Module 11A.13 L3 2016-08-16

Aircraft Maintenance College 66
Module 11A.13
Landing Gear
(ATA 32)
Level 3
16 - 08 - 2016 EASA Part 66
EASA P66 MOD 11A.13 L3 Training Manual
Aircraft Maintenance College 66
EASA Part 66
Training Manual
For Training Purposes Only
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EASA P66 MOD 11A.13 L3

Aircraft Maintenance College 66 Landing Gear (ATA 32)
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66, following ATA 104 specifications.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. CONFIGURATION......................................................... 12 3.2 Electronically Controlled Landing Gear Operation
1.1 Tricycle Configuration.................................................... 20 – GEAR EXTENSION.................................................... 100
1.2 Main Landing Gear........................................................ 28 3.2.1 Door Opening...................................................... 100
1.2.1 Multi-Axle Landing Gears......................................... 34 3.2.2 Gear Down.......................................................... 102
1.3 Nose Landing Gear........................................................ 40 3.2.3 Door Closing........................................................ 104
1.3.1 Castering.............................................................. 42 3.3 Electronically Controlled Landing Gear Operation
1.3.2 Self Centering........................................................ 44 – GEAR RETRACTION.................................................. 106
1.3.3 Centering Cam....................................................... 46 3.3.1 Door Opening...................................................... 106
1.3.4 Centering Jack....................................................... 48 3.3.2 Gear Up.............................................................. 108
3.3.3 Door Closing........................................................ 110
2. SHOCK ABSORBERS..................................................... 50 3.4 Emergency Extension.................................................. 114
2.1 Liquid Spring Type......................................................... 51 3.5 Landing Gear Safety Devices........................................ 118
2.2 Gas/Oil Shock Absorber With Separator........................... 54 3.6 Manual Door Release For Maintenance........................... 120
2.2.1 Operation.............................................................. 58 3.7 Safety Bars................................................................ 120
2.3 Gas/Oil Shock Absorber Without Separator....................... 58
2.3.1 Double Stage Shock Absorber.................................. 62 4. INDICATION AND WARNING..................................... 122
2.4 Servicing..................................................................... 64 4.1 Electrical Gear Indication............................................. 122
2.4.1 In-Service Pressure Adjustments.............................. 66 4.2 Mechanical Gear Indication........................................... 126
2.4.2 Full Strut Servicing................................................. 70 4.3 Safety Mechanisms..................................................... 128
4.4 Position Sensors......................................................... 130
3. EXTENSION AND RETRACTION.................................... 72
3.1 Typical Components...................................................... 78 5. WHEELS..................................................................... 134
3.1.1 Selector Valve........................................................ 78 5.1 Rims......................................................................... 136
3.1.2 Downlock Mechanism.............................................. 82 5.1.1 Types Of Rims...................................................... 138
3.1.3 Up-Lock Mechanism................................................ 84 5.2 Fusible Plugs.............................................................. 144
3.1.4 Wheel Well Doors................................................... 88 5.3 Tire Pressure Indication............................................... 146
3.1.5 Sequence Valves.................................................... 94 5.4 Wheel Bearings........................................................... 148
3.1.6 Restrictors and Check Valves................................... 98
3.1.7 Actuators.............................................................. 98
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
6. TIRES........................................................................ 150 7. TIRE INSPECTION AND DAMAGE CRITERIA............... 186
6.1 Tire Construction........................................................ 150 7.1 Wear Assessment........................................................ 186
6.2 Tire ratings................................................................ 160 7.1.1 Tie Bars.............................................................. 190
6.2.1 Ply Rating............................................................ 160 7.1.2 Wear Indicator Grooves......................................... 190
6.2.2 Load Rating......................................................... 160 7.2 Removal Criteria......................................................... 191
6.3 Aircraft Tire Types....................................................... 160 7.2.1 Cuts And Scores................................................... 192
6.3.1 Tubed Tires.......................................................... 164 7.2.2 Tread Chunk........................................................ 196
6.3.2 Tubeless Tires...................................................... 164 7.2.3 Sidewall Damage.................................................. 198
6.3.3 High Pressure Tires............................................... 164 7.2.4 Bulges................................................................ 200
6.4 Tread Patterns............................................................ 165 7.2.5 Sidewall Buckling................................................. 202
6.4.1 Ribbed................................................................ 165 7.2.6 Bead Tackiness.................................................... 202
6.4.2 Diamond............................................................. 166 7.2.7 Dry Braking Flats (Flat Spotting)............................ 202
6.4.3 Plain................................................................... 167 7.2.8 Wet Braking Flats (Aquaplaning)............................. 204
6.4.4 Twin Contact Tire................................................. 168 7.2.9 Shoulder Wear..................................................... 206
6.4.5 Chined Tires........................................................ 169 7.2.10 Tire Burst.......................................................... 208
6.5 Tire Markings............................................................. 170 7.2.11 Tread Separation................................................ 210
6.5.1 Size.................................................................... 172 7.2.12 Tread Bulge....................................................... 212
6.5.2 Part number........................................................ 172 7.2.13 Damage Caused By Heavy Cross Wind Landings..... 212
6.5.3 Serial number...................................................... 172 7.2.14 Damage Caused By Excessive Brake Heat.............. 214
6.5.4 Ply rating............................................................ 172 7.2.15 Tires With Uneven Wear...................................... 214
6.5.5 Speed rating........................................................ 173
6.5.6 Other markings.................................................... 173
6.6 Leak holes................................................................. 178
6.7 Vent holes.................................................................. 179
6.8 Tire inflation............................................................... 179
6.8.1 Initial Tire Inflation............................................... 182
6.8.2 Inflation Pressure Checking.................................... 182
6.8.3 Unloaded Condition.............................................. 183
6.8.4 Loaded Condition................................................. 184
6.8.5 Pressure/Temperature Relationship......................... 185
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8. BRAKES..................................................................... 216 11. PARKING BRAKE...................................................... 288
8.1 Types of brakes.......................................................... 218
8.1.1 Expander tube brakes........................................... 218 12. IN-FLIGHT BRAKES.................................................. 292
8.1.2 Single Disc Brakes................................................ 220 12.1 Main Gear In-Flight Braking........................................ 292
8.1.3 Multi-disc brakes.................................................. 224 12.1.1 Nose Gear In-Flight Braking................................. 294
8.2 Brake Installation........................................................ 232
13. STEERING................................................................ 296
8.2.1 Brake Fans.......................................................... 234
13.1 Nose Gear Steering................................................... 296
8.2.2 Brake Temperature Monitoring............................... 238
13.1.1 Single Servo Jack Steering................................... 298
8.3 Brake System............................................................. 240
13.1.2 Dual Servo Jack Steering..................................... 300
8.3.1 Independent Brake System.................................... 240
13.1.3 Rack And Pinion Steering..................................... 304
8.3.2 High Pressure Systems.......................................... 244
13.1.4 Operation.......................................................... 308
8.3.3 Power Assisted Brakes.......................................... 246
13.1.5 Electrical Steering System................................... 316
8.4 Powered Brakes.......................................................... 248
13.1.6 Computerized Steering System............................. 318
9. ANTI SKID................................................................. 262 13.2 Shimmy Damper....................................................... 320
9.1 Electronic Anti Skid System.......................................... 262 13.2.1 Piston Type Shimmy Damper................................ 320
9.1.1 Wheel Speed Transducer....................................... 264 13.2.2 Steering Damper................................................ 322
9.1.2 Anti Skid Control Valve.......................................... 266 13.2.3 Torque link shimmy damper................................. 322
9.1.3 Anti Skid Control Unit........................................... 270 13.2.4 Vane Type Shimmy Damper................................. 326
9.1.4 Anti Skid Control Switch And Warning System.......... 274 13.2.5 Non Hydraulic Shimmy Damper............................ 328
9.2 Mechanical Anti Skid System........................................ 275 13.3 Body Gear Steering................................................... 330
9.2.1 Externally Mounted............................................... 275 13.4 Tail Skid................................................................... 332
9.2.2 Axle Mounted....................................................... 276
14. AIR/GROUND SENSING........................................... 336
9.2.3 Operation............................................................ 278
14.1 Mechanical Air/Ground Sensing................................... 337
10. AUTO BRAKES.......................................................... 280 14.2 Electrical Air/Ground Sensing...................................... 340
10.1 Auto Brake System.................................................... 280 14.3 Proximity Sensors..................................................... 340
10.2 Selector Panel........................................................... 281 14.4 Stress Sensors.......................................................... 344
10.3 Auto Brake Control Unit.............................................. 282
10.4 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve.......................................... 284
10.5 System Operation..................................................... 284
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Adjuster Pin Schematic..................................................... 231 Brake Installation............................................................ 226
Adjusting Pin.................................................................. 222 Brake Installation............................................................ 232
Aircraft Brake And Wheel Cutaway..................................... 225 Brake Metering Valve B737............................................... 255
Aircraft Tire Construction.................................................. 157 Brake Temperature Panel A300.......................................... 239
Air-Oil Shock Absorber Without Separator Operation..............60 Brake Temperature Probe................................................. 239
Anti Skid Control B757..................................................... 273 Brake Wear Pin Location................................................... 229
Anti Skid Control Panel..................................................... 274 Bulges........................................................................... 200
Anti Skid Control Unit Internal Diagram B737...................... 272 Bulging.......................................................................... 201
Anti Skid Control Valve..................................................... 267 Castering Of The Nose Gear................................................43
Anti Skid Operation Principle............................................. 263 Centering Cam Close Up.....................................................47
Anti Skid Valve Operation................................................. 269 Centering Cams................................................................46
Antonov Landing Gear........................................................38 Centering Failure...............................................................45
Autobrake Ramp Control................................................... 283 Chevron Cuts.................................................................. 195
Axle Mounted Mechanical Anti Skid.................................... 277 Chined Tires................................................................... 169
B737 Brake System......................................................... 251 Classic Gear Indication A300............................................. 125
B747 Landing Gear............................................................21 Complete Schematic Of Gear Retraction System B767............77
B747 Main Gear Retracted (top view)...................................73 Computerized Steering System A330 ................................ 319
BAe 146 Landing Gear........................................................20 Creep Indicator Limits...................................................... 176
Basic Powered Brake System............................................. 249 Creep Marks................................................................... 177
Bias Ply Tire.................................................................... 152 Cuts And Scores Damage................................................. 193
Bias Tire Construction...................................................... 153 Detachabble Flange Wheel................................................ 143
BMV Balanced Pressure.................................................... 254 Diamond Cut Tire............................................................ 166
BMV Brake Pressure Applied.............................................. 253 Dimension H.....................................................................68
BMV Brakes Released....................................................... 253 Direct Acting Suspension....................................................24
Body Gear Steering B747................................................. 330 Door Operated Sequence Valve...........................................95
Boeing Strut Charging Graph..............................................67 Door Unsafe Light..............................................................93
Brake Drive Keys............................................................. 136 Door Uplock......................................................................91
Brake Fan Debris Guard.................................................... 237 Double Stage Shock Absorber.............................................63
Brake Fan Impeller.......................................................... 236 Downlock Mechanism - Gear Locked.....................................82
Brake Fan Motor.............................................................. 236 Downlock Mechanism - Gear Unlocked..................................83
Brake Fans A320............................................................. 235 Drive Keys Inside Rim...................................................... 137
Brake Fuse..................................................................... 261 Dry Braking Flat Spotting................................................. 203
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Dry Braking Flat Spotting................................................. 203 Landing Gear Selector Lever...............................................81
Dual Brake Disk.............................................................. 223 Landing Ger Control Panel With Autobrake Selector B777...... 281
Dual Servo Jack Steering.................................................. 301 Lateral Scoring................................................................ 213
Dual Servo Steering......................................................... 303 Levered Suspension...........................................................27
Dual Source Brake System With Electrical Input................... 256 Liquid Spring Installation On Tail Wheel................................53
Dual Wheel Main Landing Gear............................................30 Liquid Spring Schematic.....................................................53
Electrical Steering Control................................................. 317 Liquid Spring Type Shock Absorber......................................52
Emergency Extension Initial Configuration.......................... 115 Load Sensors For Air Ground Sensing B777......................... 345
Emergency Release.......................................................... 117 Main Gear In Flight Brakes................................................ 293
Expander Tube Brake....................................................... 218 Main Gear Retracted In Aircraft Fuselage..............................74
Expander Tube Brake Exploded View.................................. 219 Main Gear Retraction.........................................................74
Extension - Doors Closing................................................. 105 Main Gear Safety Devices A320......................................... 119
Extension - Doors Opening............................................... 101 Main Gear Steering B777.................................................. 331
Extension - Gear Down..................................................... 103 Main Gear Tilted For Gear Retraction B777............................37
Fixed Landing Gear............................................................15 Main Landing Gear Components..........................................32
Full Braking System B757................................................. 287 Main Landing Gear Trunnion................................................33
Full Electrically Controlled Braking System A320.................. 257 Master Cylinder............................................................... 241
Full Electrically Controlled Braking System A320.................. 259 Master Cylinder Installations............................................. 242
Fusible Plugs................................................................... 145 Master Cylinder With Integrated Reservoir.......................... 245
Gas-Oil Shock Absorber Without Separator...........................61 Mechanical Air-Fround Sensing For Rudder Steering Interconnect
Gear Indication............................................................... 123 B757............................................................................. 339
Gear Indications And Warnings A320.................................. 124 Mechanical Anti Skid........................................................ 275
Gear Lever Safety Device................................................. 129 Mechanical Anti Skid System............................................. 279
Gear Operated Sequence Valve...........................................96 Mechanical Down Lock Indication....................................... 126
Hydraulic Schematic Nose Wheel Steering........................... 310 Mechanical Gear Down Indication...................................... 127
Independant Brake System............................................... 243 Multi Disk Brake Exploded View......................................... 227
Landing Gear A320............................................................23 Multi Disk Brakes............................................................. 228
Landing Gear Doors A320...................................................90 Multiple Disk Brake B737.................................................. 230
Landing Gear Door Schematic.............................................89 Multi-Wheel Landing Gear...................................................35
Landing Gear On Touch Down............................................ 217 Non-Hydraulic Shimmy Damper......................................... 329
Landing Gear Safety Pins.................................................. 118 Normal Tire Inflation Wear................................................ 181
Landing Gear Selector Lever...............................................79 Normal Tire Wear............................................................ 189
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Nose Gear Locking B757.....................................................87 Safety Bars..................................................................... 121
Nose Landing Gear............................................................41 Seal Carrier With Active And Spare Seals..............................57
Nose Wheel In Flight Brakes.............................................. 295 Self Sealing Coupling....................................................... 233
Nose Wheel Steering Control System................................. 309 Sequence Valve Schematic.................................................97
Oleo With Separator Compressed View.................................55 Shock Strut Servicing.........................................................64
Oleo With Separator Rebound View......................................56 Shock Strut Servicing Locations A320...................................65
Over And Under Inflation Damage..................................... 180 Shoulder Wear................................................................ 207
Overcentering Link............................................................83 Sidewall Buckling............................................................. 202
Parking Brake Lever Location B737.................................... 291 Sidewall Cracking............................................................ 199
Parking Brake System B737.............................................. 289 Sidewall Damage............................................................. 198
Peeled Rib...................................................................... 194 Single Brake Disk............................................................ 220
Piston Shimmy Damper.................................................... 321 Single Disk Exploded View................................................ 221
Plain Tire........................................................................ 167 Single Servo Steering....................................................... 299
Power Assisted Master Cylinder......................................... 247 Splined Nose Gear.............................................................25
Proximity Sensor Nose Gear.............................................. 131 Split Wheel..................................................................... 140
Proximity Sensors............................................................ 343 Split Wheel Features........................................................ 141
PSEU System Boeing........................................................ 133 Steerable Main Gear B777..................................................29
Rack And Pinion Steering Operation................................... 307 Steering Bypass.............................................................. 315
Rack And Pinion Steering System....................................... 305 Steering Bypass.............................................................. 318
Radial Ply Tire................................................................. 154 Steering Mechanism B767................................................ 312
Radial Tire Construction................................................... 155 Steering System B767...................................................... 313
Remoulded Tire Indentification Marks................................. 175 Steering Tiller................................................................. 297
Retractable Landing Gear A380...........................................13 Strut Servicing Graph.........................................................69
Retractable Main Landing Gear Components..........................75 Summing Linkage............................................................ 311
Retractable Main Landing Gear Components..........................76 Tail Skid B777................................................................. 333
Retract Actuator B777........................................................99 Tail Skid Operation........................................................... 335
Retract Actuator Installation B767.......................................98 Tapered Pin Detail..............................................................61
Retraction - Doors Closing................................................ 111 Three Part Nomencalture Tire Indentification....................... 163
Retraction - Doors Opening............................................... 107 Tire Burst....................................................................... 209
Retraction - Gear Up........................................................ 109 Tire Construction............................................................. 159
Retraction - Hydraulics Off................................................ 113 Tire Markings.................................................................. 171
Ribbed Tires................................................................... 165 Tire Pressure Indication System........................................ 147
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Torque Link Shimmy Damper............................................ 323
Torque Link Shimmy Damper............................................ 324
Torque Link Shimmy Damper On A320............................... 325
Tread Bulge.................................................................... 212
Tread Chunking............................................................... 197
Tread Separation............................................................. 211
Tread Wear..................................................................... 189
Trident Gear Retraction And Multi Wheel Main Gear................39
Tripple Bogie Main Landing Gear B777..................................31
Turning Radius A320........................................................ 135
Twin Contact Tire............................................................. 168
Type III Tire Indentification............................................... 161
Type IV Tire Identification................................................. 162
Uneven Tire Wear............................................................ 215
Uplock Mechanism - Locked Up...........................................85
Uplock Mechanism -Unlocked..............................................86
Vane Type Shimmy Damper Principle.................................. 327
Wear Grooves................................................................. 187
Well Based Wheel Rim...................................................... 139
Wet Braking Flats............................................................ 205
Wheel Base And Wheel Track..............................................17
Wheel Bearing................................................................ 149
Wheel Identification B777...................................................19
Wheel Speed Transducer Installation.................................. 264
Wheel Speed Transducer Installation.................................. 265
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

