintenance and/or checks including visual inspections that will detect obvious
unsatisfactory conditions or discrepancies but do not require extensive in-depth inspection.
Maintenance Planning Document (MPD)

A document developed by the aircraft manufacturer containing all required maintenance
checks and inspections necessary to maintain continued airworthiness of the aircraft.
Maintenance Procedures Manual (MPM)

Means a document containing procedures that defines how an Approved Maintenance
Organisation carries out its aircraft maintenance activities.
Maintenance Programme
A document which describes the specific scheduled maintenance tasks and their frequency of
completion and related procedures, such as a reliability programme, necessary for the safe
operation of those aircraft to which it applies.
Maintenance Review Board (MRB)

Board of the Original Equipment Manufacturer that determines the maintenance requirements
of aircraft, aircraft engines and aircraft components.
Major Repair
A repair that: if incorrectly done, can affect weight, balance, structural strength, performance
powerplant operations, flight characteristics, or other qualities affecting airworthiness; or is not
done according to accepted practices; or cannot be done by Elementary Operations.
Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)

A list established for a particular aircraft type by the organisation responsible for the type
design with the type approval of the State of Design containing items, one or more of which is
permitted to be unserviceable at the commencement of a flight. The MMEL may be associated
with special operating conditions, limitations or procedures.
Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

A list that provides for the operation of an aircraft, subject to specified conditions, with
particular equipment inoperative, prepared by an Operator, and approved by the Authority, in
conformity with, or more restrictive than, the MMEL established for the aircraft type.
Minor Alteration
Any alteration that is not classified as a Major Alteration.
Minor Modification
Any modification that is not classified as a Major Modification.
Minor Repair
Any repair that is not classified as a Major Repair.
Modification (Maintenance)

The alteration of an aircraft or aircraft component in conformity with an approved standard.
Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Testing applications or methods used to examine aircraft or engine parts or components,
which do not destroy or render the item or material unusable. Examples of such testing include
Radiography, Eddy Current, Dye Penetrant, Ultrasonic, Thermal Imaging, Magnetic Particle
Inspection.
Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)

The original manufacturer of any hardware component or sub-component, including aircraft,
aircraft engines, aircraft components and other equipment used in operations.
Overhaul (Maintenance)
The restoration of an item to zero time with respect to the level specified and in accordance
with the instructions defined in the relevant manual.
The process applies to an airframe, aircraft engine, propeller, appliance, or component part
using methods, techniques, and practices acceptable to the Authority, which has:
• been disassembled, cleaned, inspected, repaired when necessary, and reassembled to
the extent possible per the Approved Data.
• been tested in accordance with approved standards and technical data, or current
standards and technical data acceptable to the Authority (i.e. manufacturer's data), which
have been developed and documented by the Type Certificate Holder, the Supplemental
Type Certificate (STC) Holder or the Parts Manufacture Approval Holder.
Quality Assurance (QA)

The formal and systematic process of auditing and evaluation of management system and
operational functions of an operator to ensure:
• compliance with regulatory and internal requirements.
• satisfaction of stated operational needs.
• identification of hazards, undesirable conditions and areas requiring improvement.
Quality Control (QC)

The audit, inspection or testing of the output of a process, which may be a product, service or
function, to determine an operator’s compliance with technical, performance and/or quality
standards.
Quality control activities are typically sponsored by operations, maintenance or security
managers, who have the direct responsibility for the safety and security of operations.

Quality Manual (QM)
The document that states the quality policy of an organisation (e.g. operator, AMO, service
provider) and describes the quality management system of such organisation, to include the
scope of the system, established procedures for the system and the interaction between
processes within the system.
Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM)

Reduced Vertical Separation Minima. Approval for a ‘specific’ vertical separation between
flying aircraft. The minimum vertical separation of 300 m (1000 feet) applied by ATC to aircraft
operating in specially defined airspace between flight levels 290 and 410 inclusive.
Serious Incident
An incident involving circumstances indicating that an accident nearly occurred.
Serious Injury
An injury which is sustained by a person in an accident and which:
• requires hospitalisation for more than 48 hours, commencing within seven days from the
date the injury was received, or
• results in a fracture of any bone (except simple fractures of fingers, toes or nose), or
• involves lacerations which cause severe hemorrhage, nerve, muscle or tendon damage;
or
• involves injury to any internal organ, or
• involves second- or third-degree burns, or any burns affecting more than 5 per cent of the
body surface, or
• involves verified exposure to infectious substances or injurious radiation.
Service Bulletin (SB)

Document issued by the manufacturer of a particular aircraft, aircraft engine or aircraft
component to detail a product improvement.
Service Information Letter (SIL)

Letter sent by an aircraft, aircraft engine or aircraft component manufacturer detailing a
maintenance improvement programme.
Standard Part

Is a part manufactured in complete compliance with an established Government or industry-
acceptedwhich includes design, manufacturing, and uniform identification requirements. The
specification must include all information necessary to produce and confirm the part. The
specification must be published so that any party may manufacture the part. Examples include,
but are not limited to:
• National Aerospace Standards (NAS).
• Air Force-Navy Aeronautical Standard (AN).
• Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
• Aerospace Standard (AS).
• Military Standard (MS).
Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

Manual issued by the Original Equipment Manufacturer of an aircraft outlining Structural
Repair Limitations and Repair details.
Type Certificate
The certificate issued by an NAA of a state that defines the design of an aircraft type and
certifies that this design meets the appropriate airworthiness requirements of that state.

Course Objectives:
• What are the forces acting aircraft?
• Lift
• Weight
• Thrust
• Drag
Module 4.2: Basic of Flight 1

Basics of flight
What are the forces acting on aircraft?

The principles of flight are the aerodynamics dealing with the motion of air and forces acting
on an aircraft:
• Lift
• Thrust
• Drag
• weight are those forces that act upon all aircraft in flight
Understanding how these forces work together and knowing how to control them with the
use of power and flight controls are essential to flight.
Lift
Figure 1: Lift vs. Relative Wind
• Lift is the critical aerodynamic force that brings an aircraft to fly

• The dynamic effect of the air moving across an air foil produces lift
• Common air foils include not just the wings but the flaps/slats, and stabilizers too
• Most see a lift vector as acting "up," but instead, it acts perpendicular to the relative
wind and the lateral axis of the aircraft
• This means "up" is relative to the aircraft, and being in a turn or even upside-down
changes the direction the lift vector points (a key principle in understanding turn
performance and aerobatics)
• Lift concentrates from the Center of Lift/Pressure
• In straight and level flight, to be effective, the total lift must overcome the total weight
of the aircraft, comprised of the actual weight and the tail-down force used to control
the aircraft's pitch attitude
• It is important to note that lift has no reference to Earth

• This means that when performing a loop, for example, the lift vector is still
perpendicular to the relative wind, which would have the lift vector pointing toward the
ground as the aircraft becomes inverted
• Creation of lift can be understood by observing Bernoulli's principle as well as Newton's
Laws of Motion.
Bernoulli's Principle Bernoulli's principle demonstrates that as the velocity of a moving fluid
(liquid or gas) increases, the pressure within the fluid decreases
A Venturi demonstrates Bernoulli's principle: A1V1P1 = A2V2P2