AMM Aircraft Maintenance Manual
BMV Brake Metering Valve
C Constant
CFDS Centralized Fault Monitoring System
ECAM Electronic Centralized Aircraft Monitor
EFIS Electronic Flight Information System
FOD Foreign Object Debris
LGCIU Landing Gear Control Interface Unit
p Pressure
PSEU Proximity Sensor Electronics Unit
PSI Pounds Per Square Inch
RTO Refused Take Off
V Volume
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1. CONFIGURATION
Not only must airplanes be able to fly, they should
also be able to move about on the ground and make it
possible to take off and to land. That is why airplanes
have landing gear with wheels.
Landing gear (or undercarriage) has 2 main functions:
-- Support the weight of the aircraft on the ground
-- Absorb the loads during touchdown, landing roll
and taxiing.
During landing, the kinetic energy generated by the
wheels and the brakes is transformed into heat. Inside
the shock absorber the pressure increases as it takes
up the weight of the aircraft. Once on the ground the
shock absorbers dampen out the bumps in the tarmac
as the aircraft taxis about.
To be able to handle these forces, the landing gear
must be of a sturdy design.
There are 2 categories of landing gear:
-- Retractable
-- Non-retractable
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figure 1, Retractable Landing Gear A380
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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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figure 2, Fixed Landing Gear
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Early aircraft had a non-retractable gear, which

produced a large amount of parasitic drag. As aircraft
became faster, the parasitic drag was too much to be
ignored (increases at the square of forward speed) so
retractable gear was introduced.
The choice of the type of landing gear is determined
by the location of the airplane’s center of gravity. It is
obvious that the center of gravity of an airplane with
a tail gear is behind the main landing gear, while the
center of gravity of airplanes with a nose gear is in
front of the main landing gear. For an even balance,
the center of gravity must always be between the
landing gears. The location of the center of gravity
influences the weight distribution of the airplane over
the landing gears.
There are two common concepts with reference to
landing gears
-- Wheel-base
-- Wheel-track
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figure 3, Wheel Base And Wheel Track
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“Wheel base” means: the horizontal distance between

the center of the main landing gear wheel and the
center of the nose gear (tail gear) wheel.
“Wheel track” means: the distance between the
far right and the far left main wheel. In the case of
tandem wheels, track is the distance measured to the
center of the bogie beam.
Wheels are identified by numbers. This means that
each wheel has a unique number. Wheel numbering
differs from type of aircraft and therefore, we refer to
the maintenance manual applicable to the aircraft, but
are commonly numbered as in figure 4.
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figure 4, Wheel Identification B777
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1.1 Tricycle Configuration

The tricycle landing gear is the most common type of
landing gear configuration in use today. This can either
be a nose gear or a tail gear setup. Tail wheel landing
gear is more common with propeller aircraft to give a
larger ground clearance for the propeller.
The main gear is usually fitted to the wing, for stability,
but some aircraft have them housed in the fuselage
(BAe 146). Some large aircraft like the Airbus A380
and the Boeing 747, not only have main gears in the
wing (wing gear), they also have main gear in the
fuselage (body gear).
The undercarriage is made up of:
-- A leg, pinned to the aircraft structure
-- Wheels and tires
-- Braking system
-- Shock absorber system
-- Up- and downlocking of the retractable gear
-- Steering system for the nose gear
-- Retraction and extension system
-- Indication and warning system
figure 5, BAe 146 Landing Gear
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figure 6, B747 Landing Gear
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Brake units are generally only found on the main

gears, although it is possible to have them on the nose
gear as well. A limited number of Boeing 727s where
fitted with nose wheel brakes.
The landing gear must endure heavy stresses, both
during landing and taxiing. The forces the gear must
deal with are:
-- Static compressive loads (when stationary)
-- Dynamic compressive loads (when landing)
-- Bending (when braking, turning, landing in side
winds…)
-- Torsional (during taxiing, turning)
-- Tension (braking, turning)
The wheels are fitted to axles and transmit the
compressive forces to the shock absorber (or oleo).
There are two basic types of mounting the shock
absorber.
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figure 7, Landing Gear A320
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Direct Acting.
The compressive forces are transmitted directly to
the shock absorber from the axle. All the additional
stresses (bending, torsion,…) are taken up by the oleo.
To prevent the sliding portion of the oleo to rotate
within the main unit, torque links are fitted, although
there are designs fitted with splines to prevent
rotation, but these are rare (figure 9).
figure 8, Direct Acting Suspension
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figure 9, Splined Nose Gear
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Levered Suspension.
The oleo is an independent unit, mounted between
the fixed part of the leg and the sprung part. The
compressive forces are transmitted through the lever
arm connected to the wheel. Up and down movement
of the wheel is larger than the movement of the oleo.
And because it is only subject to compressive forces,
the oleo can be smaller and lighter. They are usually
easier to change.
This type of suspension is frequently used on nose and
tail gears and can be made to caster.
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figure 10, Levered Suspension
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1.2 Main Landing Gear

Main landing gear must absorb large downward forces
of the airplane. How many landing gears with their
wheels and brakes are installed depends on the mass
of the airplane. In the development of commercial
aviation with ever faster and ever larger airplanes,
landing gears were quickly produced in two wheel
versions. The wheels have grown in relation to that,
to keep the pressure on the runway during landing
as low as possible. Airplanes already have four or six
wheels per main landing gear and more than two main
landing gears per airplane. The four or six wheels are
connected in pairs to the bogie beams (Airbus) or also
called gear trucks (Boeing). Some bogie beams consist
of one, others of two parts, where one part of the
bogie beam can swing to give the airplane a shorter
turning circle (Boeing 777).
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figure 11, Steerable Main Gear B777
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Each landing gear unit is basically a wheeled shock

absorber (oleo). A forged cylinder body is attached
to the airframe on trunnions to allow it to pivot when
lowered and raised.
Articulated side stays are located between the cylinder
body and airframe strong points to give the landing
gear strength and rigidity and allow the landing gear
leg to fold. Drag or bracing struts may also be fitted.
These absorb the high acceleration loads during take
off and deceleration loads during braking.
The wheel and axle assembly (bogey) is attached
to the piston end. A hinged torque (scissor) link is
located between the axle yoke and the cylinder body.
This allows the piston to move freely in and out of the
cylinder but prevents the piston and wheel assembly
from swiveling.
There are usually two actuators fitted. A main actuator
attached to the cylinder body to raise and lower the
gear and a downlock actuator located on the bracing
strut, which operates to cause a mechanical lock when
lowered. It also unlocks the gear mechanism before
raising.
figure 12, Dual Wheel Main Landing Gear
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figure 13, Tripple Bogie Main Landing Gear B777
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figure 14, Main Landing Gear Components
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figure 15, Main Landing Gear Trunnion
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1.2.1 Multi-Axle Landing Gears

Originally, the main landing gears had one wheel.
Because of higher landing speed and weight of
commercial aircraft, the main landing gears came
to be supplied with two or more wheels. The use of
more than two wheels per landing gear led to the
development of multiple-axle landing gears where the
axles are attached to one axle carrier or bogie beam
(truck).
There are several different lay-outs of multi-axle gears,
as shown in figure 16.
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figure 16, Multi-Wheel Landing Gear
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The construction of even bigger aircraft required the To ensure the truck is tilted at the correct angle for
use of more than two main gears, to prevent the retraction, a monitoring system prevents the gear
aircraft structure from being overloaded. from being retracted if the tilt is not correct. In most
aircraft, a override mechanism allows the gear to be
Another issue with multi-axle gears is that the wheels retracted whatever the tilt may be (emergency gear-up
just barely fit in their wheel wells. Therefore, it is landing).
very important that the bogie beam be in the correct
position in relation to the strut when the landing gear The truck tilt actuator also acts as a damper,
is retracted. This position is called the tilted position preventing the front wheels from slamming against the
and can sometimes be as much as 90°. Some aircraft runway when the truck untilts (or the back wheels, in
have the front wheels tilted up, some have the back some cases).
wheels tilted up. The operation stays the same.
A tilt cylinder, also called trim cylinder or truck tilt
actuator, is used to bring the bogie beam in the tilted
position. This tilted position must remain unchanged
as long as the landing gear is stowed in the landing
gear wheel well. Otherwise, there is a risk that the
landing gear will get stuck and cannot be extended.
The tilt cylinder is operated hydraulically. In some
types of aircraft, the tilted position can also be locked
mechanically.
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figure 17, Main Gear Tilted For Gear Retraction B777
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The advantages of using multi-wheel configurations Another unique feature of this aircraft was that the
are: nose gear was off-set from the center line, because it
had to retract sideways for space reasons. Stresses on
-- They spread the landing loads over a larger area the fuselage were found to be negligible.
(footprint).
-- They are easier to stow as the wheel volume is
reduced.
-- They provide greater safety. As the loads are
spread over several wheels a burst tire is not so
critical as the remaining wheels accept the extra
loads.
The main disadvantages are:
-- There are more moving parts so they need more
maintenance.
-- They are expensive to produce
-- Due to the large footprint the turning circle is
increased to prevent the tires from crabbing and
increasing wear.
Russian designed aircraft tend to have a unique landing
gear configuration (figure 18), but also the British
Hawker Sidley Trident (figure 19) had an interesting
solution for the multiple axle gear problems. They
installed 4 wheels on a single axle, so when the aircraft
made a sharp turn, there was no crabbing and no
increase wear. To fit in the fuselage on retraction, the
wheels were rotated 90°.
figure 18, Antonov Landing Gear
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figure 19, Trident Gear Retraction And Multi Wheel Main Gear
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1.3 Nose Landing Gear

The nose gear is of a lighter construction and works
on the same principle as the main landing gear. It has
a similar shock absorber but smaller because most
of the energy during the landing is absorbed only by
the main landing gear and also it does not have to
endure the stresses caused by braking. However, most
aircraft are towed by the nose gear, so it has to be able
to withstand the forces towing produces. Nose gears
usually have two wheels, although single wheels are
not uncommon. Many nose gears are steerable when
the nose gear shock absorber is compressed (on the
ground).
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figure 20, Nose Landing Gear
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1.3.1 Castering
To allow the aircraft to maneuver on the ground or be
towed, the nose wheel must have to ability to turn in
the direction the aircraft is going (castering). There is a
limit on the maximum allowable castering angle, set by
the internal limitations of the steering actuators. Some
nose gears are limited physically by internal stops or
markings on the fuselage indicate the maximum angle
to ground personnel. Exceeding this limit will cause
serious damage to the nose gear steering actuators.
Some aircraft have an 360 degree castering angle if
the torque link is disconnected. This disconnects the
steering actuators from the rotating part of the nose
gear and allows it to turn freely in any direction. It
may be as simple as removing a pin in the torque link
or in some cases a bolt.
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figure 21, Castering Of The Nose Gear
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1.3.2 Self Centering

Because the nose wheel can be steered, it is necessary
to be able to center the inner strut in relation to
the outer strut when the airplane leaves the ground
(center the wheels). That is why the inner and outer
struts have centering cams. The reason the wheels
have to be centered is two-fold:
-- To retract the landing gear into the wheel well. If
the nose wheels are not centered, damage to the
landing gear and/or airframe can occur.
-- To ensure the wheels are centered on landing.
There are three ways of centering the nose wheels:
-- A centering cam
-- A hydraulic centering jack
-- Via the steering mechanism
A centering failure can lead to severe damage to the
wheels and landing gear or in worse case, the aircraft
can skid off the runway (figure 22).
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figure 22, Centering Failure
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1.3.3 Centering Cam

The most common and easiest system to center the
nose wheel, it is used on both large and small aircraft.
The system is made up of an upper and lower locating
cam, one fixed to the lower portion of the gear, the
other to the upper portion. The cams are disengaged
when the aircraft is on the ground, but when the
aircraft takes off and the weight comes off the nose
gear, the shock strut extends and the cams will
engage. This will lock the nose wheel in the center
position. If the wheels are not completely aligned on
take off, the shape of the cams will move align them
automatically. As long as the oleo is extended, the
cams are engaged and the nose wheels locked in
center. This prevents the wheels from castering while
retracted, otherwise they may get jammed in the nose
wheel well. It also makes sure that they are aligned for
landing.
The centering system is usually mechanically
connected to the downlock and if the wheels are not
centered, the downlock will not disengage and the gear
cannot be retracted.
figure 23, Centering Cams
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figure 24, Centering Cam Close Up
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1.3.4 Centering Jack

Centering jacks can either be a separate unit or
incorporated in the steering system, rely on hydraulic
power the center the nose gear. The hydraulic
system does not rely on the oleo being extended.
If the steering tiller is let go, the wheels will center
automatically.
Most large aircraft incorporate both mechanical and
hydraulic centering systems.
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2. SHOCK ABSORBERS
Shock absorbers or oleos are fitted to each of the The nitrogen transforms the energy to pressure as the
landing gear struts and provide a dampening effect on strut collapses and the recoil is controlled by the fluid
landing and during taxi. Some the shocks are absorbed flow inside the strut slowing down the strut movement
by the tires, but most is taken up by the oleos. during extension of the shock absorber.
Early shock absorbers used bungees or springs, but
nowadays air/oil units are used. The static weight of the aircraft is supported by
the pressure inside the strut times the area of the
The oleos have three basic functions: piston giving a force that is equal and opposite to the
downward force of the aircraft on that landing gear
-- Absorb the downward kinetic energy unit.
-- Control the recoil
-- Support the static weight There are 3 types of oleos:
Landing energy (absorption) is transformed to heat -- Liquid spring type
and pressure by means of the fluid and nitrogen that is -- Gas/oil type with separator
in the strut. The heat is dissipated to the surroundings -- Gas/oil type without separator
via the strut.
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2.1 Liquid Spring Type The liquid spring controls the bouncing motion of the
aircraft during taxi in much the same way as other
The liquid spring contains hydraulic fluid under
shock struts do. As the piston in the liquid spring
pressure. Effecting a slight compression in the fluid
moves inward and outward in relation to its housing,
produces the cushioning effect of the spring. Note in
there is a back-and-forth movement of fluid through an
figure 25 and figure 27 that the piston rod fits into the
orifice in the piston. This fluid flow restricts the rate at
inner space of the cylinder and that a seal is provided
which the piston moves, thus dampening the up-and-
to prevent fluid leakage as the piston rod moves into
down movements of the aircraft fuselage.
and out of the housing. The housing is attached to a
stationary part of the aircraft, and the piston rod is In the liquid spring, the resistance to fluid flow
connected to a movable part of the landing gear. A necessary to convert motion energy to heat energy is
typical installation of a liquid spring on a tail landing effected by means of a check valve in the piston. As
gear is shown in figure 26. the liquid spring compresses, like during landing, fluid
flows through the check valve In addition to flowing
The liquid spring performs the same functions as other
through the orifice. During extension, the check valve
shock struts, but there are differences in operation.
closes and fluid then passes through the orifice only.
The weight of the parked aircraft tends to move the The additional restriction that limits the movement of
housing of the liquid spring downward over the piston fluid from one side of the piston to the other provides
rod. The inward movement of the piston rod decreases rebound control during landing.
the space occupied by the fluid. This compresses the
This type of shock absorber is commonly found on
fluid, thus increasing its pressure. The movement
vintage aircraft. Modern aircraft do not use this type of
continues until fluid pressure puts a force on the
absorber.
shaft equal to the force tending to move the shaft
inward. When this point is reached, no further inward
movement of the shaft takes place and the aircraft is
held in a stationary position.
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figure 25, Liquid Spring Type Shock Absorber
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figure 26, Liquid Spring Installation On Tail Wheel figure 27, Liquid Spring Schematic
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2.2 Gas/Oil Shock Absorber With There are seals around the separator and the inner and
Separator outer cylinders to prevent any air or oil leaks
(figure 30). The cylinder seals are installed on a seal
The gas/oil shock absorber uses nitrogen and hydraulic carrier, with multiple seals installed, some active,
fluid to operate. The gas absorbs the compression some spare. If a seal fails, it is possible to uses one of
energy and the oil controls the recoil. The oil pressure the spare seals on the seal carrier, without having to
is about the same as the pressure of the gas, but remove the inner cylinder. By lowering the carrier to
because it is a lot lower then the pressure in a liquid gain access to the seals, it is possible to reposition the
spring, the oil does not compress. Its function is purely spare seals, so they become active. The faulty active
as a controlling medium. seal is removed. Once all spare seals have been used,
The oleo shown in figure 28 and figure 29 contains a it is necessary to disassemble the strut to replace the
inner sliding cylinder (piston) sliding inside an outer seals.
cylinder. The top of the inner cylinder has a piston A torque link connected to the upper and lower parts
fitted with a flutter plate. Inside the inner sliding of the landing gear (outer and inner cylinder) prevents
cylinder is a separator, with above it, the oil and below the inner cylinder from rotating.
it the nitrogen.
Servicing of the unit is done via oil servicing valve at
the top and an air charge valve at the bottom.
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figure 28, Oleo With Separator Compressed View
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figure 29, Oleo With Separator Rebound View
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figure 30, Seal Carrier With Active And Spare Seals
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2.2.1 Operation 2.3 Gas/Oil Shock Absorber Without

When the weight of the aircraft is not on the gear, the Separator
nitrogen pressure forces the separator to the top of the The absorber without separator is very similar to the
inner cylinder, pushing all the oil to the top of the unit, oleo with separator. Figure 31 shows a simple cross
extending the strut completely. In this condition, the section of a shock absorber. There are three chambers
nitrogen pressure is equal to the charge pressure in the shock absorber. These various chambers are
(ex.: 1200psi) indicated in View Ill by means of the letters A, B and C.
During landing, the strut is compressed by the The chambers are interconnected by the variable flow
weight of the aircraft, forcing the inner cylinder and openings.
flutter plate upwards. This causes the oil to pass The first flow opening is formed by the clearance
through all the ports in the piston head and force the that exists between the metering pin and the
separator down. The gas pressure will rise due to the opening, which means that chambers A and B are
compression caused by the downward movement of interconnected. The second opening is formed by a
the separator. It is this compression that will absorb number of channels in the piston of the inner strut.
the shock of the landing, converting it to heat energy. These channels connect chambers A and C and can
At the end of the compression stroke, the pressure in be partly closed off by a rebound check valve or also
the oleo will be greater than that needed to support called plate valve.
the weight of the aircraft, so the oleo will want to It is the intention to have a comfortable strut
extend (rebound or recoil) rapidly. This must be characteristic to make smooth landings possible. This
prevented or the aircraft will bounce, so as the oleo is done by several openings, valves and chambers.
extends, the flutter plate is forced closed by the fluid Struts are usually designed progressive. This means
passing back up through the piston head. The flutter when it starts compressing, it is soft. The more it
plate closes off a number of holes, restricting the is compressed, it becomes harder and harder. An
passage of the oil so it cannot pass through as fast, important part to reach a progressive characteristic is
controlling the recoil. the “tapered metering pin”. See figure 32.
After landing the weight of the aircraft is supported by
the oleo when it has collapsed enough to balance the
pressure inside the oleo with the weight of the aircraft.
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The strut is partly filled with fluid while in use and the Because of this rise, the pressure of the nitrogen
remaining area is filled with nitrogen, which is already increases and a small part of the landing energy is
charged to a certain amount of pressure. transformed into a pressure increase. This pressure
increase is used for absorbing the shock of the
As with the oleo with separator, this type of strut also airplane. Strut compression stops when the pressure of
has seals around the inner and outer cylinders to the nitrogen produces such a force on the strut surface
prevent leakage. that this is the same as the power that is exercised by
The next two points describe the function of a shock the airplane mass.
absorber when an airplane lands or takes off. Take-off
Landing When the airplane takes off, the inner strut will extend
After the landing gear has been extended, the inner completely. No energy has to be transformed at this
strut will extend completely. As soon as the runway is point. The high pressure of the nitrogen will cause the
touched, the inner strut is forced into the outer strut. inner strut to be rapidly extended. If this was allowed
Chamber B decreases in volume during this process to happed, would result in quite some damage.
which means that the pres-sure of the fluid increases. To prevent the rapid movement, the fluid that must
Due to the pressure increase, the fluid flows faster to leave chamber C, which is becoming smaller, must
chamber A through the opening between chambers stream through the smaller holes in the rebound check
A and B. Because the opening becomes smaller and valve. This rebound check valve is pressed against
smaller, more and more heat develops in the fluid. the bottom of the piston by its inertia and by the flow
This heat is transmitted to the surrounding air (heat of fluid. This decreases the size of the flow opening,
energy) via the struts. causing the fluid to leave chamber C less quickly and
Chamber C, which increases in volume during the delay the outward movement of the inner strut.
inward movement, it will be full-streamed via the Finally, it must be mentioned that modern shock
channels in the piston’s head. The volume of chamber absorbers have been modified. The modification
C, however, is much smaller than that of B which ensures a better division of the forces as a result of the
means that the level of the fluid, after chamber C has increasing nitrogen pressure. This is done by means of
streamed full, rises in chamber A. an additional extra chamber.
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figure 31, Air-Oil Shock Absorber Without Separator Operation
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figure 33, Gas-Oil Shock Absorber Without Separator figure 32, Tapered Pin Detail
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2.3.1 Double Stage Shock Absorber During the movement of the compression stroke,
The double stage shock absorber is an evolution of the sliding tube is pushed into the cylinder. Thus the
the gas/nitrogen shock absorber without separator. volume in the first–stage chamber is decreased, which
The shock absorber is a 2 stage unit and contains four increases the pressure of the gas and the hydraulic
chambers: fluid. When the compression stroke has increased the
pressure in the first–stage is the same as the pressure
-- A first stage gas chamber contains gas at a low in the second–stage chamber. More compression of the
pressure and hydraulic fluid shock absorber causes the pressure in the first–stage
-- A recoil chamber that contains hydraulic fluid to increase, thus the separator piston is moved down
-- A compression chamber that contains hydraulic in the sliding tube (until the pressures are the same
fluid again).
-- A 2nd stage gas chamber that contains gas at a
high pressure The pressures stored in the first–stage and the
second–stage chambers makes the sliding tube extend.
Primary control of the shock absorber recoil is: This movement permits the separator piston in the
-- The fluid flow from the recoil chamber into the second–stage chamber to move up. The recoil stroke
gas chamber is slow and controlled which decreases the speed of
-- The fluid flow from the gas chamber into the shock absorber extension during take–off. The recoil
compression chamber is complete when the shock absorber gets to its static
position or is fully extended after take–off.
The shock absorber is contained in the main fitting
and the sliding tube. The main fitting has a first–stage
gas/fluid chamber, without separation between the
gas and the fluid. The sliding tube has a high pressure
second–stage gas chamber. The separator piston in the
sliding tube separates the first–stage chamber from
the second–stage chamber. During a static deflection
(when the weight of the aircraft is on the ground) the
separator piston is against its upper stop in the sliding
tube.
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figure 34, Double Stage Shock Absorber
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2.4 Servicing
To guarantee the correct operation of the shock
absorber, the strut must be serviced in order to fill the
leg with the proper quantity of oil. Additionally, the
oil must be completely free of nitrogen. The nitrogen
chamber must also be charged (pre-charge) to the
correct value in order to maintain the correct oil/
gas ratio. The amount of nitrogen inside the strut will
increase the pressure according to Boyle’s Law (the
product of pressure and volume is constant when the
temperature is constant: formula p x V=C). When
correctly filled and charged, the strut will adopt the
correct extension when supporting the aircraft on the
ground and the risk of the inner piston coming into
contact with the outer cylinder (“bottoming”) during
touchdown will be eliminated. Filling and charging
procedures will vary between aircraft type, will be
detailed in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual (AMM) and
must be strictly adhered to.
figure 35, Shock Strut Servicing
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figure 36, Shock Strut Servicing Locations A320
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2.4.1 In-Service Pressure Adjustments When the aircraft is on its wheels, the air pressure,
Strut servicing of and aircraft in service can be done which depends on the aircraft weight, will have a
on the ramp, without the use of jacks. The required certain value. This must be read by using a pressure
pre-charge can be seen on a graph in the maintenance gauge. Using this value and the ambient temperature,
manual, however, this graph is also often found on the the expected dimension H can be found using the
strut or on the door of the landing gear. Servicing of graph. This is then compared with the real value of “H”.
can be done with the aircraft on jacks or on its wheels. If there is a difference, then the strut pressure must
The amount of pre-charge depends on the strut be adjusted by adding more air or releasing air. As the
extension, referred to is “dimension H” (dimension X air is added, the strut will rise, increasing dimension H,
on Boeing aircraft) and the ambient temperature. however, the air pressure will remain constant.
When the airplane is jacked up, the strut will give After disengaging the nitrogen bottle and checking for
a largest dimension H and the lowest pre-charge possible valve leakage, the strut is ready for operation
pressure. As the weight of the aircraft has no effect on and suitable for the maximum allowable weight of the
the air pressure, all that needs to be done is ensure airplane involved.
the pre-charge is correct. This can be found in the
maintenance manual.
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figure 37, Boeing Strut Charging Graph
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figure 38, Dimension H
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figure 39, Strut Servicing Graph
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2.4.2 Full Strut Servicing NOTE: If the leg is an air/oil with separator type,
The aircraft will be on jacks with the wheels clear of there will be an additional procedure before
the ground. The air is completely discharged from you can deflate the nitrogen pressure to
the strut and the air charging valve left open. With ensure the separator is in its correct position.
a bottle jack under the strut, the strut is completely NOTE: The procedure is similar with a liquid spring
compressed. Using a hydraulic pump, new oil is type regarding the oil filling and bleeding,
pumped into the strut via the oil charging valve until there will be no nitrogen charging procedure.
clear, air-free oil comes out of the bleed valve. At
this point, the oil level in the strut is correct. The oil NOTE: In-service, the serviceability of the shock
charging valve and bleed valve are closed, the bottle struts can be monitored with the use of a
jack removed and the strut is slowly charged with pressure/extension graph and adjustments
nitrogen via the air charging valve until the leg is fully may be made to the nitrogen pressure as
extended and the correct air pressure (pre-charge) is required.
obtained.
The strut is now fully serviced.
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3. EXTENSION AND RETRACTION

The landing gears are retracted during flight to The basic retraction and extension system consists of
reduce drag. This makes it possible to fly faster and it the following hydraulic components:
decreases fuel consumption. Depending on the type
of aircraft, there are main, nose and fuselage landing -- A selector valve
gears (body gears). For most aircraft, the main gears -- A downlock actuator
are retracted in a sideward direction and the nose -- A retract actuator
landing gear is retracted in a forward direction. -- A door un-latch actuator
-- Door actuators
Apart from the retraction and extension system, the -- An up-lock actuator
following subsystems are part of the landing gear -- Several sequence valves
systems: -- Several restrictors and check valves
-- The brake system The components shown in figure 42, figure 43 and
-- The nose wheel steering system figure 44 are of a retractable landing gear.
-- The ground/flight switching mechanism (air/ Figure 45 depicts a complete retraction system.
ground sensing)
Because of the weight, a hydraulic powered system is
used for retraction and extension of the landing gears.
Typically the main hydraulic system is used to power
the landing gear. Smaller aircraft may be fitted with an
electrical system.
The landing gear retraction and extension system can
be very complex (B747 or A380) so it is very important
that the sequence of events is correct. The doors have
to be open before the gear retracts or extends and
may not close before the gears are locked up or down.
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figure 40, B747 Main Gear Retracted (top view)
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figure 41, Main Gear Retraction figure 42, Main Gear Retracted In Aircraft Fuselage
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figure 43, Retractable Main Landing Gear Components
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figure 44, Retractable Main Landing Gear Components
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figure 45, Complete Schematic Of Gear Retraction System B767
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3.1 Typical Components In the “off” (neutral) position
3.1.1 Selector Valve If the landing gear handle is put in the “off’ position,
all hydraulic components of the landing gear operation
Retracting and/or extending the landing gears is system on the “up” as well as on the “down” side are
started from the flight deck by means of the landing connected to the return line of the hydraulic power
gear handle. This handle is connected mechanically or system. In this state, depending on the type of
electrically to the selector valve and the pilot can set it aircraft, the landing gears are locked by mechanical
in the ‘up”, the “off’ (neutral) or the “down” position. means, such as the “up-lock” mechanism.
In the “up” position In the “down” position
If the landing gear handle is set in the “up” position, If the landing gear handle is put in the “down”
an internal circuit in the selector valve supplies position, pressure from the hydraulic power system is
pressure from the hydraulic power system for: released via an internal circuit in the selector valve.
-- Unlocking and opening the wheel well doors (by This pressure is used for:
means of the unlatch and door actuators) -- Unlocking and opening the wheel well doors
-- Unlocking the landing gears (by means of the -- Unlocking the up-lock
downlock actuator) -- Extending the landing gear
-- Retracting the landing gears (by means of the -- Closing the wheel well doors
retract actuator)
-- Closing the wheel well doors (by means of the
door and unlatch actuators)
In this case the hydraulic (high) pressure is on one
side of the retract actuator. The other side is then
connected to the return line (low pressure) of the
hydraulic power system. This moves the piston which
is installed in the retract actuator and the landing gear
is retracted and locked in the retracted position.
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figure 46, Landing Gear Selector Lever
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figure 47, Landing Gear Selector Lever
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3.1.2 Downlock Mechanism

A downlock mechanism prevents undesired retraction
of the landing gear, when it is in the “down” position.
“Overcenter links”, which are between the strut and
the side brace, ensure that the side brace cannot pivot
when it is in the “overcenter” position. In general, the
overcenter links will remain in the “overcenter” position
by means of the spring force of “bungee springs”.
During ground time and towing, the overcenter
mechanism is locked by landing gear lock pins for
safety reasons. These pins are installed by the ground
staff and obviously they must be removed again before
the aircraft departs.
If the landing gear is retracted, the downlock actuator
pulls the overcenter links from the “overcenter”
position and the side brace can pivot when the landing
gear is pulled up by the retraction cylinder. Depending
on the type of aircraft, the landing gear can be kept
in the “up” position by an up-lock mechanism or by
hydraulic power.
figure 48, Downlock Mechanism - Gear Locked
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figure 49, Downlock Mechanism - Gear Unlocked figure 50, Overcentering Link
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3.1.3 Up-Lock Mechanism

The up-lock mechanism consists of a hook in which the
landing gear is secured in the retracted position. The
overcenter links mentioned before can also be used for
this purpose. In this case, they work as described in
the “downlock” mechanism. In both cases, an up-lock
actuator is necessary to unlock the up-lock.
If the landing gear is unlocked, it extends due to its
mass and reaches the “down and locked” position with
the help of the bungee springs. The hydraulic fluid,
which flows away from the retraction actuator, slows
this process down slightly to reduce the “down” shock.
Instead of an up-lock mechanism, the landing gears of
some aircraft are kept in the “up” position by hydraulic
pressure. This is possible because hydraulic pressure is
available during the whole flight. If this pressure is cut
off for any reason, the landing gears come to rest in
the uplocks or on the wheel well doors.
Some aircraft like the Boeing 757, do not have an
uplock hook to lock the nose gear in the up position.
It uses the same overcentering mechanism to lock the
gear down (figure 53).
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figure 51, Uplock Mechanism - Locked Up
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figure 52, Uplock Mechanism -Unlocked
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figure 53, Nose Gear Locking B757
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3.1.4 Wheel Well Doors Aircraft like the Boeing 767 do not have main gear
After retraction, the landing gears are stowed in the uplock hooks, but instead have door uplock hooks.
wheel wells. These wheel wells generally have doors, When the gear is retracted, the doors are locked and
which are only open during retraction and extension the selector lever in placed in the OFF position, the
of the landing gear. For maintenance, the doors can main gear doors keep the gear inside the wheel wells.
also be opened on the ground. Opening and closing When the gear is extended, initially the main gears are
of the wheel well doors can be done mechanically and lifted off the doors to allow them to open. Only after
hydraulically. In mechanical operation, the landing gear the doors are open will the gears be lowered.
itself opens or closes the doors automatically during its
upward or downward movement, because the landing On the ground, unlocking can also be done manually if
gear and the doors are connected to each other maintenance work has to be done in the wheel well.
mechanically. NOTE: When working in the wheel wells, always use
Unlock and door actuators are used for hydraulically door-locking devices to prevent accidents.
operated doors. If the landing gear handle is moved to These door-locking devices ensure that
“up” or “down”, the unlock actuators will first unlock the doors cannot close accidentally during
the doors, then the door actuators will open the maintenance work on pressurized landing
doors. After the passage of the landing gear, the door gears.
actuators will close the doors again. Many aircraft are fitted with red “door unsafe” lights in
When closing, the doors will be “latched” mechanically. the wheel well. If a light is on, it is unsafe to work in or
This latch is usually integrated in the door actuator around the wheel well (figure 57).
and is strong enough to carry the landing gear if the
“up-lock” is defective or if the hydraulic pressure which
keeps the landing gear in the “up” position is cut off.
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figure 54, Landing Gear Door Schematic
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figure 55, Landing Gear Doors A320
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figure 56, Door Uplock
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figure 57, Door Unsafe Light
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3.1.5 Sequence Valves Door operated sequencing system

If a retraction and extension system is supplied with Only when the door is fully open is pressure allowed to
hydraulically operated landing gear doors and also flow to the main gear actuator. If the door is not fully
works with an up-lock and downlock mechanism, it open the main gear actuator remains isolated from the
is important to operate it in a certain sequence. To hydraulic system. Hydraulic pressure is initially fed to
be able to let the landing gear pass, the wheel well the landing gear door actuator, which operates to open
doors should be opened or closed at the right moment. the door. When the door reaches its maximum travel
For this reason sequence valves ensure operation it depresses a plunger (figure 58). The movement of
of the hydraulic components according to a fixed the plunger unseats a valve in the sequence valve,
sequence, at the correct time and in the correct way. which opens a port to allow fluid pressure to the main
The sequence valves can be adjusted hydraulically and actuator and extends the landing gear down.
mechanically. Retraction of the landing gear is reversed. Pressure is
fed to the main actuator, which retracts the landing
gear leg. When the landing gear leg is fully retracted it
abuts against and depresses a sequence valve plunger.
The movement of the plunger unseats a valve in the
sequence valve, which opens a gallery to allow fluid
pressure to the door actuator, which closes the door.
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figure 58, Door Operated Sequence Valve
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Gear Operated Sequencing System

The principle of operation is very similar to the door
operated mechanism. The difference being that the
plunger (or slide) is operated via a cam and linkage
mechanism directly attached to the landing gear leg.
This ensures that when the gear starts to move the
door starts to, or is in the process of opening.
figure 59, Gear Operated Sequence Valve
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figure 60, Sequence Valve Schematic
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3.1.6 Restrictors and Check Valves

Restrictors and check valves are also used to ensure
the correct sequence of the operation. Some parts are
supplied with hydraulic pressure later than others. This
creates pressure differences, which causes operation in
the desired sequence.
3.1.7 Actuators
Apart from sequence valves, restrictions and check
valves, actuators can also help determine the correct
order. In this case, the difference in piston surface
brings about an operational sequence.
figure 61, Retract Actuator Installation B767
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figure 62, Retract Actuator B777
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3.2 Electronically Controlled Landing Gear

Operation – GEAR EXTENSION
In the following, we go through a landing gear cycle,
controlled and monitored by a gear control interface
unit (LGCIU), typically found on Airbus 320 family
aircraft.
Initiation by setting the landing gear control lever to
DOWN.
3.2.1 Door Opening

When DOWN is selected, the LGCIU takes the control
of the extension sequence. The LGCIU signals the
doors to open via selector valves and the door
proximity detectors signal the doors’ fully open position
back to the LGCIU in order to continue the sequence.
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figure 63, Extension - Doors Opening
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3.2.2 Gear Down

When ALL doors are fully open, the LGCIU commands
a gear extension while maintaining the doors “open”
signal. The gear sensors signal to the LGCIU that the
gears are down and locked.
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figure 64, Extension - Gear Down
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3.2.3 Door Closing

When ALL the gear is down and locked, the Computer
signals the doors to close while maintaining the gear
extended signal. Door closing hydraulic pressure is
fed to the lock stay actuators to back up the downlock
springs. Door uplock proximity detectors signal to
the Computer that the doors are uplocked. As the
doors begin to close, the Computer cancels the gear
extended signal while maintaining the door “close”
signal.
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figure 65, Extension - Doors Closing
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3.3 Electronically Controlled Landing Gear