A = Area, V = Velocity, and P = Pressure
Assuming area is constant, you get: V1P1 = V2P2
The formula shows that as the velocity of fluid (air) increases, its pressure must decrease
Relating this principle to an airfoil, we see a similar shape
The rounded upper surface increases the velocity of the air, which causes pressure to
decrease.
As pressure above the wing decreases, the relative pressure below it is higher, creating a
pressure differential which we know as lift
Note: with regards to rotary-wing aircraft, lift and thrust are both in the vertical direction
Note: We say lift is created by air moving faster over the top of the wing, but more specifically,
it’s the decreased pressure which causes lift
Figure 2: Bernoulli's Principle
Newton's Laws of Motion

Newton's first law: "Every object persists in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless compelled to change that state by forces impressed on it"
A body at rest tends to remain at rest, and a body in motion tends to remain moving at the
same speed and in the same direction
This means that nothing starts or stops moving until some outside force causes it to do so

An aircraft at rest on the ramp remains at rest unless a force strong enough to overcome its
inertia is applied
Once it is moving, its inertia keeps it moving, subject to the various other forces acting on it
These forces may add to its motion, slow it down, or change its direction
Newton's second law: "Force is equal to the change in momentum per change in time. For a
constant mass, force equals mass times acceleration"
When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting acceleration is inversely
proportional to the mass of the body and is directly proportional to the applied force
This considers the factors involved in overcoming Newton's First Law. It covers both changes
in direction and speed, including starting up from rest (positive acceleration) and coming to a
stop (negative acceleration or deceleration).
The equation F(force)=M(mass)A(acceleration) may express this law where the force is equal
to the mass times the acceleration
Newton's Third Law: "For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction"
In an airplane, the propeller moves and pushes back the air; consequently, the air pushes the
propeller (and thus the airplane) in the opposite direction—forward. This principle applies
whenever two things act upon each other
Figure 3: Newton's Third Law
Lift as an Equation The magnitude of the force of lift (L) is directly proportional to the
Coefficient of Lift (CL), the density of the air (ρ), the area of the wings (S), and the velocity
(airspeed) (V)
Figure 4: Lift Equation

Coefficient of Lift The lift coefficient is a number that aerodynamicists use to model all the
complex dependencies of shape, inclination, and some flow conditions on lift
Air Density If air density decreases and the total lift must equal the total weight to remain in
flight, it follows that another factor needs to increase.The factor usually increased is the
airspeed or the Angle of Attack (AOA) because these are controlled directly by the pilot
Wing Area The lift varies directly with the wing area, provided there is no change in the wing's
planform. If the wings have the same proportion and airfoil sections, a wing with a planform
area of 200 square feet lifts twice as much at the same AOA as a wing with an area of 100
square feet
Velocity The shape of the wing or rotor cannot be effective unless it continually keeps
"attacking" new air.If an aircraft is to keep flying, the lift-producing airfoil must keep moving.
In a helicopter or gyroplane, the rotation of the rotor blades creates the necessary lift.
For other types of aircraft, such as airplanes, weight shift control, or gliders, air must be moving
across the lifting surface by way of forward speed.
The forward speed of the aircraft accomplishes this:
Lift is proportional to the square of the aircraft's velocity, meaning that an airplane traveling at
200 knots has four times the lift as the same airplane traveling at 100 knots if the AOA and
other factors remain constant
All other factors being constant, for every AOA, there is a corresponding airspeed required to
maintain altitude in steady, unaccelerated flight (true only if maintaining level flight). Since an
airfoil always stalls at the same AOA, the lift must increase if increasing weight. The only
method of increasing lift is by increasing velocity if the AOA is held constant just short of the
"critical," or stalling, AOA (assuming no flaps or other high lift devices). Lift and drag also vary
directly with the density of the air. Density is affected by several factors: pressure,
temperature, and humidity. At an altitude of 18,000 feet, the air density has one-half the air
density at sea level. An aircraft must fly at a greater true airspeed for any given AoA to maintain
its lift at a higher air density altitude. Warm air is less dense than cool air, and moist air is less
dense than dry air. Thus, on a hot, humid day, an aircraft must be flown at a greater true
airspeed for any given AOA than on a cool, dry day.
Controlling Lift Pilots can control lift principally with two factors:
• Angle of Attack
• Velocity/airspeed

Angle of Attack
AOA is fundamental to understanding many aspects of airplane performance, stability, and
control
AoA is the acute angle measured between the relative wind or flight path and the chord of the
air foil
Figure 5: Angle of Attack and Relative Wind
Any time the control yoke or stick is moved fore or aft, the Angle of Attack, or AOA, is changed
As the AOA increases, lift increases (all other factors being equal)
When the aircraft reaches the maximum AOA, lift begins to diminish rapidly
This is the stalling AOA, known as CL-MAX (maximum CL) critical AOA
The CL increases until reaching the critical AOA, then decreases rapidly with any further
increase in the AOA

Figure 6: Coefficients of lift and drag at various angles of attack
Lift created (or reduced in the case of negative AoA) is measured with the coefficient of lift,
which relates to the AoA
Every airplane has an angle of attack where the maximum lift occurs (stall)
Velocity/Airspeed For instance, in straight-and-level flight, cruising along at a constant

altitude, altitude is maintained by adjusting lift to match the aircraft's velocity or cruise airspeed
while maintaining a state of equilibrium in which lift equals weight
In an approach to landing, when the pilot wishes to land as slowly as practical, it is necessary
to increase AOA near maximum to maintain lift equal to the weight of the aircraft
An aircraft could not continue to travel in level flight at a constant altitude and maintain the
same AOA if the velocity increases. The lift would increase, and the aircraft would climb due
to the increased lift force or speed up. Therefore, to keep the aircraft straight and level (not
accelerating upward) and in a state of equilibrium, lift must be kept constant as velocity is
increased. This is normally accomplished by reducing the AOA by lowering the nose.
Conversely, as the aircraft is slowed, the decreasing velocity requires increasing the AOA to
maintain lift sufficient to maintain flight. There is a limit to how far the AOA can be increased,
if a stall is to be avoided
Lift/Drag Ratio

The lift-to-drag ratio (L/D) is the amount of lift generated by a wing or airfoil compared to its
drag. A L/D ratio is an indication of airfoil efficiency. Aircraft with higher L/D ratios are more
efficient than those with lower L/D ratios.
In unaccelerated flight with the lift and drag data steady, the proportions of the coefficient of
lift (CL) and coefficient of drag (CD) can be calculated for specific AOA.
Figure 7: Drag vs. Speed
The coefficient of lift is dimensionless and relates the lift generated by a lifting body, the
dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the body, and a reference area associated with the
body. The coefficient of drag is dimensionless, used to quantify the drag of an object in a fluid
environment, such as air, and is always associated with a particular surface area
The L/D ratio is determined by dividing the CL by the CD. This is the same as dividing the lift
equation by the drag equation as all the variables, aside from the coefficients, cancel out
The lift and drag equations are as follows (L = Lift in pounds; D = Drag; CL = coefficient of lift;
ρ = density (expressed in slugs per cubic feet); V = velocity (in feet per second); q = dynamic
pressure per square foot (q = 1⁄2 ρv2); S = the area of the lifting body (in square feet); and CD
= Ratio of drag pressure to dynamic pressure). Typically, at low AOA, the coefficient of drag
is low and small changes in AOA create only slight changes in the coefficient of drag. At high
AOA, small changes in the AOA cause significant changes in drag. The shape of an airfoil and
changes in the AOA affect the production of lift
Notice in that the coefficient of lift curve (red) reaches its maximum for this particular wing
section at 20° AOA and then rapidly decreases 20° AOA is, therefore, the critical angle of
attack. The coefficient of drag curve (orange) increases very rapidly from 14° AOA and
completely overcomes the lift curve at 21° AOA. The lift/drag ratio (green) reaches its
maximum at 6° AOA, meaning that at this angle, the most lift is obtained for the least amount
of drag.
Note that the maximum lift/drag ratio (L/DMAX) occurs at one specific CL and AOA If the
aircraft operates in steady flight at L/DMAX, the total drag is at a minimum Any AOA lower or
higher than that for L/DMAX reduces the L/D and consequently increases the total drag for a

given aircraft's lift depicts the L/DMAX by the lowest portion of the blue line labeled "total drag
The configuration of an aircraft has a great effect on the L/D
Air foil Design

Air foil construction takes advantage of the air's response to Newton's and Bernoulli's
principles. Air acts in various ways when submitted to different pressures and velocities: a
positive pressure lifting action from the air mass below the wing and a negative pressure lifting
action from lowered pressure above the wing. If all the lift required were obtained merely from
the deflection of air by the lower surface of the wing, an aircraft would only need a flat wing
like a kite. However, the balance of the lift needed to support the aircraft comes from the flow
of air above the wing. Herein lies the key to flight. It is neither accurate nor useful to assign
specific values to the percentage of lift generated by an airfoil's upper surface versus that
generated by the lower surface. These are not constant values. They vary, not only with flight
conditions but also with different wing designs.
Different air foils have different flight characteristics, No one air foil can satisfy every flight
requirement.
• The weight, speed, and purpose of each aircraft dictate the shape of its air foil
• The most efficient air foil for producing the greatest lift is one that has a concave or
"scooped out" lower surface
As a fixed design, this air foil type sacrifices too much speed while producing lift and is not
suitable for high-speed flight
Advancements in engineering have made it possible for today's high-speed jets to take
advantage of the concave air foil’s high lift characteristics, Leading-edge (Kreuger) flaps and
trailing edge (Fowler) flaps when extended from the basic wing structure, literally change the
air foil shape into the classic concave form, thereby generating much greater lift during slow
flight conditions. On the other hand, an air foil that is perfectly streamlined and offers little wind
resistance sometimes does not have enough lifting power to take the airplane off the ground.
Thus, modern airplanes have air foils that strike a medium between extremes in design. The
shape varies according to the needs of the airplane

Figure 8: Typical Air foil Section
Air foil Construction

By looking at the cross-section of a wing, one can see several prominent characteristics of
design
• Notice that there is a difference in the curvatures (called cambers) of the upper and
lower surfaces of the air foil
• The camber of the upper surface is more pronounced than that of the lower surface,
which is usually somewhat flat
• The two extremities of the air foil profile also differ in appearance as the rounded end,
which faces forward in flight, is called the leading edge; the other end, the trailing edge,
is relatively narrow and tapered

Figure 9: Airfoil Designs
Chord Line A straight line connecting the extremities of the leading and trailing edges
denotes the Chord Line. The Chord line is a reference line often used in discussing the air
foil. The distance from this chord line to the upper and lower surfaces of the wing denotes
the upper and lower magnitude of camber at any point. Another reference line, drawn from
the leading edge to the trailing edge, is the mean camber line. This mean line is equidistant
at all points from the upper and lower surfaces
High Pressure Below A certain amount of lift is generated by pressure conditions

underneath the air foil. Because of air flows underneath the air foil, a positive pressure
results, particularly at higher angles of attack. There is another aspect to this airflow to
consider:
• At a point close to the leading edge, the airflow nearly stops (stagnation point) and
then gradually increases in speed
• At some point near the trailing edge, it again reaches a velocity equal to that on the
upper surface

In conformance with Bernoulli's principle, positive upward pressure created where the airflow
slowed beneath the airflow (i.e., the fluid speed decreases, the pressure must increase)
Since the pressure differential between the upper and lower surface of the airfoil increases,
total lift increases
Low Pressure Above With an air foil in the shape of a teardrop, the speed and the pressure
changes of the air passing over the top and bottom would be the same on both sides. If the
air foil were then inclined, so the airflow strikes it at an angle, the air moving over the upper
surface would be forced to move faster than the air moving along the bottom of the air foil.
This increased velocity reduces the pressure above the air foil.
Applying Bernoulli's Principle of Pressure, the airspeed increase across the top of an air foil
produces a pressure drop. This lowered pressure is a component of total lift. The pressure
difference between the upper and lower surface of a wing alone does not account for the total
lift force produced
The downward backward flow from the top surface of an air foil creates a downwash
This downwash meets the flow from the bottom of the air foil at the trailing edge
Applying Newton's third law, the reaction of this downward backward flow results in an upward
forward force on the air foil
Pressure Distribution As air flows along the surface of a wing at different AOAs, there are
regions along the surface where the pressure is negative or less than atmospheric and
regions where the pressure is positive or greater than atmospheric
This negative pressure on the upper surface creates a relatively larger force on the wing than
is caused by the positive pressure resulting from the air striking the lower wing surface
Figure 10: Pressure distribution on an air foil and CP changes with AOA
The average pressure variation for any given AOA is called the center of pressure (CP). The
aerodynamic force acts through this CP. At high angles of attack, the CP moves forward, while
at low angles of attack, the CP moves aft. In the design of wing structures, this CP travel is
very important since it affects the position of the air loads imposed on the wing structure in

both low and high AOA conditions. Changes in the CP govern an airplane's aerodynamic
balance and controllability
Air foil Behaviour The lift production is much more complex than a simple differential
pressure between upper and lower air foil surfaces. Many lifting air foils do not have an
upper surface longer than the bottom, as in symmetrical air foils. These are seen in high-
speed aircraft with symmetrical wings or symmetrical rotor blades for many helicopters
whose upper and lower surfaces are identical. In both examples, the only difference is the air
foil relationship with the oncoming airstream (angle). A paper airplane, which is simply a flat
plate, has a bottom and top shape and length. Yet, these air foils do produce lift, and "flow
turning" is partly (or fully) responsible for creating lift.
As an air foil moves through the air, the air foil is inclined against the airflow, producing a
different flow caused by the air foil’s relationship to the oncoming air. Think of a hand placed
outside the car window at high speed. If the hand inclines in one direction or another, the hand
will move upward or downward. Deflection causes the air to turn about the object within the
air stream. The velocity about the object changes in both magnitude and direction, in turn
resulting in a measurable velocity force and direction.
Wingtip Vortices & Lift

While the biggest consideration for producing lift involves the air flowing over and under the
wing, there is a third dimension to consider.
Consider the tip of the air foil also has an aerodynamic effect.
To equalize pressure, the high-pressure area on the bottom of an air foil pushes around the
tip to the low-pressure area on the top.