Operation – GEAR RETRACTION
3.3.1 Door Opening
The Computer must detect all shock absorbers
extended before allowing the selection of the landing
gear control lever to UP. The Computer signals the
doors to open via selector valves, and the doors
sensors signal the doors’ fully open position back to
the Computer, in order to continue the sequence.
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figure 66, Retraction - Doors Opening
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3.3.2 Gear Up
When ALL doors are fully open, the Computer
signals the landing gear to raise while maintaining
the doors “open” signal to keep the doors “open”
line pressurized. The gear uplock sensors signal the
Computer that the gear is up and locked.
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figure 67, Retraction - Gear Up
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3.3.3 Door Closing

When ALL the landing gear is up and locked, the
Computer signals the doors to close while maintaining
landing gear UP signal to keep the “raise” line
pressurized. The door uplock sensors signal the
Computer that the doors are uplocked. As soon as
the last door closes and locks, the Computer cancels
the landing gear “raise” signal and maintains the door
close signal.
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figure 68, Retraction - Doors Closing
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figure 69, Retraction - Hydraulics Off
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3.4 Emergency Extension In the electrical system, a DC powered hydraulic

pump is activated by a switch on the flight deck. The
If the hydraulic pressure should be cut off from the
DC pump runs off the hot battery bus. The pump has
landing gear operation system during the flight, which
an independent oil supply which operated emergency
would make it impossible to open the doors and to
release actuators on the wheel well doors and the gear
extend the landing gear, an emergency extension
uplock devices. Once the doors and gear are unlocked,
system can be used. By means of a handle or a switch
the system works as the mechanical system.
on the flight deck, the wheel well doors and the
landing gears can be unlocked. Mechanical emergency release systems must normally
be reset manually before the aircraft can be returned
There are 2 possible methods of emergency extension:
to service. The electrical system is self resetting.
-- Pure mechanical
-- Electrical
The mechanical system uses a handle with either has
to be rotated or puller. Transmission is done by control
cables. After the wheel well doors have been opened,
the landing gear will come down by gravity. In this
case, the doors remain open. Due to mass inertia,
and sometimes under the influence of the air loads,
the landing gears come in the “down” position. The
bungee springs bring them in the “locked” position.
In this case, the hydraulic fluid must be able to flow
around all hydraulically operated cylinders. Therefor
when selecting emergency extension, bypass valves
are opened.
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figure 70, Emergency Extension Initial Configuration
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figure 71, Emergency Release
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3.5 Landing Gear Safety Devices

All landing gears are fitted with safety devices in one
form or another. Most common are the gear safety pins
or ground locks, which are fitted to the downlock links.
This prevents the gear from collapsing or retracting on
the ground. The flight crew removes them just before
departure and stow them in the cockpit. It is part of
their checklist the visually check for the presence of
the gear pins.
The Airbus A320 uses ground lock clamps on the main
gears, but it has the same function as gear pins
(figure 73).
Ground locks must have red steamers fitted to them
for visibility.
Another safety feature that prevents the gear from
being retracted on the ground is incorporated in the
landing gear selector lever.
figure 72, Landing Gear Safety Pins
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figure 73, Main Gear Safety Devices A320
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3.6 Manual Door Release For Maintenance 3.7 Safety Bars

As mentioned before, a manual door release is fitted On some aircraft with hydraulically sequenced doors if
to allow maintenance crews to access the wheel the hydraulics system was to fail, to allow the landing
well. If generally uses the same release mechanism gear to lower, the wheels will forcibly open the doors.
as the emergency gear extension system. It can be This is done by the landing gear legs pushing against
mechanical or electrical. The doors are closed using safety bars, which are fitted, to the doors. The doors
the aircraft hydraulic system. will open without being damaged and once operated
the doors will remain open.
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figure 74, Safety Bars
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4. INDICATION AND WARNING
4.1 Electrical Gear Indication The actual sequence of indication often varies from
aircraft to aircraft, but the modern „dark cockpit‟
All modern aircraft fitted with retractable landing
philosophy during flight, usually means that all
gear will have a means of indicating on the flight
indicator lights are extinguished (no lights), when the
deck whether the legs are locked down, in transit or
legs are properly locked up. Red lights are often used
correctly locked up. Additionally, a separate warning
when the legs are in transit (i.e.: not locked up and
system may be included to show faults, or to indicate
not locked down) and green lights illuminate when
that the legs are not in the position selected.
each leg is down and locked.
Normally leg position is shown by a dedicated set
On other aircraft, the red transit lights are replaced
of colored indicators on the front panel, near to the
by a light in the selector lever, and separate amber
landing gear selector lever. Each leg will have its own
warning lights on the front panel will show a fault.
set of indicator lights.
(I.e.: if any leg fails to reach its selected position,
New generation aircraft fitted with full EFIS cockpits either locked up or locked down, within a certain time
tend not to have the old style gear indication system, limit.) Also, where for example, visual confirmation
but rather have the gear position displayed on one of from the cabin windows is not possible, usually
the displays. for nose gear, the locked down indicator may be
duplicated, as an additional „confidence light‟, in case
Landing gear in transit or if the gear is not in the a bulb failure occurs.
selected position will also cause a red light inside the
selector lever to light up. Micro switches or proximity sensors are fitted to each
leg to relay information the flight deck indicators.
A change in the output voltage, when the uplock or
downlock mechanisms are made or broken during the
retraction or lowering sequences, determines indicator
output.
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figure 75, Gear Indication
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figure 76, Gear Indications And Warnings A320
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figure 77, Classic Gear Indication A300
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4.2 Mechanical Gear Indication

Other methods can be mechanical indicators outside
the aircraft, visible from the cockpit. There may
be painted indicator lines on the landing gear legs
downlock link, which align when the gear is down, and
locked.
Some aircraft have pop up indicators, which stand
proud on the upper wing surface when the gear
is down and locked. These are plungers operated
through a cable linkage attached to the downlock link.
When the landing gear extends and is locked down a
plate attached to the downlock link operates a spring
loaded plunger which by cable connection moves the
indicator from its housing, protruding from the top of
the wing. The indicator returns under spring pressure
into its housing when the landing gear is retracted. The
plunger can be viewed from a window in the cabin.
figure 78, Mechanical Down Lock Indication
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figure 79, Mechanical Gear Down Indication
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4.3 Safety Mechanisms

To prevent the pilot from landing with his under
carriage retracted there is a warning system connected
to the centralized warning panel with associated
warning lights and audio warnings. The warning
system may be activated when the aircraft descends
to a certain height above the ground detected by the
radio altimeter, or when the landing configuration is
incorrect ie, when the engine power levers or flaps are
set incorrectly.
The landing gear may have an electro-mechanical
safety device, which prevents operation of the selector
lever on the ground. When all the landing gear legs are
compressed a safety solenoid is de-energized which
moves a latch pin under the landing gear selector
lever. So long as the solenoid remains de-energized the
latch pin prevents the selector lever from operating.
As soon as each landing gear leg is fully extended the
limit switch is made which sends a signal to the control
unit. When the control unit receives signals from all
the landing gear legs an earth is made and the safety
solenoid is energized. The latch pin is withdrawn from
beneath the selector lever allowing gear up when
selected.
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figure 80, Gear Lever Safety Device
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4.4 Position Sensors Limit micro-switches on the uplocks will sense when
Proximity switches are commonly used on each landing the landing gear is locked up and limit switches on the
gear leg and will indicate that the landing gear leg oleos will sense when the oleo leg is fully extended.
is either downlocked or is in transit. The switch will The signals will be sent to an electronic control unit
be made when the target on the landing gear leg (PSEU) where they are processed. When the landing
comes into alignment with the switch probe, indicating gear is locked up the limit switch will change the red
that the landing gear is down and locked. The gap lights to black. When the oleos are fully extended
between the probe and target is set in accordance the limit switches will allow the landing gear to be
with the maintenance manual for the aircraft. When retracted. The proximity switches and limit switches
the proximity switch probes are out of alignment with form part of the weight on wheels, weight off wheels
their targets, the switches are broken and it is sensed squat switch system and will prevent inadvertent
that the landing gear leg is in transit. The signals retraction of landing gear on the ground. It will only
will be sent to an electronic control unit or computer allow retraction when certain conditions are met. This
(proximity sensor electronics unit or PSEU) where they mainly being that all 3 landing gear legs are weight off
are processed and will illuminate an associated green wheels and struts fully extended.
light on the landing gear panel when locked down and
a red light when the landing gear is in transit.
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figure 81, Proximity Sensor Nose Gear
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figure 82, PSEU System Boeing
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5. WHEELS
Aircraft wheels must absorb high loads. Increased
weight, long distances to taxi, short runways and
increased landing speed are some of the many loads
that may occur.
Tires and rims are put under tremendous stress during
sharp turns while taxiing, so it is recommended to
avoid these maneuvers. If sharp turns cannot be
avoided, then an inspection of the wheels is advisable.
The wheels on the landing gear leg provide some form
of suspension and adhesion between the aircraft and
the ground. Early wheels and tires were of the bicycle
type with spoke rims and with the tires fitted using tire
levers. Most light aircraft have fixed flange one piece
forged or cast wheels.
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figure 83, Turning Radius A320
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5.1 Rims
Rims are made of aluminium alloys. To make changing
tires easier and to comply with the load-bearing
requirements, most aircraft have wheel rims that
consist of two parts and exist in two types:
-- The removable rim
-- The split wheel (split hub)
The removable rim has an inner tube where as the split
wheel uses tubeless tires. The two halves are bolted
together with attachment bolts (tie-bolts). In addition,
an O-ring seal is installed between the two halves of
the wheel rim to prevent loss of nitrogen pressure from
the ‘tubeless’ tires.
The main wheels also have splines (drive keys) on the
inboard wheel half, that drive the rotor disks of the
brake unit when the wheel is turning. To minimize the
transmission of heat from the brake units as much as
possible, ventilation holes and a heat shield are fitted.
Nose wheels which do not house brake units, are
usually of simpler construction than main wheels.
In some instances all wheels on an aircraft are
interchangeable, but usually, the nose wheels are
smaller than the main wheels.
figure 84, Brake Drive Keys
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figure 85, Drive Keys Inside Rim
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5.1.1 Types Of Rims

There are three basic types of wheel used for aircraft:
-- Well-based
-- Divided (or Split)
-- Loose and Detachable Flange
WELL-BASED
This type is limited to smaller light aircraft and is
similar to those found on a typical family car.
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figure 86, Well Based Wheel Rim
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DIVIDED (OR SPLIT)

This type is used on most modern commercial airliners.
It consists two half assemblies matched up and bolted
together to form the complete wheel. Each half is
more or less identical and has its own tapered bearing
assembly. A sealing ring is incorporated between the
two halves, to provide an airtight joint when the wheel
is used with a tubeless tire. Additionally, the inner half
will carry the brake rotor drive blocks and the outer O-Ring
half may be fitted with fusible plugs.
figure 87, Split Wheel
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figure 88, Split Wheel Features
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LOOSE AND DETACHABLE FLANGE

This type of wheel has a main hub, which carries
both bearings, brake rotor drive blocks and fusible
plugs. To facilitate tire replacement, one of the two
wheel flanges can be removed. The flange when
refitted to the wheel hub is retained by a locking ring
(loose flange) or by means of a series of nuts and
bolts (detachable flange). As with the divided wheel
a sealing ring is incorporated in the flange recess to
provide the airtight joint when used with tubeless tires.
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figure 89, Detachabble Flange Wheel
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5.2 Fusible Plugs

High brake temperatures can cause excess tire
pressure and can result in a tire burst, which is
potentially very dangerous. To avoid this as much as
possible, one or more fusible plugs are installed in the
wheel rim. These fuses are usually of the melting type.
When the temperature of the wheel rim goes above a
certain temperature, the plug core melts and nitrogen
escapes from the tire.
The following reasons could lead to a brake
overtemperature, melting the fuse.
-- Aborted take-off (heavy braking)
-- Intensive use of the brakes due to a short runway
-- Intensive use of the brakes due to short
consecutive periods of flight
-- Malfunctioning brake units (dragging brake)
In many cases, a safety valve is also fitted to the wheel
rim, to protect the wheel from overpressurization. The
valve opens when then the pressure inside the tire
gets too high, perhaps due to overinflation.
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figure 90, Fusible Plugs
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5.3 Tire Pressure Indication NOTE: Tire pressure warnings are only memorized
when at least one engine is running to prevent
To explain the system, the Airbus A320 tire pressure
false warnings during wheel change.
system is used to illustrate the operation.
The Tire Pressure Indicating System continuously
monitors the absolute pressure of each individual tire
and provides cockpit indications and warnings.
A pressure transducer installed in the wheel rim
measures the pressure of each tire. A rotating
mechanism transmits the tire pressure signal from
the wheel to the axle. A rotating transformer supplies
power.
An integrated electronic module amplifies the signal
from the pressure transducer and changes the voltage
into frequency by means of a converter. The voltage to
frequency converter gives a signal, which varies from
50 to 100kHz for a pressure range from 0 to 300 psi.
The rotating transformer transmits the tire pressure
value from the wheel to the detection unit, which
comprises of a microprocessor that provides data
processing and distribution of each tire pressure
including normal and abnormal pressure signals for
ECAM indication and Centralized Fault Display System
(CFDS) monitoring.
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figure 91, Tire Pressure Indication System
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5.4 Wheel Bearings

Wheel bearings are one of the most heavily loaded
parts of the airplane. Wheel bearings usually consist of
conical roller bearings because this kind of bearing can
absorb high radial and axial loads.
Conical roller bearings have two bearings installed
across from each other that can absorb the axial
load in both directions of the axle. When changing
the wheels, keep in mind that the innermost and the
outermost bearing often have a varying diameter.
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figure 92, Wheel Bearing
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6. TIRES
An aircraft tire must withstand a wide range of 6.1 Tire Construction
operational conditions. When on the ground, it must
To meet the aircraft demands of today and tomorrow,
support the weight of the aircraft. During taxi, it
manufacturers design and produce different and
must provide a stable cushioned ride while resisting
distinct tire constructions. The conventional cross-ply
heat generation, abrasion and wear. At take-off,
or BIAS tire and the RADIAL tire. Both nomenclatures
the tire structure must be able to endure not only
(BIAS and RADIAL) describe the angular direction of
the aircraft load but also the forces generated at
the carcass plies.
high angular velocities. Landing requires the tire to
absorb impact shocks while also transmitting high While many of the components of a bias or radial tire
dynamic braking loads to the ground. All of this must have the same terminology, the carcass ply angles are
be accomplished while providing a long, dependable, not the only difference between a bias constructed
reliable, service life. These extreme demands require tire and a radial constructed tire. The technologies
a tire, which is highly engineered and manufactured utilized are quite different, involving different design
to precise conditions. For this reason, tires are made parameters, compounds, and materials.
of a composite of various rubbers, fabric and steel
products. Each of the components serves a very The Tread refers to the crown area of the tire in
specific function in the performance of the tire. contact with the ground. Most Michelin tires are
designed with circumferential grooves molded into the
tread area. These grooves help to improve adhesion
with the ground surface and provide a mechanism to
channel water away from the area between the tyre
and runway surface. This reduces the occurrence of
hydroplaning on wet runways.
The tread compound is formulated to resist wear,
abrasion, cutting, cracking and heat build-up. It
prolongs the life of the casing by protecting the
underlying carcass plies.
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The Undertread is a layer of specially formulated

rubber designed to enhance the bonding between
the tread reinforcement / protector plies and the
carcass body. For those tires, which are designed to
be retreaded, this rubber layer will be of sufficient
thickness to act as the interface for buffing the old
tread assembly, as well as the liaison with the new
retread products.
The Carcass Ply consists of fabric cords sandwiched
between two layers of rubber. Today, the most common
fabric cord is nylon. The carcass body itself is made
from multiple layer of carcass plies, each one adding to
the strength and load bearing capability of the tire. The
carcass plies are anchored by wrapping them around
bead wires, thus forming the PLY TURN-UPS.
BIAS constructed tires; the carcass plies are laid
at angles between 30° and 60° to the centerline
or direction of rotation of the tire. Succeeding plies
are laid opposite to each other, with cords running
diagonally to provide balanced strength.
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figure 93, Bias Ply Tire
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figure 94, Bias Tire Construction
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RADIAL
Radial constructed tires, the carcass plies are laid
at an angle approximately 90° to the centerline or
direction of rotation of the tire. Each successive layer
is laid at this same angle. Radial constructed tires of
the same size have a fewer number of plies than do
tires of a bias construction because the radial design
enables each component of the tire to be optimized
independently.
figure 95, Radial Ply Tire
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figure 96, Radial Tire Construction
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Beads Liner
The Beads or bead wires anchor the tire to the wheel. The Liner In tubeless tires is a layer of rubber specially
They are fabricated from steel wires layered together compounded to resist the permeation of nitrogen and
and embedded with rubber to form a bundle. The moisture through to the carcass. It is vulcanized to the
bundle is then wrapped with rubber-coated fabric for inside of the tire and extends from bead to bead.
reinforcement.
In tube-type tires, a different, thinner liner material
Depending on the size and design application, BIAS is used to protect the carcass plies from moisture and
tires are constructed with 2 to 6 total bead bundles (1 tube chafing, but is generally insufficient to maintain
to 3 per side). In contrast, RADIAL constructed tires air retention
have 2 bead bundles (1 on each side) regardless of tire
size.
Chafer Strips
Chafer Strips are strips of protective fabric laid over
the outer carcass plies in the bead area of the tire.
Their purpose is to protect the carcass plies from
damage when mounting or dismounting and to reduce
the effects of wear and chafing between the wheel and
the tire bead.
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figure 97, Aircraft Tire Construction
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figure 98, Tire Construction
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6.2 Tire ratings 6.3 Aircraft Tire Types