Figure 11: Wing Tip Vortex
This action creates a rotating flow called a tip vortex or wingtip vortices.
This downwash extends back to the trailing edge of the air foil, reducing lift for the affected
portion of the air foil.
Manufacturers have developed different methods to counteract this action.
Winglets can be added to the tip of an air foil to reduce this flow (essentially decrease induced
drag).
The winglets act as a dam preventing the vortex from forming.
Winglets can be on the top or bottom of the air foil.
Another method of countering the flow is to taper the air foil tip, reducing the pressure
differential and smoothing the airflow around the tip.
Weight
• Weight is simply the force of gravity on the aircraft, which acts vertically through the
center of gravity
• It is the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the fuel, and the cargo or baggage
• Weight varies based on load, passengers, and fuel
• A Load is essentially the back pressure on the control stick required, the G-loading,
which an aircraft experience
• Passengers and fuel are more obvious

• Opposing lift, as an aircraft is descending
• Weight vs. Lift
• Weight has a definite relationship to lift
• This relationship is simple but important in understanding the aerodynamics of flying
• Lift is the upward force on the wing acting perpendicular to the relative wind and
perpendicular to the aircraft's lateral axis
• Lift is required to counteract the aircraft's weight
• In stabilized level flight, when the lift force is equal to the weight force, the aircraft is in
a state of equilibrium, and neither accelerates upward or downward
• If lift becomes less than weight, the vertical speed will decrease
• When the lift is greater than weight, the vertical speed will increase
Thrust
• Thrust is the forward acting force that opposes drag and propels the airplane forward
• It is through excesses or deficits of thrust that accelerations and decelerations can
occur
• The aircraft will continue to speed up/slow down until thrust again equals drag, at which
point the airspeed will stabilize
• In powered aircraft, thrust is achieved through the powerplant, be it a propeller, rotor,
or turbine
• With a glider, thrust is created through the conversion of potential energy (altitude) to
kinetic energy (airspeed) by pitching toward the ground
• Newton's second law: When a body is acted upon by a constant force, its resulting
acceleration is inversely proportional to the mass of the body and is directly
proportional to the applied force
• This law may be expressed by F = MA (Force equals Mass times Acceleration), for
example, speeding up, slowing down, entering climbs or descents, and turning
• Acts parallel to the center of thrust to overcome drag, F = MA
• Note: with regards to rotary-wing aircraft, lift and thrust are both in the vertical direction
• As a rule, thrust acts parallel to the longitudinal axis
Measuring Thrust
• Propeller & rotor driven aircraft are generally rated in horsepower
• Turbine driven aircraft are generally rated in pounds
Thrust During Acceleration

• Increasing engine power increases thrust (now exceeding drag), thereby accelerating
the aircraft
• If the thrust continues to be greater than the drag, the aircraft continues to accelerate
• When drag equals thrust, the aircraft flies at a constant airspeed
Thrust during Deceleration

• When reducing engine power, lessoning thrust, thereby decelerating the aircraft
• If the thrust is less than the drag, the aircraft continues to decelerate
• To a point, as the aircraft slows down, the drag force will also decrease
• The aircraft will continue to slow down until thrust again equals drag, at which point the
airspeed will stabilize
Straight-and-level flight
• Angle of Attack at Various Speeds
• The pilot coordinates AOA and thrust in all speed regimes if the aircraft is to be held in
level flight
• Remember, (for a given air foil shape) lift varies with the AOA and airspeed
• Therefore, a large AOA at low airspeeds produces an equal amount of lift at high
airspeeds with a low AOA
• The speed regimes of flight can be grouped in three categories:
Low-Speed Flight
When the airspeed is low, the AOA must be relatively high if the balance between lift and
weight is to be maintained
Figure 12: Angle of Attack at Various Speeds
If thrust decreases and airspeed decreases, the lift will become less than weight, and the
aircraft will start to descend
To maintain level flight, the pilot can increase the AOA an amount that generates a lift force
again equal to the weight of the aircraft
While the aircraft will be flying more slowly, it will still maintain level flight

Cruising Flight
Straight-and-level flight in the slow-speed regime provides some interesting conditions relative
to the equilibrium of forces.
With the aircraft in a nose-high attitude, there is a vertical component of thrust that helps
support it.
For one thing, wing loading tends to be less than would be expected.
In level flight, when thrust increases, the aircraft speeds up, and the lift increases.
The aircraft will start to climb unless the AOA is decreased just enough to maintain the
relationship between lift and weight.
The timing of this decrease in AOA needs to be coordinated with the increase in thrust and
airspeed. Otherwise, if the AOA decreases too fast, the aircraft will descend, and if the AOA
decreases too slowly, the aircraft will climb.
High-Speed Flight
As the airspeed varies due to thrust, the AOA must also vary to maintain level flight
At very high speeds and level flight, it is even possible to have a slightly negative AOA
As thrust reduces and airspeed decreases, the AOA must increase to maintain altitude
If speed decreases enough, the required AOA will increase to the critical AOA
Any further increase in the AOA will result in the wing stalling
Therefore, extra vigilance is required at reduced thrust settings and low speeds so as not to
exceed the critical angle of attack
If equipped with an AOA indicator, it should be referenced to help monitor the proximity to the
critical AOA
Drag
• Drag is the rearward, resisting force caused by disruption of airflow
• Drag is the net aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind
• Drag is always a by-product of lift and thrust
• Always a by-product of lift
• There are two basic types of drag (induced and parasite), with total drag being a
combination of the two

Figure 13: Drag Curves
Induced Drag
In level flight, the aerodynamic properties of a wing or rotor produce a required lift, but this can
be obtained only at the expense of a certain penalty
That penalty, induced drag, is inherent whenever an airfoil is producing lift
• Causes wingtip vortices
• Decreases with airspeed
Induced drag = 1/V as AOA increases, induced drag increases proportionally
To state this another way—the lower the airspeed, the greater the AOA required to produce
lift equal to the aircraft's weight and, therefore, the greater induced drag. The amount of
induced drag varies inversely with the square of the airspeed
Wingtip Vortices & Drag

An air foil (wing or rotor blade) produces the lift force by using the energy of the free airstream.
Whenever an air foil is producing lift, the pressure on the lower surface is greater than that on
the upper surface (Bernoulli's Principle). As a result, the air tends to flow from the high-
pressure area below the tip upward to the upper surface's low-pressure area. There is a
tendency for these pressures to equalize in the vicinity of the tips, resulting in a lateral flow
outward from the underside to the upper surface. This lateral flow imparts a rotational velocity
to the air at the tips, creating vortices that trail behind the air foil.
When the aircraft is viewed from the tail, these vortices circulate counterclockwise about the
right tip and clockwise about the left tip. As the air (and vortices) roll off the back of your wing,
they angle down, which is known as downwash. shows the difference in downwash at altitude

versus near the ground. Bearing in mind the direction of rotation of these vortices, it can be
seen that they induce an upward flow of air beyond the tip and a downwash flow behind the
wing's trailing edge. This induced downwash has nothing in common with the downwash that
is necessary to produce lift. It is, in fact, the source of induced drag. Downwash points the
relative wind downward, so the more downwash you have, the more your relative wind points
downward. That's important for one very good reason: lift is always perpendicular to the
relative wind. In, you can see that your lift vector is more vertical, opposing gravity when you
have less downwash. And when you have more downwash, your lift vector points back more,
causing induced drag. On top of that, it takes energy for your wings to create downwash and
vortices, and that energy creates drag
The greater the size and strength of the vortices and the consequent downwash component
on the airfoil's net airflow, the greater the induced drag effect becomes. This downwash over
the top of the airfoil at the tip has the same effect as bending the lift vector rearward; therefore,
the lift is slightly aft of perpendicular to the relative wind, creating a rearward lift component.
This is induced drag
Figure 15: Wingtip Vortex from Crop Duster

Figure 14: The difference in wingtip vortex size
at altitude versus near the ground
Parasite Drag Parasite drag is comprised of all the forces that work to slow an aircraft's
movement As the term parasite implies, it is the drag that is not associated with the
production of lift Parasite drag includes the displacement of the air by the aircraft, turbulence
generated in the airstream, or a hindrance of air moving over the surface of the aircraft and
air foil There are three types of parasite drag: form drag, interference drag, and skin friction

Profile/Form Drag
Form drag is the portion of parasite drag generated by the aircraft and components (antennas,
wheels, etc.) due to its shape and airflow around it.
Turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow (burbling) created by the shape of the
aircraft.
When the air must separate to move around a moving aircraft and its components, it eventually
re-joins after passing the body.
Newer aircraft are generally made with consideration to this by fairings along the fuselage so
that turbulence and form drag is reduced.
Figure 16: Form Drag

Interference Drag
Generated by the collision of airstreams creating eddy currents, turbulence, or restrictions to
smooth flow for example, landing gear meeting the fuselage
The most interference drag is created when two surfaces meet at perpendicular angles
If a jet fighter carries two identical wing tanks, the overall drag is greater than the sum of the
individual tanks because both generate interference drag
Fairings and distance between lifting surfaces and external components (such as radar
antennas hung from wings) reduce interference drag.
Figure 17: Interference Drag
Skin Friction Drag

Skin friction drag is the aerodynamic resistance due to the contact of moving air with the
surface of an aircraft.
Every surface, no matter how apparently smooth, has a rough, ragged surface when viewed
under a microscope.
The air molecules, which come in direct contact with the surface of the wing, are virtually
motionless.
Each layer of molecules above the surface moves slightly faster until the molecules are moving
at the velocity of the air mass moving around the aircraft.
This speed is called the free-stream velocity.

The area between the wing and the free-stream velocity level is about as wide as a playing
card and is called the boundary layer.
At the top of the boundary layer, the molecules increase velocity and move at the same speed
as the molecules outside the boundary layer.
The actual speed at which the molecules move depends upon the shape of the wing, the
viscosity (stickiness) of the air, and its compressibility (how much it can be compacted)
The airflow outside of the boundary layer reacts to the shape of the edge of the boundary
layer.
The boundary layer gives any object an "effective" shape that is usually slightly different from
the physical shape.
The boundary layer may also separate from the body, thus creating an effective shape much
different from the physical shape of the object.
This change in the physical shape of the boundary layer causes a dramatic decrease in lift
and an increase in drag.
When this happens, the air foil has stalled.
To reduce the effect of skin friction, drag, aircraft designers utilize flush mount rivets and
remove any irregularities that may protrude above the wing surface.
Also, a smooth and glossy finish aids in the transition of air across the surface of the wing
Since dirt on an aircraft disrupts the free flow of air and increases drag, keep the surfaces of
an aircraft clean and waxed.
Drag can be caused intentionally through the use of speed brakes, spoilers, or dive brakes
Additionally, normal procedures such as lowering flaps can increase drag
Parasite drag increases as the square of the airspeed (V^2)
Thus, as airspeed decreases to near the stalling speed in a steady state, the total drag
becomes greater due mainly to the exponential rise in induced drag. Similarly, as the aircraft
reaches its never-exceed speed (VNE), the total drag increases rapidly due to the sharp
increase of parasite drag.
Additional Information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5O-j0w-h7v0
https://soaneemrana.org/onewebmedia/AIRFRAME%20AND%20AIRCRAFT%20COMPONE
NTS.pdf

Course Objectives:
• Different types of aircrafts and its classification.
Module 4.3: Types of Aircraft 1

Types of Aircraft
Aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses; military aircraft,
which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft, and civil aircraft,
which include all non-military types, experimental and model.
Military
A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of
any type. Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:
• Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own
armament. Combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers, with several in-
between types, such as fighter-bombers and attack aircraft, including attack helicopters.
• Non-combat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry
weapons for self-defence. Non-combat roles include search and rescue, reconnaissance,
observation, transport, training, and aerial refuelling. These aircraft are often variants of
civil aircraft.
Civil
Civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types, however there are some overlaps.
Commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights, carrying
passengers, mail and other cargo. The larger passenger-carrying types are the airliners, the
largest of which are wide-body aircraft. Some of the smaller types are also used in general
aviation, and some of the larger types are used as VIP aircraft.
General aviation is a catch-all covering other kinds of private (where the pilot is not paid for
time or expenses) and commercial use, and involving a wide range of aircraft types such
as business jets (bizjets), trainers, homebuilt, gliders, warbirds and hot air balloons to name a
few. The vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types.
Experimental
An experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight, or that carries a Special
Airworthiness Certificate, called an Experimental Certificate in United States parlance. This
often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies, though the term also
refers to amateur-built and kit-built aircraft, many of which are based on proven designs.

Lighter than air – aircrafts
Aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water.
They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a relatively low-
density gas such as helium, hydrogen, or hot air, which is less dense than the surrounding air.
When the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure, it adds up to the same
weight as the air that the craft displaces.
Small hot-air balloons, called sky lanterns, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd
century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, and were only the second type of
aircraft to fly, the first being kites, which were first invented in ancient China over two thousand
years ago.
Heavier-than-air – aircrafts
Heavier-than-air aircraft, such as airplanes, must find some way to push air or gas downwards
so that a reaction occurs (by Newton's laws of motion) to push the aircraft upwards. This
dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term. There are two ways to produce
dynamic upthrust — aerodynamic lift, and powered lift in the form of engine thrust.
Aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common, with fixed-wing aircraft being kept in the
air by the forward movement of wings, and rotorcraft by spinning wing-shaped rotors
sometimes called rotary wings. A wing is a flat, horizontal surface, usually shaped in cross-
section as an aerofoil. To fly, air must flow over the wing and generate lift. A flexible wing is a