6.2.1 Ply Rating Aircraft tires have typically been classified into different
categories or “Types”. This type designation was used
Ply rating identifies the maximum static load carrying in addition to the size, ply rating and speed rating to
capacity of a given tire and corresponding inflation describe the tire. It has been useful in categorizing
pressure in a specific type of service. It is important to tires of similar design/performance characteristics.
realize that ply ratings is an indicator of tire strength Through the years there have been nine different
and not necessarily the actual number of carcass types of aircraft tire designations. Today only four are
plies in the tire. For example, a 26 x 6.6 with a 14 Ply still manufactured, Types I, Ill, VII and the Three Part
Rating has only 8 carcass plies. The maximum static Nomenclature.
load and corresponding pressure for a particular ply
rating and tire size are determined by calculations. Type I
Type I category tires are primarily for aircraft with non-
6.2.2 Load Rating retractable landing gear. The design of Type I tires is
no longer active.
It is the maximum permissible load of the tire when at
rest. Type III
Type III tires are generally used for low-pressure
Main wheel Tire: service providing a larger footprint or “floatation”
FAR/JAR 25.733 specifies that for aircraft with a main effect. These tires have smaller rim diameters relative
landing gear axle fitted with more than one wheel, to the overall diameter as compared to the other type
the maximum load capability of a tyre be at least 7% designs. While some military exceptions exist, speeds
greater than the maximum load requirement of the are generally limited to 160mph or less.
aircraft for that wheel position. Thus an H40 x 14.5-
19/22PR tire with a rating of 30,100 lbs could only be
fitted on a aircraft with a tire load requirement up to
28,131 lbs.
Nose wheel tire
Nose wheel tires are designed to withstand maximum
loads under braking.
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figure 99, Type III Tire Indentification
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Type VII
Type VII are high pressure tires widely used on jet
aircraft.
figure 100, Type IV Tire Identification
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Three Part Nomenclature

These tires are design for high speed/high load
aircraft.
figure 101, Three Part Nomencalture Tire Indentification
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6.3.1 Tubed Tires 6.3.3 High Pressure Tires

Tubed aircraft tires consist of two component parts, i.e. Some aircraft tires are inflated to pressures of 200psi
inner tubes and outer tires. The general construction or more. Because of their strength and rigidity, such
of a typical tire is shown, but the detailed construction tires, whether tubed or tubeless, are normally fitted
varies considerably according to the manufacturer and only to divided or detachable-flange wheels. Special
the duties for which the tire is intended. precautions are necessary to protect personnel from
injury during initial inflation.
This type of tire is not used on large aircraft.
6.3.2 Tubeless Tires

A tubeless tire is essentially identical to a tubed tire
except that the tube is replaced by an air-retaining
inner lining and the beads are designed to prevent
air leakage at the rim of the wheel. Some of the
advantages derived from the use of tubeless tires
include about 7,5 % saving in weight compared with
using a tire and tube, a reduction in permeability
losses, cooler running by about 10°C, less danger of
deflation due to puncture and the elimination of tube
troubles.
Because it is necessary to keep the bead areas in good
condition, tubeless tires are not fitted to well-base
wheels.
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6.4 Tread Patterns

The tread pattern on a tire is usually designed to suit
specific operating conditions, aircraft weights and
aircraft take-off and landing speeds.
6.4.1 Ribbed
Ribbed (i.e. circumferentially grooved) tread tires are
probably used more than any other types and there
are a number of variations on the basic pattern such as
the number of ribs and the width of grooves. A ribbed
tread provides a good combination of long tread wear,
good traction and directional stability, particularly on
hard surfaced runways.
figure 102, Ribbed Tires
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6.4.2 Diamond
Diamond pattern (or ‘all-weather’) tires are also
widely used and give good performance on all types
of surfaces. They are particularly suitable for unpaved
(e.g. turf or packed earth) airfields.
figure 103, Diamond Cut Tire
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6.4.3 Plain
Plain tread was at one time very common, particularly
on British aircraft, but has gradually been replaced by
ribbed and diamond pattern treads. It is, however, still
used on some light aircraft and helicopter tires.
figure 104, Plain Tire
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6.4.4 Twin Contact Tire

Some nose wheels are fitted with tires having twin-
contact tread, i.e. a tread consisting of a large
circumferential rib at each side of the crown, which is
designed to assist in preventing shimmy.
figure 105, Twin Contact Tire
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6.4.5 Chined Tires

The “chine” tire is a nose wheel tire designed to deflect
water and slush to the side and away from engine
intakes. It was primarily developed for aircraft with
rear-mounted jet engines. It consists of a flared upper
sidewall protrusion, which deflects the spray pattern
of water or slush emitted from the tire contact with
the runway. A tire can consist of a single chine (one
sidewall flared) for dual nose wheel tire configurations
or double chines (both sidewalls flared) for single nose
wheel tire configurations. The chined tire is now in use
as standard equipment on many commercial jets. It
is fully retreadable and may be used on any aircraft,
provided adequate clearance is available.
figure 106, Chined Tires
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6.5 Tire Markings

Tires have certain markings imprinted on their
sidewalls for identification purposes. These markings
vary according to the manufacturer but usually include
size, part number, serial number, date of manufacture,
tubed or tubeless, speed rating, ply rating and the type
and number of retreads carried out.
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figure 107, Tire Markings
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6.5.1 Size 6.5.2 Part number

Tires are identified for size in the following way. The part number usually includes the manufacturer’s
identification, the drawing to which the tire is
Example: 26 x 1000-18. manufactured and letters to indicate the tread type
The first number (26) indicates the outside diameter and whether it is tubed or tubeless. The part number
(Dimension A) in inches or millimeters. is the only positive means of identifying a tire and size
markings alone should not be used for this purpose.
The second number (1000) indicates the width
(Dimension C). Example: DR 7153 T.
The third number (18) indicates the bead diameter 6.5.3 Serial number
(Dimension B) in inches.
The serial number is usually marked in conjunction
Some tires do not specify all three dimensions. Some with the date of manufacture, which may be in the
tires of American origin may quote only the outside form of a code indicating the day, week, or month and
diameter (e.g. 26) but the tire width will always be the year.
stated, either preceded by the outside diameter
(e.g. 26 x 1000) or followed by the bead diameter Example: 2283 Nov 72 or 23202283.
(e.g. 1000-18).
6.5.4 Ply rating
The term ‘ply rating’ is used to identify a tire with its
maximum recommended load and pressure. It is the
index of the tire strength and does not necessarily
represent the number of cord plies used in its
construction. The marking may be imprinted in full.
Example 10 PLY RATING, or abbreviated, e.g. 1OPR.
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6.5.5 Speed rating

Most high speed tires (i.e. those which may be used at
speeds over 160 mph) have the speed rating imprinted
on the tire to indicate the maximum speed for which
they are designed, e.g. 200 mph.
6.5.6 Other markings

Fitting Lines
These are circumferential lines molded above the bead
area of the sidewalls. If the tire is fitted eccentrically,
the fitting lines will vary in distance from the rim of
the wheel flange, whereas on a correctly fitted tire the
distance will remain constant.
Retreads / Remold
Retreaded tires are usually marked in accordance with
a system unique to each manufacturer. The markings
usually include the tire part number, the name of the
retreader, the number and date of the last retread
and in the case of retreads in which the sidewalls
are covered with new rubber, the tire serial number,
manufacturer, speed, size and ply rating.
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figure 108, Remoulded Tire Indentification Marks
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Creep Indicators
These are two lines spaced 1 inch to 1.5 inches apart
and molded radially on the sidewalls immediately
above the bead area.
Movement of the tire around the hub (‘creep”) will
show by the white marks on the tire and flange moving
away from each other, the usual limit on tubed tires
being reached when the tire has moved a distance
equal to the width of the creep indicator. Further
movement may cause the inflation valve to be torn off
the inner tube, causing rapid deflation of the tire. In
the case of tubeless tires, the limits are usually much
wider
The limits of creep should be strictly observed when
inspecting a wheel assembly.
figure 109, Creep Indicator Limits
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figure 110, Creep Marks
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Balance marks 6.6 Leak holes

Two red spots on the sidewall of a tire indicate its light
During inflation of a tubed tyre assembly, air may
side as ascertained during the manufacturer’s balance
become trapped between the tube and tire giving an
checks. During assembly of the wheel the following
incorrectly inflated assembly. The risk of this occurring
points must be observed:
is reduced by allowing trapped air to escape through
-- On a tubed tire the red spots on the tire should leak holes, pierced during manufacture, through the
align with a red line on the tube before placing in sidewall of the tire. The position of these holes is
position on the wheel. indicated by 1/4 inch diameter spots of grey or green
-- A tubeless tire the red spots should align with the litho ink, usually grey.
inflation valve on the wheel.
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6.7 Vent holes 6.8 Tire inflation

During the manufacture of a tubeless tire, air which The greatest enemy of an aircraft tire is heat, either
has been trapped in the tire casing is permitted to the heat generated within the tire as it rolls over the
escape to atmosphere through vent holes pierced ground, or heat from external sources such as the
in the sidewall. The vent holes do not, of course, brakes or hot runway surfaces. It is the internally
penetrate right through the casing plies, and are generated heat, which causes damage that is not likely
identified, as with leak holes, by a 1/4 inch diameter to be discovered until it results in a tire failure. As the
spot of grey or green litho ink, usually green. tire rolls over the ground, the sidewalls flex and cause
internal heat. Aircraft tires are designed to withstand
During inflation of the tire, air may be seen to escape the heat generated by normal flexing for a reasonable
from the vent holes, and in fact three stages of venting amount of time. Because the air in the tire supports
exist: the weight of the aircraft, the inflation pressure is
-- Immediately on inflation, when a stream of air critical. The pressure should be checked daily and
may be observed from the vents. This should before each flight.
cease within 20 minutes of full inflation.
-- A barely visible seepage usually lasting several
hours.
-- Continuous seepage due to permeation of air
through the lining of the tire.
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figure 111, Over And Under Inflation Damage
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figure 112, Normal Tire Inflation Wear
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6.8.1 Initial Tire Inflation 6.8.2 Inflation Pressure Checking

Prior to inflation, ensure the wheel is correctly It is essential that aircraft tires be maintained at the
assembled in accordance with the Wheel Manufactures correct inflation pressure. Any deviation from specified
Maintenance Manual. operational inflation pressures will affect both the
performance and safe operation of the tire.
The initial inflation of a newly fitted wheel assembly
should always be carried out within an approved Under-inflation will increase tire deflection resulting
safety cage. Use a screw on type inflation connector in excessive heat generation and overstressing of the
for pressures over 100 PSI (7.0 bar). Manufacturers carcass leading to either ply or tread separation.
recommend the use of Nitrogen or other inert gas
(with maximum 5% oxygen content) when inflating Over-inflation will accelerate wear in the tread crown
aircraft tires. Normal compressed air contains area and render the tire more susceptible to foreign
moisture, which can freeze inside the tire and cause object damage (FOD). Therefore it is essential that
damage. Also by using an inert gas such as nitrogen, tire inflation pressures are checked and adjusted on a
if the aircraft were to suffer a brake fire and the tire regular basis, at least every 24 hours or preferably at
bursts, the gas would not feed the fire. each pre-flight inspection.
Tires on multi-bogie gears cannot be visually inspected
for equal deflection, because if one tire is underinflated
then the companion will take the load of both tires
and will therefore appear at equal deflection. In any
case visual inspection is totally unsatisfactory and
dangerous. A pressure check is the only way to verify
correct inflation.
All inflation pressures in rating tables are usually for
unloaded tires ambient temperature (cold). A 3-hour
cooling time should be allowed after landing before
checking inflation pressure.
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Some manufactures allow a “hot tire inflation”, where 6.8.3 Unloaded Condition
the tires may be adjusted while they are still hot (quick Most tires are put into service at loads less than
turn-around). Below is a procedure from Airbus: rated load. In order to maintain the design operating
Reinflating a hot tire. conditions of the tire, the operating inflation pressure
WARNING: DO NOT REDUCE PRESSURE OF A HOT is adjusted accordingly. This adjustment is in direct
TIRE. proportion to the rated load of pressure.
If it is necessary to reinflate a hot tire, proceed as For Example:

follows:
1. Record the pressure of all the tires.
2. N ote the maximum pressure value of any tire.
3. Any tire with a pressure 10 per cent below this
maximum noted pressure value has to be
reinflated at this maximum value.
4. Record it in the logbook.
5. The record of the inflation pressure for
comparison purpose has to be made at least on
tires installed on a same landing gear.
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6.8.4 Loaded Condition

Many inflation checks are made while the tire is
mounted on the aircraft. Under loaded conditions,
the measured pressure of the tire will be a value 4%
greater than the unloaded pressure.
Taking the example form above:
Always refer to the aircraft maintenance manual for

the correct inflation pressure.
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6.8.5 Pressure/Temperature Relationship

The relationship between tire temperature and tire
pressure is proportional. As the temperature of the tire
increases, so will the pressure. The inverse is also true.
When the tire temperature is reduced, the pressure will
also reduce.
Assuming a constant volume, the relationship for
degrees centigrade can be defined as follows:
The above calculations make the assumption that the
volume of the tire remains constant over the range of
temperature change. In reality, because a tire is an
elastic body, the volume change can be sufficient to
influence the pressure change.
Manufacturers have found that as a general rule, a

temperature change of 3°C will result in a tire pressure
change of approximately 1%.
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7. TIRE INSPECTION AND DAMAGE CRITERIA

Regular inspection for wear and damage of tires 7.1 Wear Assessment
mounted on aircraft is essential and should be
The manner in which tread wear is established is
undertaken as part of the routine tire maintenance
dependent upon which of the numerous methods of
program.
indicating wear has been incorporated into the tire by
Most inspection of aircraft tires occurs with the tires the manufacturer.
and wheels attached to the aircraft. In addition to
The following guidelines are in current use:
scheduled inspections of the tires, the technician
should take a look at the tires anytime work is being Limit of wear - a depth of not less than 2 mm:
done in the vicinity of the gear.
-- On any groove for more than one quarter of tread
circumference,
or
-- Any place on the circumference across the width
of the tire in contact with the runway.
There are several methods of visual indicator in current
use the following methods being the most common
-- Tie bars
-- Wear indicator grooves
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figure 113, Wear Grooves
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Figure 114 shows a fully worn tread and is a good

example of even wear. Note the absence of any sign of
camber wear, harsh abrasion or under inflation effects.
The tire is worn out and should be removed for
possible retread, where applicable.
Figure 115 shows a worn tire with reinforcement tread
visible as the tread wear approaches the base of the
center groove. The tire should be removed and send
for retreading if applicable.
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figure 114, Normal Tire Wear figure 115, Tread Wear
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7.1.1 Tie Bars

These are small bars of rubber molded in the grooves
of the tire tread.
Limits - tire worn to the level of the tie bar.
7.1.2 Wear Indicator Grooves

These are grooves in the tread pattern graduated
by the manufacturer to give an indication of tread
wear. The position of these grooves varies from one
tire to another, and reference should be made to the
appropriate document for information regarding the
exact location of the wear indicator groove on a tire of
any particular part number.
Limits - tire worn to the bottom of the indicator
groove(s).
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7.2 Removal Criteria NOTE: Tires found to be exhibiting the above removal
wear standards on an aircraft, which at the
The amount of damage, which a tire may suffer
time at an out-station, may remain in service
without becoming unserviceable, is usually small.
for further flights but must be removed at the
Damage in the vicinity of the bead is rarely tolerated,
next earliest opportunity.
while cuts in the casing plies must be assessed
carefully before deciding the degree of serviceability. It is common practice today on high speed tires to
use layers of fabric to give reinforcement to the tread
Unless otherwise specified by the appropriate
rubber. In some cases the fabric is embodied in the
Airworthiness Authority or Operator Maintenance
wearable tread rubber whilst in others it is used
Manual, for general guidelines the following criteria is
immediately below the tread although evidence of
recommended.
its presence may be seen at the base of the tread
Non-retreadable tires grooves.
Non retreatable tires should be removed at the first
Where fabric is deployed in the tread rubber its
appearance of casing ply for bias tires, for radials -
presence will become obvious as normal wear takes
remove when the steel or nylon- belt is exposed at the
place and this should not be confused with casing
fastest wearing location.
cord exposure likely to be seen in local areas on an
Retreadable tires excessively worn tire.
Tires, which are to be re-treaded, should be removed
In the following, several tire damages are described.
before they are worn beyond re-treadable limits.
Limitations are only given as an example and must not
-- Based on the fastest wearing location, remove be used as a reference. Always follow the limitations
tires when wear has reached the base of any given in the manuals.
groove at any point of the tread circumference.
-- Remove tires, which have fabric exposed,
irrespective of how much tread groove is
remaining.
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7.2.1 Cuts And Scores

Any time the tread is cut more than halfway across a
rib, or any of the carcass plies are exposed, the tire
should be removed from service.
Tires may remain in service providing the following
criteria are met:
-- Fabric is not exposed for more that 40mm2
-- Cutting is less then the contact area of the tread
footprint
-- Cutting does not extend to undercutting of any
tread rib
Shallow cuts, known as chevron cuts are caused by
operations on a grooved runway. The maximum length
of the cut is one- half of the width of the rib. Cuts
that exceed one half the width of the rib warrant tire
rejection.
Figure 116 shows possible damage to a tire that would
cause a removal.
-- A cut that exposes the outer ply of a bias tire or
the outer belt of a radial tire
-- A tread rib is cut all the way across
-- May result in a peeled rib
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figure 116, Cuts And Scores Damage
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figure 117, Peeled Rib
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figure 118, Chevron Cuts
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7.2.2 Tread Chunk

Tread chunking is indicative of tight turning at
relatively fast taxiing speeds. It can also be attributed
to operation on rough and unprepared runways. The
tire may remain in service providing that:
-- Chunking does not exceed more than 35mm2 on
any tread rib
-- The reinforcing fabric is not exposed for more
than 25mm2
-- Chunking does not extend into under cutting of
any tread rib
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figure 119, Tread Chunking
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7.2.3 Sidewall Damage

The main purpose of the sidewall
of a tire is to protect the carcass
plies from damage, either from
mechanical abrasion, from
deterioration by chemicals, or by
the sun. Small snags, cuts, or
weather cracking in the sidewall
rubber that does not expose the
cords are not normally considered
a cause for removal of the tire;
but if any of the ply material
is exposed, the tire must be
removed. Sidewall damage is
generally caused by foreign object
damage.
figure 120, Sidewall Damage
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figure 121, Sidewall Cracking
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7.2.4 Bulges
Bulges on the tread or sidewall of a tire normally
indicate a separation of components, which if left
undetected, can result in a serious tire failure.
Overheating resulting from tire under-inflation or
excessively fast taxiing over long distances will result
in this condition.
Bulges should be marked with a crayon and the tire
removed and returned to the re-treader for further
inspection.
figure 122, Bulges
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figure 123, Bulging
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7.2.5 Sidewall Buckling 7.2.7 Dry Braking Flats (Flat Spotting)