wing made of fabric or thin sheet material, often stretched over a rigid frame. A kite is tethered
to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings, which may be flexible or rigid,
fixed, or rotary.
Fixed-wing Aircrafts
The forerunner of the fixed-wing aircraft is the kite. Whereas a fixed-wing aircraft relies on its
forward speed to create airflow over the wings, a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on
the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift. Much aerodynamic research was done with kites
before test aircraft, wind tunnels, and computer modelling programs became available.
The first heavier-than-aircraft capable of controlled free-flight were gliders. A glider designed
by George Cayley carried out the first true manned, controlled flight in 1853.
The practical, powered, fixed-wing aircraft (the airplane or aero plane) was invented by Wilbur
and Orville Wright. Besides the method of propulsion, fixed-wing aircraft are in general
characterized by their wing configuration. The most important wing characteristics are:
• Number of wings — monoplane, biplane, etc.
• Wing support — Braced or cantilever, rigid, or flexible.
• Wing planform — including aspect ratio, angle of sweep, and any variations along the
span (including the important class of delta wings).
• Location of the horizontal stabilizer, if any.
• Dihedral angle — positive, zero, or negative (anhedral).
A variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight.
A flying wing has no fuselage, though it may have small blisters or pods. The opposite of this
is a lifting body, which has no wings, though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces.
Wing-in-ground-effect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft. They "fly" efficiently close
to the surface of the ground or water, like conventional aircraft during takeoff. An example is
the Russian ekranoplan nicknamed the "Caspian Sea Monster". Man-powered aircraft also
rely on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power, but this is only because they
are so underpowered—in fact, the airframe is capable of flying higher.

Unpowered aircraft
Gliders are heavier-than-air aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne. Take-off may
be by launching forward and downward from a high location, or by pulling into the air on a tow-
line, either by a ground-based winch or vehicle, or by a powered "tug" aircraft. For a glider to
maintain its forward air speed and lift, it must descend in relation to the air (but not necessarily
in relation to the ground). Many gliders can "soar", i.e., gain height from updrafts such as
thermal currents. The first practical, controllable example was designed and built by the British
scientist and pioneer George Cayley, whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer.
Common examples of gliders are sailplanes, hang gliders and paragliders.
Balloons drift with the wind, though normally the pilot can control the altitude, either by heating
the air or by releasing ballast, giving some directional control (since the wind direction changes
with altitude). A wing-shaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling; but a
spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control.
Kites are aircraft[42] that are tethered to the ground or other object (fixed or mobile) that
maintains tension in the tether or kite line; they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and
under them to generate lift and drag. Kytoons are balloon-kite hybrids that are shaped and
tethered to obtain kiting deflections, and can be lighter-than-air, neutrally buoyant, or heavier-
than-air.
Powered aircraft
Powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power, typically aircraft
engines although rubber and manpower have also been used. Most aircraft engines are either
lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines. Engine fuel is stored in tanks, usually in the
wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage.
Propeller aircraft
Propeller aircraft use one or more propellers (airscrews) to create thrust in a forward direction.
The propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can

be mounted behind in pusher configuration. Variations of propeller layout include contra-
rotating propellers and ducted fans.
Many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers. Early airships used man power
or steam engines. The more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually
all fixed-wing aircraft until World War II and is still used in many smaller aircraft. Some types
use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan. Human-powered
flight has been achieved but has not become a practical means of transport. Unmanned
aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands.
Jet aircraft
Jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines, which take in air, burn fuel with it in a combustion
chamber, and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust.
Different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan, sometimes with the
addition of an afterburner. Those with no rotating turbomachinery include
the pulsejet and ramjet. These mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when
stationary, so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using a catapult, like the V-1 flying
bomb, or a rocket, for example. Other engine types include the motorjet and the dual-
cycle Pratt & Whitney J58.
Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher
speeds and, above about 40,000 ft (12,000 m), greater efficiency. They are also much more
fuel-efficient than rockets. As a consequence, nearly all large, high-speed or high-altitude
aircraft use jet engines.
Rotorcraft
Rotorcraft, or rotary-wing aircraft, use a spinning rotor with aerofoil section blades (a rotary
wing) to provide lift. Types include helicopters, autogyros, and various hybrids such
as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft.
Helicopters have a rotor turned by an engine-driven shaft. The rotor pushes air downward to
create lift. By tilting the rotor forward, the downward flow is tilted backward, producing thrust
for forward flight. Some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by
gas jets at the tips.
Autogyros have unpowered rotors, with a separate power plant to provide thrust. The rotor is
tilted backward. As the autogyro moves forward, air blows upward across the rotor, making it
spin. This spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor, to provide lift. Rotor kites are
unpowered autogyros, which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static
anchor in high wind for kited flight.
Additional Information
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7zOffU-W_4U

Course Objectives:
• Why do we call as aircraft families?
• Boeing Aircraft family
• Bombardier Aircraft family
• Airbus Aircraft family
Module 4.4: Different Aircraft Families

1
Different Aircraft Families
Why do we call aircraft families?

We call it as aircraft families because of the following factors:
• Spare useability across the fleet
• Re usability of similar components across the fleet
• Re usability of engines
• cost reduction in maintenance
Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA) is a division of The Boeing Company. It designs,

assembles, markets, and sells jet airliners and business jets (Boeing Business Jets), and
also provides product-related maintenance and training to customers worldwide. BCA
operates out of its division headquarters in Renton, Washington, and has more than a dozen
engineering, manufacturing, and assembly facilities located throughout the U.S. and
internationally. It includes the assets of the Douglas Aircraft division of the former McDonnell
Douglas Corporation, which merged with Boeing in 1997. As of the beginning of 2020, BCA
employed almost 65,000 people.
Aircr
Num Out-of-
aft Descriptio Capa First Variants in
ber production
mod n city flight production
built variants
el
Twin-engine,
100, 200,
single
737 MAX, BBJ, C- 200C/Adv, 300,
aisle, short- April 9,
737 10,478 85–215 40, 737 AEW&C, P- 400, 500, 600,
to medium- 1967
8 700, 700ER, 800,
range narrow
900, 900ER
-body
Heavy,
100, 100SR/B,
four-engine,
200, 200F/C, SP,
partial double
Februar 200M, 300,
deck, twin– 467–
747 1,548 y 9, 8F 300M/SR, 400,
aisle main 605
1969 400M/D/F/ER/ERF
deck, single–
, 8I, VC-25, E-
aisle upper
4, YAL-1
deck,
medium- to

2
Aircr
Num Out-of-
aft Descriptio Capa First Variants in
ber production
mod n city flight production
built variants
el
long-range
widebody
Heavy, twin-
engine, twin
Septem
aisle, 180– 300F, KC-767, KC- 200, 200ER, 300,
767 1,135 ber 26,
medium- to 375 46, E-767 300ER, 400ER
1981
long-range
widebody
Heavy, twin-
engine, twin
aisle,
medium- to June
301– 200LR, 300ER, BBJ,
777 1,584 long-range, 12, 200, 200ER, 300
550 Freighter
ultra long- 1994
range
(200LR),
widebody
Heavy, twin-
engine, twin Decem
210–
787 789 aisle, long- ber 15, 8, 9, 10, BBJ
330
range 2009
widebody