Figure 124 shows the effect on a tire after a heavy Flat spots caused by locked or non-rotating wheels on
landing or under-inflation, which has caused severe dry runway surfaces give rise to a flattened scuffed
overloading of the tire casing. This may result in area on the tread surface. Subject to the wear criteria
separation between the tread and the casing of the to decide if the tire can remain in service.
tire.
If shimmy or unbalance problems are experienced as a
The radial marks show how the sidewalls have creased result of the flat spot the tire should be removed.
under excessive load.
The tire should be removed immediately.
7.2.6 Bead Tackiness

Severe tackiness (stickiness) in the bead area of the
tire may be caused by heat soaking from the brakes,
or by under inflation of the tire which may permit some
movement of the bead on the wheel rim.
This condition is not normally observed until the tire
is removed from the wheel, but in extreme cases the
tackiness may be seen to extend above the top of the
flange and under these circumstances the tire should
be removed.
figure 124, Sidewall Buckling
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figure 126, Dry Braking Flat Spotting figure 125, Dry Braking Flat Spotting
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7.2.8 Wet Braking Flats (Aquaplaning)

Flat spots can also occur on wet runway surfaces due
to hydroplaning. The resulting flat spot will have the
appearance of melted rubber.
The tire may remain in service but consider the wear
criteria.
If shimmy or unbalance problems are experienced as a
result of the flat spot the tire should be removed.
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figure 127, Wet Braking Flats
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7.2.9 Shoulder Wear

Excessive dual shoulder wear is normally associated
with severe tire under-inflation operation. Under-
inflation operation can cause over-deflection of the tire
sidewalls inducing excessive heat build-up, especially
in the shoulder regions.
This heat build-up will result in component separation
and possible tire failure.
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figure 128, Shoulder Wear
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7.2.10 Tire Burst

Tire burst due to severe foreign object damage. Tire
bursts can also result from impact concussion and
accelerated carcass fatigue arising from either tire
under-inflation or prolonged excessively fast taxiing.
In the event of a tire burst the companion tire may
be subjected to severe stressing of the carcass due
to overload. Companion tire that have been subjected
to overloaded rolling, following a tire burst, should be
removed and scrapped.
The same action must be taken if one tire on a dual
axle is completely deflated. The companion tire would
also be subjected to excessive stresses.
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figure 129, Tire Burst
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7.2.11 Tread Separation

This is a most unusual condition. In figure 130 the
tread has split in a localized area as a result of
separation between tire tread and casing. The extent
of separation is usually apparent, and this condition
should not be confused with surface splitting of the
tread rubber. The tire must be replaced.
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figure 130, Tread Separation
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7.2.12 Tread Bulge

Failure to detect tread separation may result in a tread
bulge, as illustrated. This condition may also be caused
by severe impact or contamination by fuel or oil.
7.2.13 Damage Caused By Heavy Cross Wind

Landings
Striations or scoring across the tread in a radial
direction are indicative of landing in a particularly
strong cross wind. Tires exhibiting this condition
mainly on the tread shoulders indicate tight turning.
Such damage if severe can result in local tearing at
the tread to casing interface, which may subsequently
develop into separation later in the tire service life.
figure 131, Tread Bulge
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figure 132, Lateral Scoring
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7.2.14 Damage Caused By Excessive Brake Heat 7.2.15 Tires With Uneven Wear
The bead areas of tires can sustain damage as a result On certain aircraft uneven wear on one side of the tire
of excessive brake heat soak, particularly if excessive may occur due to the geometry, the effects of camber
braking forces have been experienced. rolling or operational maneuvres. Certain tires may be
de-mounted and turned around to counter this wear
Inspect tires above the wheel rim flange area for phenomenon, providing that excessive wear has not
evidence of damage due to brake heat soak. Evidence occurred to the affected side of the tire.
of overheating such as the following are reason for
removal of the tire: Excessive wear may be seen at the center of the
tread resulting in advanced center groove/rib wear
-- Blistering of the bead rubber. in comparison to the remaining tread profile. This is
-- Severe bluing and brittleness of the bead rubber. normally associated with over-inflation of the tire.
-- Appearance of melted rubber in the bead area.
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figure 133, Uneven Tire Wear
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8. BRAKES
One of the most important systems on an aircraft is its This is achieved by braking where the kinetic energy of
brake system; imagine the havoc that would occur if the aircraft is turned into heat energy and then passed
an aircraft lost all means of stopping whilst it was on to the atmosphere.
the ground!
Some engineers refer to parts of the brakes as the
Most modern aircraft use a hydraulic brake system that ‘heat pack’. These parts are the rotors and stators that
receives its pressure from the main hydraulic system. can be found on heavy aircraft.
Obviously in any system faults can occur and to cover
this eventuality alternate or back-up systems are Aircraft brakes are friction brakes. This means that
incorporated, which allow hydraulic pressure from a part of the kinetic energy during the landing is
different source to be diverted to the brakes. transformed to heat by friction. The amount of friction
can be influenced from the flight deck by regulating
Some aircraft use pneumatics as a back-up source for the pressure of the fluid or the air. By varying the
braking. pressure, the force that is exerted by a stationary
part (stator) against a part that turns with the wheels
Aircraft with split braking systems have brake units (rotor), increases or decreases. This power is called
with 2 sets of pistons powered by 2 separate hydraulic the actuating force. This can be directed at 90 degrees
system. Each system supplies 50% of the braking to the wheel axle (radial) or parallel to the heart line
force, but is perfectly operational with only one system of the wheel axle (axial). In the first case, we speak of
functional. This eliminates the need for an alternate drum or radial brakes. In the second case, we speak
braking system. of disc or axial brakes. Radial brakes no longer used in
The conservation of energy theory states that energy aviation or only very rarely.
cannot be created or destroyed, but can be changed The most common types of axial brakes are:
from one form to another - and this is what the brakes
do. -- Expander tube brakes
-- Single disk brakes
Once the aircraft has landed, the vertical energy is -- Multiple disk brakes
converted to pressure energy in the struts and then
dissipated; the kinetic energy (forward momentum)
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figure 134, Landing Gear On Touch Down
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8.1 Types of brakes

8.1.1 Expander tube brakes
Expander brakes were popular in the 1930’s to 1950’s.
They were lightweight, require only low pressure and
are fitted inside an iron brake drum. They are rarely
used on modern aircraft.
Hydraulic fluid from the master cylinder is directed
into the expander tube, which is located on the
circumference of a torque flange. When this tube is
expanded it pushes the brake block linings out against
the brake drum and the friction between the linings
and the drum slows the aircraft. The heat generated
in the linings is kept from damaging the expander
tube by stainless steel heat shields placed between
each of the lining blocks. As soon as the brake pedal is
released, the return springs between the brake lining
blocks collapse the expander tube and force the fluid
back into the cylinder reservoir.
Expander tube brakes were eventually replaced by disc
brake systems.
figure 135, Expander Tube Brake
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figure 136, Expander Tube Brake Exploded View
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8.1.2 Single Disc Brakes

This is most common on light aircraft and light to
medium helicopters. The brakes are actuated by
hydraulic pressure from a master cylinder and friction
is produced when the rotating disc is squeezed
between the brake linings in the brake caliper. There
are two types of single disc brakes, one has the disc
keyed into the wheel and it is free to move in and out
as the brake is applied. This type is called floating disc
fixed caliper.
The second type of brake disc is rigidly attached to
the wheel and the caliper moves in and out on anchor
bolts. This type is called fixed disc floating caliper.
Some single disc brakes have automatic adjusters and
wear indicators. The automatic adjusting pin is pulled
through the grip when brakes are applied. When the
brakes are released the piston and the linings move
back only under pressure of the return spring. The
protrusion on the adjuster pin indicates lining wear.
In general, when the pin is flush with the housing the
linings are replaced (figure 139).
A variation of the single disc brake is the dual disk
brake and are used on aircraft were a single disc
would not produce enough stopping power. Similar in
operation to the single disc system, it uses a caliper
with linings for both discs. When brake pressure is
applied the caliper pushes the linings against the discs
figure 137, Single Brake Disk
(figure 140)
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figure 138, Single Disk Exploded View
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figure 139, Adjusting Pin
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figure 140, Dual Brake Disk
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8.1.3 Multi-disc brakes Automatic adjusting pins are pulled through the
The gross weight of the aircraft and the speed at the grip when brakes are applied. When the brakes are
time of brake application determines what size brakes released the pressure plate moves back under pressure
are required. As the aircraft’s size, weight and landing of their return springs. The protrusion on the adjuster
speed increases there is a need for greater braking pins indicates lining wear. In general, when the pin is
surfaces and heat dissipation. Segmented rotor, flush with the housing the linings are replaced (figure
multiple disc brakes are standard on most modern high 145).
performance aircraft. The segmented disc brake has The brakes used on most large jet aircraft use a
three or more rotating discs keyed on to the wheel. number of brake cylinders instead of a single annular
The rotors are segmented to allow for cooling and for cylinder (figure 144). Each cylinder has a piston, which
expansion caused by the high temperatures generated presses against the pressure plate when hydraulic
during braking. Between each disc is a stator plate or pressure is applied. The cylinder may be supplied from
brake-lining disc, keyed on to the axle shaft. Riveted separate hydraulic systems so if one fails full braking
on to each side of the stator plates are the brake can be applied from the other system. Some aircraft
linings. A pressure plate is located on the inboard side may have their brake discs made from carbon fiber.
of the axle shaft and a backing plate is located on the These are lighter in weight and they can function at
outboard side. higher temperatures. They are highly effective and
therefor require less rotors than steel brakes. They are
expensive to use and generally only used on transport
aircraft where the weight saving makes them more
cost effective. The also have a longer lifespan. Because
carbon brakes can get hotter than steel brakes, so
this must be taken into account regarding the heat
shielding of the main wheels.
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figure 141, Aircraft Brake And Wheel Cutaway
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figure 142, Brake Installation
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figure 143, Multi Disk Brake Exploded View
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figure 144, Multi Disk Brakes
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figure 145, Brake Wear Pin Location
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figure 146, Multiple Disk Brake B737
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figure 147, Adjuster Pin Schematic
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8.2 Brake Installation

Multi disc brakes are fitted on the wheel axle and are
held in position by the main wheel. To prevent them
from rotating when brake pressure is applied, a brake
bar is connected to them. The brake bar attached the
stationary brake housing to the main landing gear
strut.
Older generation aircraft have the brake units bolted to
the axle, removing the need for a brake bar. However,
replacement of a brake unit is time consuming and
requires the brake to cool down sufficiently before
removal.
Modern brake units are also fitted with quick release
couplings for the hydraulic lines, making a replacement
easy and fast. It also prevents oil spillage and air
getting into the brake system.
figure 148, Brake Installation
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figure 149, Self Sealing Coupling
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8.2.1 Brake Fans

To help cool down the brakes faster, specially after a
high energy landing, some aircraft are equipped with
brake fans. The fan motors are fitted inside the wheel
axles and drive an impellor. A debris guard stops any
foreign objects from being sucked into the impellor.
On the flight deck a control switch allows the crew to
turn the fans on or off. They are only available when
the gear is down and locked.
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figure 150, Brake Fans A320
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figure 151, Brake Fan Motor figure 152, Brake Fan Impeller
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figure 153, Brake Fan Debris Guard
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8.2.2 Brake Temperature Monitoring

In each brake unit is a temperature probe that
sends and electrical signal proportional to a brake
temperature monitoring unit. This unit will generate
a warning to the flight crew when one or more brake
units have exceeded the temperature threshold.
The probes are generally Alumel-Chromel
thermocouples, which will generate a voltage
equivalent to the temperature.
On some aircraft, the actual temperature can be read,
on others a figure from 0 to 9 representing the level
of heat and some just have a “HOT” warning come up
when a brake exceeds the limit.
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figure 154, Brake Temperature Probe figure 155, Brake Temperature Panel A300
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8.3 Brake System Independent brake systems are powered by master

cylinders similar to those used in a conventional car
8.3.1 Independent Brake System brake system. The system is composed of:
As brake design has evolved, so has brake actuation. -- A reservoir
Most of the early drum-and-shoe brakes were -- One or two master cylinders
mechanically operated by a flexible steel cable pulling -- A mechanical linkage which connects each master
on a lever inside the brake. This lever actuated a cam cylinder with its corresponding brake pedal
to move the lining against the drum. The cables were -- Connecting fluid lines
pulled by a “Wiffle tree,” a long lever which, if pulled -- A brake assembly in each main landing gear
straight back, applied both brakes. If the Wiffle tree wheel
was pulled back and to one side, it applied only the
brake on that side. This system gave the pilot some Each master cylinder is actuated by toe pressure
degree of differential and independent braking. on its related pedal. The master cylinder builds up
pressure by the movement of a piston inside a sealed,
In order to increase the pressure applied to the fluid-filled cylinder. The resulting hydraulic pressure
brake linings, hydraulic cylinders soon replaced the is transmitted to the fluid line connected to the brake
mechanical cams, and individual master cylinders assembly in the wheel. This results in the friction
were used to apply pressure to the cylinders inside the necessary to stop the wheel.
wheels when the pilot pulled back on the brake lever,
or pushed on the brake pedals. When the brake pedal is released, the master cylinder
piston is returned to the ‘off’ position by a return
This type of brake system is termed ‘independent’ spring. Fluid that was moved into the brake assembly
because it has its own reservoir and is entirely is then pushed back to the master cylinder by a piston
independent of the aircraft’s main hydraulic system. in the brake assembly. The brake assembly piston is
returned to the ‘off’ position by a return spring in the
brake.
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In the master cylinder fluid is fed from an external Any pressure or excess volume of fluid is relieved
reservoir by gravity to the master cylinder. The through the compensating port and passes back to the
fluid enters through the cylinder inlet port and fluid reservoir. This prevents the master cylinder from
compensating port and fills the master cylinder casting experiencing a hydraulic lock or causing the brakes to
ahead of the piston and the fluid line leading to the drag.
brake-actuating cylinder.
Automatic fluid replacement always keeps the master
Application of the brake pedal, which is linked to cylinder; brake connecting line, and brake assembly
the master cylinder piston rod, causes the piston fully supplied with fluid as long as there is fluid in the
rod to push the piston forward inside the master reservoir.
cylinder casting. A slight forward movement blocks
the compensating port, and the build up of pressure
begins. This pressure is transmitted to the brake
assembly.
figure 156, Master Cylinder 16 - 08 - 2016

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figure 157, Master Cylinder Installations
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figure 158, Independant Brake System
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8.3.2 High Pressure Systems

Larger aircraft require higher hydraulic pressure and
more fluid for their brakes. In order to prevent brake
dragging due to the thermal expansion of the fluid,
there is a need to vent this fluid to the atmosphere
when the brakes are not applied. There are many
types of vented master cylinders, but all of them have
the same basic components. One of the more popular
vented master cylinders attaches directly to the rudder
pedal. The body of the master cylinder serves as the
reservoir for the brake fluid, and it is vented to the
atmosphere through a vent hole in the filler plug.
The piston is attached to the rudder pedal so that
when the pilot pushes on the top of the pedal, the
piston is forced down into the cylinder. When the pedal
is not depressed, the return spring forces the piston up
so the compensator sleeve will hold the compensator
port open. Fluid from the wheel unit is vented to the
atmosphere through the compensator port. When the
pedal is depressed, the piston is pushed away from the
compensator sleeve, and a special o-ring and washer
seals fluid in the line to the brake.
The amount of pressure applied to the brake is
proportional to the amount of force the pilot applies
on the pedals. When the pedal is released, the
compensator port opens and vents the brake line fluid
into the reservoir.
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figure 159, Master Cylinder With Integrated Reservoir
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8.3.3 Power Assisted Brakes

Medium size aircraft require more braking force than
can be applied with an independent master cylinder,
yet do not require the complexity of a fully powered
brake system.
The power assisted brake cylinder is mounted on the
rudder pedal and attached to the toe-brake pedal in
such a way that depressing the pedal pulls on the rod
and forces fluid out to the brake cylinder.
If the pilot needs more pressure on the brakes than
can be applied with the pedal, the pilot continues to
push. As the toggle mechanism straightens out, the
spool valve is moved over so it will direct hydraulic
system pressure behind the piston to assist the pilot in
forcing fluid to the brake.
When the pedal is released, the spool valve moves
back to its original position and vents the fluid on top
of the piston back to the system reservoir. At the same
time, the compensator poppet unseats and vents the
fluid from the brakes to the reservoir.
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figure 160, Power Assisted Master Cylinder
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8.4 Powered Brakes

Large aircraft use the aircraft’s main hydraulic systems
to provide the pressure to operate the brakes. The
pressure applied to the brakes must be proportional to
the force exerted on the brake pedals; the pilot must
be able to hold the brakes partially applied without
a build up in pressure. The hydraulic pressure to
the brakes is much higher but remains proportional
to the input. This is achieved with a brake control
valve also known as a metering valve. The rudder
pedals are connected to the brake control valve by
various methods including hydraulically by use of a
master cylinder (also known as foot motors), rods or
cables. The main hydraulic system is usually backed
up by another hydraulic source or in some cases, a
pneumatic source. If the main system should fail,
the back up system is more than capable of slowing
the aircraft down. Switching between normal and
backup can be manual, but new generation aircraft will
automatically switch sources in case of a problem.
Aircraft with split braking system do not require an
alternate braking system, as 50% of brake pressure is
always available.
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figure 161, Basic Powered Brake System
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In the following example the braking system of the When the pilot releases the pedals, the brake metering
Boeing 737 is described (figure 162). valves return to the off position, blocking the hydraulic
supply and vent the hydraulic pressure in the brakes to
return, releasing the brakes.
The 737 brake system has 2 possible hydraulic If the pilot pushes harder on the pedals, the BMVs
sources: open more, allowing more pressure to the brakes,
-- System B for normal braking increasing the braking force.
-- System A for alternate braking The alternate brake system sometimes referred to as
In case of total hydraulic failure, the accumulator can the emergency brakes, works in the same way, but
also supply a limited amount of brake pressure. Around uses a different source. It is normally only used if the
6 full brake applications are available. main system fails.
The alternate brake selector will switch source if the
main source is not available.
When the pilot presses down on the brake pedals,
a mechanical linkage will operate the normal brake-
metering valve (BMV) proportionally.
The BMV opens and allows a metered amount of
hydraulic system pressure through. This pushes the
shuttle valve over to the right. Hydraulic pressure goes
through via the anti-skid valve, pushes the alternate
brake shuttle valve over to the right and continues to
the brake units. Braking in now active.
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figure 162, B737 Brake

System
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Brake control valve (brake metering valve) With the pressure equal to the input force the slider
Figure 163, figure 164 and figure 165 show a simplified moves to the central position with both pressure
version of how the proportional application is achieved. and return lines blocked off. This position keeps the
The center slide moves to the left as the pilot applies pressure in the brake lines to the brake units constant.
the brakes, opening the pressure line and closing the Should the brake line pressure drop, the pressure
return line. This allows pressure to the brakes and they in the monitoring chamber will drop, disturbing the
are applied. At the same time pressure is directed to balance on the slider. The slider will move to the left
the metering chamber were pressure builds up until it slightly, opening the pressure port, increasing the
equals the pedal input pressure. When the pressures pressure to the brake once more. The slider will close
are equal the slide moves to the right, until it is in the again when the forces equalize as before.
central position, with both the pressure and return
lines blocked. This holds the brake pressure constant So as long as the pilot maintains the same input, the
until the pressure is either increased or decreased by a pressure to the brakes will also be maintained (figure
change in the pilots‟ input. If the pedals are released 165).
the slider will move to the right opening a line from the
brakes to return, dissipating the pressure.
Figure 163 shows the brakes released condition, the
return line is open and the pressure in the brake lines
is vented to return.
In figure 164 brake pressure is applied. The slider
moves left and blocks the return port, while opening
the pressure port. Pressure goes into the monitoring
chamber and starts to push the slider to the right to
match the input force on the slider.
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figure 163, BMV Brakes Released
figure 164, BMV Brake Pressure Applied
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figure 165, BMV Balanced Pressure
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figure 166, Brake Metering Valve B737 16 - 08 - 2016

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Pedal Position Transmitter

Another way of operating the brakes is by way of
electrical signals. A pedal position transmitter converts
the pedal position into an equivalent electrical signal
and sends it to the normal anti skid valves (ref figure
166 A300 brake system). The anti skid valves open
proportionally to the input signal and control the
pressure to the brakes.
Some aircraft also has a classic mechanical brake
system (alternate) as backup. Both systems work
together but are totally independent. The brake units
have 2 hydraulic circuits, each powering half of the
pistons. So by depressing the pedals, the electrical
system (normal) commands one half of the brake unit,
while the mechanical system commands the other.
figure 167, Dual Source Brake System With Electrical Input
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figure 168, Full Electrically Controlled Braking System A320
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figure 169, Full Electrically Controlled Braking System A320
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Brake Fuses
Brake line fuses are designed to close in the event of a
brake line rupture, thus preserving upstream fluid and
pressure.
Infigure 170A the brake system is functioning normally
and brake fluid pressure is felt equally throughout the
system. The valve stem is held off its seat by a spring.
In figure 170B the system downstream of the fuse has
failed causing a drop in downstream pressure. The
spring is overcome by the relatively large upstream
pressure and forces the valve stem downwards onto its
seat, thus sealing the system.
If downstream pressure is re established figure 170C
the valve is forced off its seat by a combination of
downstream pressure and spring loading.
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figure 170, Brake Fuse
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9. ANTI SKID
The anti skid system is designed to provide maximum The corrective signal is removed when the wheel speed
effective braking for any runway condition without increases again and the process repeated as required,
skidding and is often used in conjunction with an until the deceleration rate remains within limits once
autobrake system. It operates by automatically more. The anti skid system can be either electronically
overriding or modifying the metered input brake or mechanically controlled. Most modern systems are
pressure from the flight deck, or braking commands electronic, since mechanically controlled systems are
from the autobrake system. only fitted to older aircraft types.
Hydraulic pressure is automatically controlled at
each brake unit, maintaining the optimum wheel-
braking requirement, regardless of prevailing runway
conditions such as ice or heavy rain. Aircraft stopping
distances are minimized and directional control is 9.1 Electronic Anti Skid System
maintained. Maximum braking efficiency occurs
when all main wheels are at the maximum rate of The system consists of the following components:
deceleration just before an impending wheel skid. The -- A wheel speed transducer, located in each main
system continuously modulates the hydraulic pressure landing gear axle and driven by the wheel
at each individual brake unit in response to actual rotation.
wheel speed, thus preventing blown tires, flat spots or -- An electronic antiskid control unit, normally
the risk of aquaplaning caused by a locked wheel. located in the electronic/electrical equipment bay,
On a normal landing sequence, there is no need with BITE capability to provide continuous self
for a corrective signal as long as the rate of wheel test and fault warning.
deceleration is within limits. However, if the rate is -- An antiskid control valve for each main wheel
above these limits, this is sensed as an approaching -- A control switch and failure warning indicator, on
skid. A corrective signal is applied to momentarily the flight deck panel.
reduce the applied brake pressure at the relevant
wheel.
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figure 171, Anti Skid Operation Principle
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9.1.1 Wheel Speed Transducer

Transducers are fitted in the axle and driven by the
hub cap. Transducers are speed sensing devises
whose rotation creates an AC signal; the voltage
produced being proportional to the wheel speed. The
signal is sent via electrical cables to the anti—skid
control unit.
figure 172, Wheel Speed Transducer Installation
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figure 173, Wheel Speed Transducer Installation
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9.1.2 Anti Skid Control Valve As a result pressure reduces in the first stage chamber
This valve is a two-stage electro-hydraulic servo valve, and the reduction is felt on the bias spring side of the
which meters pressure applied to the brake unit in second stage spool valve. Pressure on the opposite
accordance with signals from the anti skid control unit. end of the spool forces the valve to move, closing
off the pressure line and connecting the brake line to
The first stage is a torque motor-operated flapper return. The amount of second stage valve movement is
valve set between two hydraulic ports (return and directly proportional to torque motor current in the first
pressure). The second stage is a spool valve, spring stage, which in turn depends on the amount of brake
biased to „brakes on‟ position and hydraulically pressure reduction required to achieve wheel spin up.
controlled, by directing oil pressure into a drilled
passage way at either end of the spool. As the main wheel spins up again to its correct speed,
the current at torque motor windings reduces. This
When there is no control signal to the torque motor, allows the flapper to move back to the return nozzle
the flapper valve is biased towards the return nozzle and moves the spool valve back, closing off the return
and maximum braking is possible. However, a signal line and causing brake pressure to be re-applied to the
(increase in current), will be sent to the torque motor wheel brake.
windings from the Control Unit, if it in turn receives a
signal from a wheel speed transducer that a wheel is If necessary, the complete cycle can be repeated, often
slowing down too quickly and may skid. with a rapid „Brakes off/Brakes on‟ modulation rate of
up to 50 cycles/second.
This causes the flapper valve to move towards the
pressure nozzle, restricting fluid into the chamber and
allowing more to escape to return.
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figure 174, Anti Skid Control Valve
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figure 175, Anti Skid Valve Operation
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9.1.3 Anti Skid Control Unit Touch down protection

This contains all the electrical circuits necessary When the aircraft is airborne, an „in-flight‟ signal is
for full anti skid control and circuits for built in test sent to the control unit via the air/ground switch relay.
and monitoring of control valves and transducers. The signal is sent to the „Touchdown protection mode‟
Circuits for a typical aircraft having four main wheels circuit, causing a full brake release signal to be sent
(Boeing 737) are normally arranged into two separate to the skid control valves. This prevents any pressure
channels, for inboard and outboard pairs of wheels. from going to the brakes and ensures that all brake
units are always connected to return, even if the brake
Skid control for each individual wheel requires a self- pedals are fully depressed. The brake release signal
generated signal from its wheelspeed transducer. will be removed on touchdown when the „in- flight‟
signal is replaced by a „on-ground‟ signal.
The control unit also needs a reference signal to be
able to compare the wheel speeds to. Older aircraft use Skid control
a wheel speed transducer in the nose wheels, modern The „Skid control mode‟ will not commence until
aircraft get a ground speed signal from the inertial the wheels have spun up to predetermined speed.
reference system. (Examples are; 30kts and 70kts for Fokker 50 and
Boeing 737 respectively).
The system has three modes of operation:
Brake pressure is now controlled by modulation of the
-- Touch-down protection
antiskid control valves.
-- Skid-control
-- Locked-wheel protection
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Locked wheel protection

In addition to the „Skid Control mode‟ which ensures
maximum braking efficiency for the level metered from
the flight deck, the „Locked-wheel protection mode‟
circuitry looks at the inboard and outboard pairs of
wheels and compares their speed. Should one of the
pair slow down to a pre-determined level, a full release
signal will be momentarily sent to the slower wheel
in order to restore equilibrium. (Examples are; 30%
and 40% difference for Fokker 50 and Boeing 737
respectively). Below about 15kts this mode is switched
off, but „Skid control mode‟ remains.
Aircraft fitted with bogie beam landing gears
Aircraft fitted with more than 2 wheels per main gear
have the same protection modes as dual wheeled
aircraft, but the monitoring is more complex.
The Boeing 777 uses its anti-skid system to alternately
switch off a pair of brake units with every brake
application during taxiing. This reduces the brake wear.
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figure 176, Anti Skid Control Unit Internal Diagram B737
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figure 177, Anti Skid Control B757
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9.1.4 Anti Skid Control Switch And Warning

System
This is normally located on the front panel of the
flight deck and is often combined with the auto brake
selector, if applicable to the particular aircraft type
because not all aircraft have the option to control the
operation of its anti skid system.
It usually consists of a simple on/off switch to power
up the anti skid circuitry. A warning light indicates a
system malfunction.
figure 178, Anti Skid Control Panel
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9.2 Mechanical Anti Skid System

This type of antiskid system uses components that
are situated around the wheel area, they are a self
contained systems which can when required, interrupt
the supply of metered brake pressure going to the
brake unit.
There are two types of mechanical systems in common
use:
-- Externally mounted
-- Axle mounted
These mechanical units are referred to as MAXARETS
(Maximum Retardation Units). The principle of
operation is the same for both types.
9.2.1 Externally Mounted

Externally mounted maxarets are mounted either on
the brake torque plate, the leg or the bogie beam.
The maxaret is driven by a rubber tired wheel which
contacts the aircraft wheel.
figure 179, Mechanical Anti Skid
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9.2.2 Axle Mounted

Axle mounted maxarets are mounted inside the wheel
axles. They are driven by the aircraft wheels via the
hub cap and a flexible drive to prevent damage in case
of seizure of any of the components.
The hydraulic connections are made via a self sealing
hydraulic coupling on installation.
The advantages of axle mounted maxarets over
external types are:
-- They are less susceptible to damage as the entire
unit is enclosed by the axle
-- They are easier to replace as no pipeline
connections are involved
-- There are no drive problems, such as oil on the
aircraft wheel to cause slip.
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figure 180, Axle Mounted Mechanical Anti Skid
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9.2.3 Operation Figure 181B shows the assemblies in a skid condition,

The maxaret unit is connected to the hydraulic line the following events have taken place:
between the pilot metered pressure from the brake -- The wheel has slowed down (impending skid) and
metering valve and the associated brake unit. The the outer tired drum has decelerated too as it is
unit is sensitive to the angular deceleration, which being driven by the aircraft wheel,
occurs when entering a skid. Sufficient energy is then -- The flywheel, due to inertia, continues to rotate
released by the flywheel to operate the valve system against the main spring, and travels about 60
and release the brake. When the wheel regains speed degrees relative to the drum,
the flywheel setting is restored and the brake reapplies -- The thrust balls are driven up the cam profile and
until there is a further tendency to skid. operate the push rod,
Figure 181A shows the non skid condition with brakes -- The inlet valve is closed and the exhaust valve is
applied. The aircraft wheel and the maxaret are opened thus releasing the brake
spinning at the same speed and pressure is allowed to -- The flywheel is gradually slowed down by the
pass to the brake unit. drag of the main spring and with the brake off the
landing wheel regains speed
-- The drive drum begins to drive the flywheel again
and the thrust balls return to base of the cam and
normal braking is returned.
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figure 181, Mechanical Anti Skid System
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10. AUTO BRAKES

An automatic braking system can be of tremendous 10.1 Auto Brake System
value to pilots under normal and adverse landing
The auto brake system utilizes the normal antiskid
conditions, for at anytime prior to landing the pilot
and brake units, but instead of using pressure from
can select an aircraft deceleration rate to be achieved
the brake metering valves, hydraulic pressure is sent
by the brakes. Once a setting has been made the
via solenoid valves which will allow a predetermined
auto-brake system on landing will smoothly apply the
amount of pressure through the antiskid valves to the
brakes to achieve the selected deceleration rate down
brake units.
to a complete stop, without any further action from the
crew. Auto-brake is only available on aircraft equipped with
electrical anti-skid systems.
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10.2 Selector Panel

The selector panel consists of a solenoid latched switch
which will hold a selected position only if all the arming
conditions for that setting are met. If the system
cannot be armed the switch will automatically return
to the DISARM position and a warning will illuminate
on the local panel and centralized warning panel. The
panel will have a number of settings that the pilot can
select depending on the rate of deceleration that is
required.
The preset deceleration rates, which the autobrake
control box will signal to the solenoid valve to port
pressure to the brakes are:
-- Disarm The system is unable to be armed.
-- Off System is switched off
-- RTO (Rejected Take Off or Refused Take Off)
The RTO setting is armed on the ground prior to take
off. If after a certain speed has been achieved during
the take off run the throttles are retarded to idle the
brakes will automatically receive full pressure and
bring the aircraft to a rapid stop.
If the aircraft makes a normal take off, as soon as the
air/ground sensor detects an air mode the RTO mode
will be cancelled and the switch will move to OFF.
figure 182, Landing Ger Control Panel With Autobrake Selector B777
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10.3 Auto Brake Control Unit

Selection on the auto brake selector panel will send
an electrical signal to the auto-brake control unit.
The signal is processed by the control unit, which
commands the solenoid valve to direct pressure to the
brake units. The brake pressure must be gradually built
up and released to prevent brake snatch and jerking.
To prevent this, a time delay and an electrical ramp
are used (figure 183). The time delay ensures that
the aircraft is firmly on the ground before the system
activates. The terminology used to indicate the auto-
brake operation is:
-- On Ramp – A gradual build up of brake pressure
to the amount required for the selected rate of
deceleration.
-- Off Ramp – A gradual decrease in pressure
down to zero at the end of the landing run or
cancellation of auto-brake.
-- Drop Out – Instantaneous pressure release to
zero (go around mode).
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figure 183, Autobrake Ramp Control
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10.4 Auto Brake Solenoid Valve 10.5 System Operation

These valves are electrically controlled, hydraulic To arm the auto brakes certain conditions must be
valves that allow pressure to the brake units at a met. The normal requirements are:
specific setting. The greater the deceleration rate
the higher the setting. These valves are fitted just -- The aircraft is in the air mode
upstream of the anti-skid valves. The solenoid will -- There is no fault in the antiskid system
open when all the arming conditions are met and the -- The antiskid system is switched on
aircraft is weight on wheels. It is also the solenoid -- The throttles are retarded
valves that immediately shut on Drop Out. A solenoid Once the aircraft touches down the antiskid
servo valve modulates the brake pressure to regulate transducers send signal to the auto-brake control
the deceleration rate. A pressure switch is connected box. When the wheels have achieved a certain speed
to the DISARM warning light to monitor zero pressure (approx. 60 knots) the brakes will be applied up
when auto-brakes are armed. the ramp, waiting for the speed of the wheels to
build up constitutes a time delay. Once the required
deceleration rate is reached the auto-brake is
modulated to hold that rate.
Deceleration rate is monitored by wheel transducer
voltages or on some aircraft information from the
inertial reference system, which relays the aircraft’s
forward speed. If the aircraft slows down more than
required, the servo valve will close slightly to reduce
the brake pressure and thus allowing the aircraft to
speed up. In other cases the antiskid valves are used
to modulate auto-brake pressure in the same way as if
the pilot was operating the brakes.
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Once the aircraft comes to a complete stop (OFF

RAMP) the auto brakes will switch off to enable the
aircraft to taxi.
The pilot can cancel auto braking at anytime. He can
override the system by:
-- Pressing the brake pedals lightly, (auto-brake will
go to OFF RAMP)
-- Moving the speed brake lever slightly forward
(auto-brake will go to OFF RAMP)
Auto-brake needs to be cancelled rapidly if after
landing an immediate take-off is required. This is
known as ‘go around’. The following actions will cause
immediate ‘DROP OUT’ of the auto-brake:
-- The throttles are pushed forward
-- The speed brake lever is fully stowed
-- Auto brakes will also DROP OUT if the brake
pedals are depressed hard enough so that pedal
brake pressure exceeds auto brake pressure
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figure 184, Full Braking System B757
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11. PARKING BRAKE

All aircraft have parking brakes. This is achieved by To release the brakes, the brake pedals need to be
applying constant hydraulic pressure to the brake units pushed further down. This releases the lock and opens
by means of a parking brake valve. the parking brake valve.
The way to set the parking brakes depends on the type In an electrical parking brake system, there is no need
of aircraft. It is done by either by pressing the pedals to push the pedals down. Simply pulling the parking
completely down and then locking them with the help brake handle operates 2 valves; one to allow system
of the Parking Brake Lever or electrically by opening pressure to the brakes and one to block the return.
a valve supplying hydraulic pressure directly to the This is used on Airbus aircraft, while the mechanical
brakes. system is typically found on Boeings.
Figure 185 shows the parking brake system of a NOTE: If there is a failure in the parking brake
Boeing 737. The parking brake is set by switching system and the parking brake valve does not
on the hydraulic system “B” then pushing both brake open completely, the anti skid system will be
pedals down and pulling the parking brake lever. This inoperable and fault message will appear on
locks the brake pedals in the “apply” position and the flight deck.
the microswitch connected to the parking brake lever
closes the parking brake valve. In the mean time the
accumulator is charged by system B.
When the hydraulic power system is switched off, the
hydraulic accumulator supplies pressure to the brake
cylinders and is held there by the closed parking brake
valve. However, the brake pressure will nevertheless
bleed off after a while due to internal leakages.
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figure 185, Parking Brake System B737
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figure 186, Parking Brake Lever Location B737
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12. IN-FLIGHT BRAKES
12.1 Main Gear In-Flight Braking