3
4
Bombardier Aviation is a division of Bombardier Inc. It is headquartered in Dorval, Quebec,
Canada. The aerospace company accounts for over half of Bombardier Inc.'s revenue. By
the start of the 2010s, its most popular aircraft included its Dash 8 Series
400, CRJ100/200/440, and CRJ700/900/1000 lines of regional airliners although the
company was devoting most of its Research and Development budget to the newer CSeries.
It also manufactured the Bombardier 415 amphibious water-bomber (in Dorval and North
Bay), and the Global Express and the Challenger lines of business jets.
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(en ro pas ng gsp TO . thrus
ar pt fu e
gin d. sen th an W P t
ea y el
e) gers L
Challe
nger 20.9 45.4 21.86 12.32
1978 19.6 m 9.07 t 2.2 t
650 m m² t t 41 kN 7,408 km
pres 19 64 ft 4 20,00 4,850
(2× 68 ft 489 ft 48,20 27,15 9,220 lbf 4,000 nm
ent in 0 lb lb
CF34- 5 in ² 0 lb 0 lb
3B)
CRJ1
00/20 199 26.7 21.21 48.35 24.04 13.8 6.12 38.84 k 3,148 k
6.49 t
0 1 7m m m² t 4t t N m
50[a] 14,30
(2× 200 87 ft 69 ft 7 520.4 53,00 30,5 13,5 8,729 lb 1,700 n
5 lb[a]
CF34- 6 10 in in ft² 0 lb 00 lb 00 lb f m[a]
3)[a]
Global
6000/ 65.6/67. 11,112/
199 30.3 45.13 23.6 20.43 2.62
6500 3 kN 12,223
6 m t 9t t t
(2× 13–17 14,750/ km
pres 99 ft 99,50 52,2 45,05 5,77
BR71 15,125 l 6,000/6,
ent 5 in 0 lb 30 lb 0 lb 0 lb
0/Pear bf 600 nm
l) 28.7 94.8
m m²
94 ft 0 1,021
Global in ft²
5000/ 65.6/67. 9,630/1
200 29.5 41.96 23.0 17.80 3.24
5500 3 kN 0,556 k
3 m kg 7t t t
(2× 13–16 14,750/ m
pres 96 ft 92,50 50,8 39,25 7,13
BR71 15,125 l 5,200/5,
ent 10 in 0 lb 61 lb 0 lb 9 lb
0/Pear bf 700 nmi
l)

5
Mo Max M
Wi E Ma
del P . Le Win M ax Unit
ng m x. Rang
(en ro pas ng gsp TO . thrus
ar pt fu e
gin d. sen th an W P t
ea y el
e) gers L
CRJ7
199 32.3 23.2 70.6 34.02 20.0 8.19 2,553 k
00 61.3 kN
9 m m m2 t 7t t m
(2× 66–78 13,790 l
202 106 f 76 ft 3 760 75,00 44,2 18,0 1,378
CF34- bf
0 t 1 in in sq ft 0 lb 45 lb 55 lb nmi
8C5)
8.89 t
19,59
5 lb
CRJ9 36.2
200 24.9 71.1 38.33 21.8 10.2 2,876 k
00 m
2 m m2 t 5t 5t m
(2× 76–90 118 f
202 81 ft 7 765 84,50 48,1 22,5 1,553
CF34- t 11
0 in sq ft 0 lb 60 lb 90 lb nmi
8C5) in
64.5 kN
14,510 l
bf
CRJ1
201 39.1 26.2 77.4 41.64 23.1 11.9 3,004 k
000 8.82 t
1 97– m m m2 t 9t 7t m
(2× 19,45
202 104 128 f 85 ft 833 91,80 51,1 26,3 1,622
CF34- 0 lb
0 t 5 in 11 in sq ft 0 lb 20 lb 80 lb nmi
8C5)
Global
201 33.8 48.19 25.7 21.52 14,260
7500 83 kN
8 m t 6t t km
(2× 19 18,650 l
pres 111 f 106,2 56,8 47,45 7,700 n
Passp bf
ent t 50 lb 00 lb 0 lb m
ort) 31.7 120 2.59
m m2 t
104 ft 1,300 5,70
Global 0 in sq ft 0 lb
31.2 47.54 24.6 22.20 14,631
8000 73 kN
pau m t 3t t km
(2× 17 16,500 l
sed 102 f 104,8 54,3 48,95 7,900
Passp bf
t 2 in 00 lb 00 lb 0 lb nmi
ort)

6
7
8
Airbus SE multinational aerospace corporation. Airbus designs, manufactures and sells civil
and military aerospace products worldwide and manufactures aircraft in Europe and various
countries outside Europe. The company has three divisions: Commercial Aircraft (Airbus
S.A.S.), Defence and Space, and Helicopters, the third being the largest in its industry in
terms of revenues and turbine helicopter deliveries.
The company's main civil aeroplane business is conducted through the French company
Airbus S.A.S., based in Blagnac, a suburb of Toulouse, with production and manufacturing
facilities mostly in Europe (France, Germany, Spain, United Kingdom) but also in China, the
United States and Canada. Final assembly production is based in Toulouse,
France; Hamburg, Germany; Seville, Spain; Tianjin, China; Mobile, United States;
and Montreal, Canada. The company produces and markets the first commercially
viable digital fly-by-wire airliner, the Airbus A320, and the world's largest passenger airliner,
the A380. The 12,000th aircraft, an A220, was delivered to Delta Air Lines on 20 May 2019.
By October 2016, the global Airbus fleet have performed more than 110 million flights,
totalling over 215 billion kilometres and carrying 12 billion passengers. As of 2019, Airbus is
the world's largest airliner manufacturer and took the most airliner orders, surpassing
rival Boeing.
1st Production
Aircraft Description Seats Max
flight ceased
2 engines, single aisle, 108– 133– 2013-09-

A220
originally Bombardier CSeries 130 160 16
228– 1972-10- 2007-03-27 (561

A300 2 engines, twin aisle 361
254 28 built)
2 engines, twin aisle, modified 1982-04- 1998-03-27 (255

A310 187 279
A300 03 built)
2 engines, single aisle, 2002-01- 2013-12-31 (80

A318 107 132
shortened 6.17 m from A320 15 built)
2 engines, single aisle, 1995-08-

A319 124 156
shortened 3.77 m from A320 25
1987-02-
A320 2 engines, single aisle 150 186
22

9
1st Production
Aircraft Description Seats Max
flight ceased
2 engines, single aisle, 1993-03-

A321 185 240
lengthened 6.94 m from A320 11
246– 406– 1992-11-

A330 2 engines, twin aisle
300 440 02
239– 377– 1991-10- 2011-11-10 (380

A340 4 engines, twin aisle
377 440 25 built)
270– 2013-06-
A350 2 engines, twin aisle 475
350 14
4 engines, twin aisle, double 2005-04-

A380 555 853 2021 (251 built)
deck 27

10
Additional Reference:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JS6w-DXiZpk
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QoIoB5uncPM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3hBom7CsJno