To stop the wheels from spinning after gear retraction
and to prevent damage to the components in the
wheel well in case of a damaged tire, the in-flight
braking system is activated. There are several different
methods used in aircraft today, but the only difference
is the way the system is commanded.
On the Airbus aircraft, in-flight braking is electrically
commanded by the gear retraction system. The normal
anti-skid valve is opened and brake pressure is applied
to the half the pistons on the brake units, stopping the
wheels from spinning.
On Boeing aircraft, when then gear is selected up,
gear-up pressure is sent to the alternate brake
metering valves. This pushes the valves open, allowing
hydraulic pressure to through to the brake units and
thus applying the brakes.
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figure 187, Main Gear In Flight Brakes 16 - 08 - 2016

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12.1.1 Nose Gear In-Flight Braking

Wheels of nose landing gears, which are not supplied
with wheel brakes, are decelerated by brake pads in
the wheel well. After retraction, the tires touch these
pads or belts and the wheels are decelerated.
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figure 188, Nose Wheel In Flight Brakes
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13. STEERING
13.1 Nose Gear Steering

To be able to maneuver the aircraft on the ground,
nose wheel steering in used. Most nose wheel steering
systems use servo jack operated scissor links attached
to a collar on the landing gear leg, the collar being
driven by the servo jacks that rotates the nose wheel
leg via the scissor links. Steering inputs to the servo
jacks come from a tiller on the pilot’s side of the
cockpit. Inputs can also come from the rudder pedals.
Some aircraft are equipped with dual steering. Apart
from mechanical steering systems there are three
basic methods of operation:
-- Single Servo Jack
-- Dual Servo Jack
-- Rack and pinion
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figure 189, Steering Tiller
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13.1.1 Single Servo Jack Steering

This system is used on smaller light aircraft. Both
ends of the jack ram are attached to the landing gear
leg. Fluid is directed to move the jack body along its
ram. A cam and link assembly is attached to the jack
body. Movement of the jack body operates the link,
which rotates the cam and turns the wheel. Action
of the shock absorber is unaffected as the shock
absorber is splined on to the steering shaft to allow the
compression and extension of the absorber.
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figure 190, Single Servo Steering
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13.1.2 Dual Servo Jack Steering

Larger aircraft employ a two-jack system where the
two jack rams are fixed to a steering collar, which is
free to rotate around the undercarriage casting. The
rear side of the collar is attached to the upper torque
link, which through the lower link rotates the axles.
Typical of the two-jack system is that during a shallow
turn, one actuator retracts, while the other extends.
If the turn is continued and the angle increased, once
past a certain point, both jacks will extend to move the
steering collar further.
This switch-over from “retracting/extending” to
“extending/extending” is done via swivel valves, which
reverse the flow to the actuator once a certain point in
the turn is reached.
Control of the hydraulic supply to the servo jacks is
done via a metering valve assembly, commanded for
the cockpit. A steering tiller operates a cable system
that in turn offsets the metering valve. Hydraulic
pressure is then ported to the swivel valves and on to
the servo jacks.
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figure 191, Dual Servo Jack Steering
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figure 192, Dual Servo Steering
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13.1.3 Rack And Pinion Steering

Some aircraft use a rack and pinion steering system
like the Airbus A300. Hydraulically operated racks
rotate a pinion, which rotates the wheel and axle.
Control of the servos is pretty much the same as for
the dual servo jack system. A servo valve directs
fluid to one side or the other of the rack piston. The
rack then moves and rotates the pinion and turns the
aircraft nose wheel in the required direction.
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figure 193, Rack And Pinion Steering System
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figure 194, Rack And Pinion Steering Operation
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13.1.4 Operation When the aircraft is on the ground, the Nose Wheel
Steering System is automatically connected to the
When the hydraulic system powering the steering
Rudder Control System, by means of a ground/
system is pressurized, the steering servo jacks are
flight switching mechanism( or rudder interconnect
hydraulically locked and prevent any movement of the
mechanism). Now the pilot can make small nose wheel
steering system. This is because the control valve is in
deflections with the pedals at high ground speeds
neutral position.
(take-off and landing) to keep the aircraft on the axis
If the steering tiller is turned, the control valve of the runway. However, the steering tiller always
(metering valve) is opened by means of a cable system overrides the rudder pedals.
and a summing lever. The control valve moves away
The rudder interconnect system also allows the
for the neutral position and connects the hydraulic
autopilot to control the aircraft on the landing roll. This
power system to the steering cylinders. The piston
is referred to as roll-out guidance and is designed to
in the steering cylinder is moved under influence of
keep the aircraft on the runway centerline during an
the hydraulic pressure. As a result, it turns a steering
autopilot landing.
collar, which is installed round the outer strut. The
upper torque link, attached to this steering collar will The control valve is in most cases fitted with some
also rotate. Because the lower torque link is attached sort of bypass system. This can be in the form of a
to the inner cylinder of the landing gear, the inner strut lever or a switch. When the control valve is in bypass,
will rotate in relation to the outer strut. the steering system is unpressurized and allows the
aircraft to be towed without the risk of damage to the
Rotation of the steering collar adjusts the summing
system.
lever via a feed back cable in such a way that the
steering slide is put back into the neutral (closed)
position. The nose wheels then maintain the position
they are in. A neutral position makes it possible to
make another steering selection.
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figure 195, Nose Wheel Steering Control System
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figure 196, Hydraulic Schematic Nose Wheel Steering
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figure 197, Summing Linkage
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figure 198, Steering Mechanism B767
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figure 199, Steering System B767
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figure 200, Steering Bypass
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13.1.5 Electrical Steering System As the nose wheels move, the feedback resistor
Operation of the electrical steering system is very changes its resistance. At certain point, the bridge will
similar to the mechanical system, except that input become balanced again, removing the voltage to the
and feedback signals to the control valve is electrical. amplifier and the command signal to the control valve.
The control valve then closes the hydraulic ports and
The system uses a Wheatstone bridge to command stops the movement of the steering servo jacks.
the control valve. The pilot’s steering tiller controls a
resistor in the left arm and a resistor in the right arm The electrical steering system also has a bypass
monitors the nose wheel position. Each leg has a fixed function. In this case, the control valve is commanded
resistor. to the bypass position, blocking the hydraulic supply to
the servo jacks. It also blocks any commands from the
If the voltages across the left and right arm of the amplifier to the control valve.
bridge are the same, then there will be no voltage
difference at the amplifier and therefor no input to the
control valve.
When the pilot moves the steering tiller, the resistance
of the left arm changes, upsetting the balance of
the bridge. This causes a voltage over the amplifier,
which will send a command signal to the control valve.
The valve opens the appropriate hydraulic ports to
the servo jacks and moves the nose wheels in the
commanded position.
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figure 201, Electrical Steering Control
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13.1.6 Computerized Steering System The computer also will reduce the steering angle as the
taxi speed increases. The faster the aircraft is moving,
The hydraulic side of this system is the same as
the smaller the steering angle will be.
the others; just the way it is commanded is again
different. Here a computer receives the steering inputs The system has a bypass feature to disable the
from the steering tiller and converts it to a digital steering system for towing. This is a purely electronic
signal. If all the conditions are correct, it will convert system where by placing the lever in bypass, signals
the signal back to analogue and send it to the control the computer to disable the steering and place the
valve (steering servo valve) to move the nose wheels. control valve in bypass mode.
A position sensor on the nose wheels send a feedback
signal to the computer. As long is the two signals
don’t match, the computer will command the control
valve to move the wheels. Once the signals match, the
computer removes the signal to the control valve and
the movement stops.
The rudder pedals can also command the steering
system, but at a limited angle. The computer can
distinguish between the steering tiller and the rudder
pedals and will limit the steering angle if the rudder
pedals are used.
figure 202, Steering Bypass
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figure 203, Computerized Steering System A330
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13.2 Shimmy Damper

“Shimmy” is an undesirable shaking of the nose
wheels. This can be caused by an unbalance in the
nose wheels. To prevent this, a shimmy damper is
fitted to the nose gear. Different types of shimmy
damper are in use.
13.2.1 Piston Type Shimmy Damper

Shimmy dampers are normally small hydraulic
cylinders with a controlled bleed of fluid between the
two sides of the piston. The restricted flow prevents
rapid movement of the piston, but has no effect on
normal steering. Mostly used on small aircraft.
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figure 204, Piston Shimmy Damper
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13.2.2 Steering Damper 13.2.3 Torque link shimmy damper

In many cases, the steering actuators serve as the The torque links hold the nose wheel in alignment
steering dampers, since they are constantly charged and must be kept in such a condition that there is a
with hydraulic fluid under pressure. As the nose wheel minimum of side or end play in the connecting rods
attempts to vibrate or shimmy, these cylinders prevent and bolts. The shimmy damper is a hydraulic snubbing
movement of the nose gear. This type of system is unit, which reduces the tendency of the wheel to
used on large aircraft. oscillate from side to side. Shimmy dampers are
usually constructed in one of two general designs,
piston type and vane type. Both might be modified
to provide power steering as well as shimmy damper
action. A piston type shimmy damper is simply a
hydraulic cylinder containing a piston rod and piston
filled with hydraulic fluid. Figure 204 illustrates the
typical piston type damper. There is an orifice in
the piston, which restricts the speed of the piston
moving in the cylinder. The piston rod is connected
to a stationary structure. Any movement of the nose
gear will cause the piston to move inside the cylinder.
If the movement is slow there will be little resistance
from the shimmy damper as the fluid can flow through
the orifice to transfer from one chamber to the other.
However, if the movement is rapid, there is a strong
resistance because of the time required for the fluid
to flow through the orifice. This action dampens rapid
oscillations.
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figure 205, Torque Link Shimmy Damper
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figure 206, Torque Link Shimmy Damper
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figure 207, Torque Link Shimmy Damper On A320
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13.2.4 Vane Type Shimmy Damper

Vane-type shimmy dampers (figure 208) are designed
with a set of moving vanes and a set of stationary
vanes as shown. The moving vanes are mounted on
a shaft, which extends outside the housing. When
the shaft is turned, the chambers between the vanes
change in size, forcing the fluid through the orifices
from one chamber to another, this will provide a
dampening effect to any rapid movement. The body
is normally mounted on a stationary part of the nose
gear and the shaft to a turning point.
Shimmy dampers do not require extensive
maintenance but should be checked regularly to check
for leakage and effective operation. Some dampers
have a fluid reservoir attached and must be checked
periodically, with fluid added when required.
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figure 208, Vane Type Shimmy Damper Principle
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13.2.5 Non Hydraulic Shimmy Damper

Non hydraulic shimmy dampers look and fit similar to
piston shimmy dampers except that there is no fluid
inside.
Instead there is a rubber piston that presses against
the inner surface of the housing. The piston rides on
a very thin film of grease and it is the rubbing action
of the piston against the housing that provides the
damping effect.
This type of damper has a long life span and requires
no servicing.
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figure 209, Non-Hydraulic Shimmy Damper
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13.3 Body Gear Steering Feedback Transducers are included in the body gear
steering cylinders. They send data to the electronic
The wheels of an aircraft that is taxiing or being towed
control unit and indicate when the desired steering
are susceptible to increased friction with the ground,
movement has been reached. The electronic control
specially during turns. If several wheels are installed
unit then stops the controlling signal to the body gear
on bogie beams, the friction increases even more.
steering control valve.
Multiple axles, multi main landing gears with bogie
The B777, with its 6 wheel main gear, has a steerable
beams such as the Boeing 747, the friction when
aft axle.
making turns becomes so great that the aircraft
eventually stops.
To minimize damage to wheels or tires, very large
aircraft use controllable body gear steering. In general,
the system operates the same way as that of the nose
wheel steering system. The inner strut is rotated in
the outer strut by means of hydraulic cylinders, which
drive the torque links. The bogie beams with wheels
are set in another direction, where less friction occurs.
The steering signals come from a control transducer,
which measures the direction of the nose wheel
control. These signals are transmitted to an electronic
control unit that makes matching steering signals for
the body gears.
figure 210, Body Gear Steering B747
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figure 211, Main Gear Steering B777
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13.4 Tail Skid

Some aircraft have a tail skid or a jockey wheel located
near the rear of the aircraft. Its purpose is to protect
the underside of the aircraft from a tail scrape caused
by over rotation at take off or landing
A typical tail skid strut is shown in figure 212; it
consists of a gas/oil strut that absorbs tail strike
impact energy. The tail skid actuator is powered by one
of the hydraulic systems and is activated by movement
of the landing gear control lever. It is therefore extends
and retracts together with landing gear.
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figure 212, Tail Skid B777
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figure 213, Tail Skid Operation
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14. AIR/GROUND SENSING

The philosophy behind air/ground sensing is Although the principle is the same, there are many
comparatively simple. It is a system of automatically methods used to achieve the air/ground status of the
switching aircraft systems on and off as required when aircraft.
the aircraft transitions from an air to ground mode
or vice versa. This automatic switching relieves the Aircraft with bogie beams (trucks) use truck tilt
pilot of the need to switch many systems on that are sensors to determine if the wheels are on or off the
needed for a safe flight, and switching them all off ground.
again when the aircraft has landed. There are 3 systems in use today to detect air/ground:
Various terminologies exist for the air/ground systems. -- Mechanical
The terms used vary with the manufacturer or the -- Electrical
country of origin of the aircraft, other names for these -- Proximity
systems are:
-- Weight on wheels
-- Weight ON/weight OFF
-- Squat switches
All air/ground systems work on the same principle.
When weight is on the landing gear the shock
absorbers are compressed. This compression is used
through the torque links to give a ground signal. When
the weight of the aircraft is not on the wheels an air
signal is sent to the aircraft systems.
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14.1 Mechanical Air/Ground Sensing

The mechanical operation of the air/ground sensing
uses linkages to operate hydraulic valves or pulleys to
enable certain systems, which would only be used on
the ground. For example:
-- Nose wheel steering,
-- Thrust reverse or reverse pitch
-- Ground spoilers.
Mechanical air/ground sensing is used on the Boeing
757 tot enable or disable the rudder pedal nose wheel
steering. The torque links modify their angle when the
weight of the aircraft compresses the shock absorber.
The upper torque link compresses a spring cartridge,
which rotates a cable quadrant, the cables move an
eccentric pulley, which will, depending on its position,
permit or inhibit the rudder pedal nose wheel steering
(figure 214).
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figure 214, Mechanical Air-Fround Sensing For Rudder Steering Interconnect B757
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14.2 Electrical Air/Ground Sensing 14.3 Proximity Sensors

There are several types of electrical air/ground Many aircraft today use proximity sensors instead
systems, one of the most common being the direct of microswitches for the air/ground sensing system.
microswitch type. There are various shapes of sensor depending on the
space availability where it is fitted.
With the landing gear fully extended the microswitch
plunger is pushed in by a part of the casting of the All shapes work on the same principle. A steel target
leg; this will signal that the aircraft is in the air mode. moves through a magnetic field produced by the
As soon as weight is taken by the shock absorber the sensor. When the target is in close proximity to the
switch breaks contact due to the movement of the sensor, (near), the voltage produced by breaking
torque links and the ground sense will be assumed. the field is reduced, signaling the equivalent of a
closed switch. When the target is removed from
A major disadvantage of the microswitch is that it is close proximity (far), the voltage returns to normal,
susceptible to interference caused by moisture ingress equivalent to an open switch.
and/or dirt contamination. To counter this a remotely
operated electrical sensor is fitted to aircraft. The proximity switches have no moving parts so
are maintenance free. The targets are magnetic
These types are normally push rod and bell crank stainless steel and once correctly adjusted (usually
or teleflex cable operated. The advantages of the shimmed) require no maintenance or adjustments
remotely operated systems are that the switches are unless disturbed. The targets do not touch the
located away from the elements, e.g. water slush etc. proximity switches. When in close proximity a gap of
approximately 0.1 of an inch exists.
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The proximity sensors are part of a system called

proximity sensor electronics unit (PSEU) on the Boeing
aircraft or Landing gear control interface unit (LGCIU)
on Airbus aircraft.
The sensors send signals to the proximity computer,
which then activates or deactivates the required
systems. Among others, the following systems are
dependent on air/ground signals:
-- Pitot heat
-- Stall warning
-- Landing gear lever lock
-- Thrust reversers
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figure 215, Proximity Sensors
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14.4 Stress Sensors

An entirely new way of air/ground sensing is by using
load sensors or stress sensors. These are placed on the
main landing gear support beams and are so sensitive
they can even be used to measure the weight of the
aircraft. The Boeing 777 uses this technology for both
air/ground as weight measurement.
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figure 216, Load Sensors For Air Ground Sensing B777
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

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figure 1, Retractable Landing Gear A380

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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK

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figure 2, Fixed Landing Gear

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Early aircraft had a non-retractable gear, which

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figure 3, Wheel Base And Wheel Track

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“Wheel base” means: the horizontal distance between

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figure 4, Wheel Identification B777

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1.1 Tricycle Configuration

figure 5, BAe 146 Landing Gear

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figure 6, B747 Landing Gear

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Brake units are generally only found on the main

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figure 7, Landing Gear A320

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figure 8, Direct Acting Suspension

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figure 9, Splined Nose Gear

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figure 10, Levered Suspension

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1.2 Main Landing Gear

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figure 11, Steerable Main Gear B777

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Each landing gear unit is basically a wheeled shock

figure 12, Dual Wheel Main Landing Gear

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figure 13, Tripple Bogie Main Landing Gear B777

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figure 14, Main Landing Gear Components

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figure 15, Main Landing Gear Trunnion

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1.2.1 Multi-Axle Landing Gears

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figure 16, Multi-Wheel Landing Gear

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figure 17, Main Gear Tilted For Gear Retraction B777

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