11
Course Objectives:
• Basic dimensions of the aircraft.
Module 4.5: Aircraft Dimensions

1
Aircraft Dimensions
The various parameters that define the aircraft size. The length (of the fuselage), the wingsp
an, and the height make up the overall dimensions of an aircraft, which influence the size of
the hangars and the parking aprons, as well as the taxiway side clearances.
A wide-body aircraft, also known as a twin-aisle aircraft, is an airliner with a fuselage wide
enough to accommodate two passenger aisles with seven or more seats abreast. The
typical fuselage diameter is 5 to 6 m (16 to 20 ft). In the typical wide-body economy
cabin, passengers are seated seven to ten abreast, allowing a total capacity of 200 to
850 passengers. The largest wide-body aircraft are over 6 m (20 ft) wide and can
accommodate up to eleven passengers abreast in high-density configurations.
By comparison, a typical narrow-body airliner has a diameter of 3 to 4 m (10 to 13 ft), with a
single aisle, and seats between two and six people abreast.
Wide-body aircraft were originally designed for a combination of efficiency and passenger
comfort and to increase the amount of cargo space. However, airlines quickly gave in to
economic factors, and reduced the extra passenger space to maximize revenue and profits.
Wide-body aircraft are also used for the transport of commercial freight and cargo and other
special uses, described further below.
The term jumbo jet usually refers to the largest wide-body airliners due to their very large size;
examples include the Boeing 747 (the first wide-body and original "jumbo jet"), Airbus
A380 ("superjumbo jet"), and Boeing 777X ("mini jumbo jet"). The phrase "jumbo jet" derives
from Jumbo, a circus elephant in the 19th century.
Seven-abreast aircraft typically seat 160 to 260 passengers, eight-abreast 250 to 380, nine-
and ten-abreast 350 to 480.
Length: The distance between the tip nose to end of the tail is length.
Wingspan: The distance between the wing tip to tip is wingspan.
Height: The distance between the ground to tip of vertical stabilizer is the height of the aircraft.
Wheelbase: Distance between the center of nose landing gear to center main landing gear is
wheelbase.

2
3
4
Relevance to Technical
publications:
With this knowledge and additional
inputs during hands on training, you
will able to analyse various
engineering changes and perform
authoring of System Description
Manual (SDS) and Aircraft
Maintenance Manual (AMM)

5
Course Objectives:
• What is the purpose of sections and station number?
• Fuselage station
• Butt Line
• Water Line
• Zones
• Sections
Module 4.6: Section and Station Number 1

Sections and station number System
What is the purpose of sections and station numbers?
A method of precisely locating each structural component is required. Various numbering
systems are used to facilitate the location of specific wing frames, fuselage bulkheads, or any
other structural members on an aircraft. Most manufacturers use some system of station
marking. For example, the nose of the aircraft may be designated “zero station,” and all other
stations are located at measured distances in inches behind the zero station. Thus, when a
blueprint reads “fuselage frame station 137,” that frame station can be located 137 inches
behind the nose of the aircraft.
To locate structures to the right or left of the center line of an aircraft, a similar method is
employed. Many manufacturers consider the center line of the aircraft to be a zero station from
which measurements can be taken to the right or left to locate an airframe member. This is
often used on the horizontal stabilizer and wings.
The applicable manufacturer’s numbering system and abbreviated designations or symbols

should always be reviewed before attempting to locate a structural member. They are not
always the same. The following list includes location designations typical of those used by
many manufacturers.
➢ Fuselage stations (Fus. Sta. or FS) are numbered in inches from a reference or zero
point known as the reference datum. The reference datum is an imaginary vertical plane at or
near the nose of the aircraft from which all fore and aft distances are measured. The distance
to a given point is measured in inches parallel to a center line extending through the aircraft
from the nose through the center of the tail cone. Some manufacturers may call the fuselage
station a body station, abbreviated BS.
Figure 1: Fuselage Stations

➢ Buttock line or butt line (BL) is a vertical reference plane down the center of the
aircraft from which measurements left or right can be made.
Figure 2: Butt Line
• Water line (WL) is the measurement of height in inches perpendicular from a horizontal
plane usually located at the ground, cabin floor, or some other easily referenced location.
Figure 3: Water Line

❖ Aileron station (AS) is measured outboard from, and parallel to, the inboard edge of the
aileron, perpendicular to the rear beam of the wing.
❖ Flap station (KS) is measured perpendicular to the rear beam of the wing and parallel to,
and outboard from, the inboard edge of the flap.
❖ Nacelle station (NC or Nac. Sta.) is measured either forward of or behind the front spar of
the wing and perpendicular to a designated water line.
In addition to the location stations listed above, other measurements are used, especially on
large aircraft. Thus, there may be horizontal stabilizer stations (HSS), vertical stabilizer
stations (VSS) or powerplant stations (PPS). In every case, the manufacturer’s terminology
and station location system should be consulted before locating a point on a particular aircraft.
Figure 4: Aileron, Nacelle, Horizontal and vertical stabilizer stations
Another method is used to facilitate the location of aircraft components on air transport
aircraft. This involves dividing the aircraft into zones. These large areas or major zones are
further divided into sequentially numbered zones and subzones. The digits of the zone
number are reserved and indexed to indicate the location and type of system of which the
component is a part these zones and subzones on a transport category aircraft.

Figure 5: Zones and Sub Zones
Additional Information
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WVG74wATAp4
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OnIomVwhc_U

ACADEMYHELPDESK
mail id: academyhelpdesk.in@capgemini.com
Module 1: Aerospace Techpubs and Aerospace Industry Landscape and Major Players

Module 4 - Aircraft Basics

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Module 4 - Aircraft Basics

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Aviation Quality Standards

• Basic terminology used in aerospace tech pub.

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 1

Aeronautical Information Publications (AIP)

Aeroplane Flight Manual (AFM)

Airborne Collision Avoidance System (ACAS)

Aircraft Access Doors

Aircraft Interior Areas

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 2

Aircraft Technical Log

Aircraft Technical Records

Aircraft Variant (within Type)

Airworthiness Directive (AD)

Approved Maintenance Organisation (AMO)

Approved Maintenance Programme

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 3

Cabin Access Door

Certification Maintenance Requirements (CMR)

Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR)

Component Maintenance Manual (CMM)

Configuration Deviation List (CDL)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 4

Continuing Airworthiness Data

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 5

Emergency Lighting System

Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT)

Engineer, Aircraft Maintenance (AME)

Engineer, Licensed Aircraft Maintenance (LAME)

Engineering Authorisation (EA)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 6

Extended Range Operations (EROPS)

FOD (Foreign Object Damage)

Flight Data Analysis (FDA) Programme

Flight Data Recorder (FDR)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 7

Flight Management System (FMS)

Fuelling Safety Zone

General Operations Manual (GOM)

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS)

Ground Proximity Warning System (GPWS) with a Forward-Looking Terrain Avoidance

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 8

Ground Support Equipment (GSE)

Illustrated Parts Catalogue (IPC)

Maintenance Planning Document (MPD)

Maintenance Procedures Manual (MPM)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 9

Maintenance Review Board (MRB)

Master Minimum Equipment List (MMEL)

Minimum Equipment List (MEL)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 10

Non-Destructive Testing (NDT)

Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM)

Quality Assurance (QA)

Quality Control (QC)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 11

Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM)

Service Bulletin (SB)

Service Information Letter (SIL)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 12

Structural Repair Manual (SRM)

Module 4.1: Basic Terminology used in Aerospace Techpub 13

Module 4.2: Basic of Flight 1

What are the forces acting on aircraft?