Module 11A.2 (A) L2 2016-08-12

Aircraft Maintenance College 66
Module 11A.2(a)
Airframe Structures -
General concepts
Level 2
12 - 08 - 2016 EASA Part 66
EASA P66 MOD 11A.2(a) L2 Training Manual
Aircraft Maintenance College 66
EASA Part 66
Training Manual
For Training Purposes Only
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EASA P66 MOD 11A.2(a) L2

Aircraft Maintenance College 66 Airframe Structures - General Concepts
Contact address for

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course schedule information
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66, following ATA 104 specifications.
The information in this publication is furnished for informational

and training use only, and is subject to change without notice.
Aircraft Maintenance College 66 assumes no responsibility for

any errors or inaccuracies that may appear in this publication.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Airworthiness Requirements For Structural Strength.... 8
1.1 Structural Classification ................................................ 10
1.1.1 Primary Construction ............................................. 10
1.1.2 Secondary Construction ......................................... 12
1.1.3 Tertiary Structure .................................................. 14
1.2 Loads.......................................................................... 16
2. Fail-Safe Design ......................................................... 18

2.1 Safe-Life ..................................................................... 20
2.1.1 Fatigue ................................................................ 22
3. Damage Tolerance....................................................... 26
4. Zonal and station Identification Systems..................... 28

4.1 Zonal Identification Systems........................................... 28
4.2 Station Identification Systems ....................................... 34
5. Stresses Acting On An Aeroplane Structure ................ 40

5.1 Torsion ....................................................................... 40
5.2 Bending ...................................................................... 42
5.3 Tension . ..................................................................... 44
5.4 Compression................................................................ 45
5.5 Shear ......................................................................... 46
6. Drains And Ventilation Provision ................................ 48

6.1 Drainage . ................................................................... 48
7. System Installation Provisions ................................... 50
8. Lightning Strike Protection ......................................... 52
9. Aircraft Bonding ......................................................... 56

9.1 Primary bonding .......................................................... 57
9.2 Secondary bonding ...................................................... 60
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LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Access Panel Numbers........................................................33 Static Discharger Installation..............................................55
Aloha 737 Fatigue Failure...................................................25 Stations Diagram...............................................................36
Axis System......................................................................35 Stringer Arrangement Airbus...............................................39
Bending...........................................................................43 Stringer Arrangement Boeing..............................................39
Bending On An Aircraft.......................................................43 Structures Classification.....................................................11
Boeing 787 Stress Test.......................................................17 Tension............................................................................44
Bonding Of Access Panels...................................................58 Torsion.............................................................................41
Comet Crash.....................................................................22 Wheel Shield Boeing 737....................................................15
Comet Pressure Test..........................................................23 Wing Construction.............................................................13
Compression.....................................................................45 Wing Load Test..................................................................17
Corrosion Damage.............................................................19 Wing Stations...................................................................37
Cupal Washers..................................................................57 Zero Point Of Stations........................................................37
Damage Tolerance Graph....................................................27
Dehaviland Comet.............................................................23
Engine Stations.................................................................38
Fail Safe Design................................................................19
Fatigue Demonstration.......................................................24
Fuselage Zones.................................................................32
Lightning Strike On Carbon Fiber.........................................53
Lightning Strike On Fuselage...............................................53
Main Landing Gear.............................................................21
Major Subzones.................................................................31
Major Zones #1.................................................................29
Major Zones #2.................................................................30
Multiple Site Cracking........................................................26
Pressure Zone Drain Valves.................................................49
Primary Bonding................................................................59
Secondary Bonding............................................................60
Secondary Bonding Examples..............................................61
Shear..............................................................................47
Static Discharger...............................................................55
Static Discharger Damaged By Lightning..............................54
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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

APU Auxiliary Power Unit
BL Buttock Line
CS Certification Specification
EASA European Aviation Safety Agency
FAR Federal Aviation Regulation
Sta Station
USA United States of America
WL Water Line
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THIS PAGE IS INTENTIONALLY LEFT BLANK
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1. AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH
Safety means more than only that the aircraft must Section Regulations
be capable to withstand the most severe loadings it
will encounter during its service life. It should not Section 1 Sub-part A - General
be difficult for the flight crew to control it under all Sub-part B - Flight
circumstances. This means the aircraft should also Sub-part BB - Flight - Emergency Power
show sufficient positive stability during all flight phases or Thrust
and attitudes through out the flight envelope. Sub-part C - Structure
Sub-part D - Design and Construction
EASA Certification Specification (CS) - 25 is based on Sub-part E - Power Plant
Part 25 of the Federal Aviation. Sub-part F - Equipment
Sub-part G - Operating Limitations and
These requirements are applicable for all large aircraft. Information
This means aircraft with a maximum mass not less Sub-part J - Gas Turbine Auxiliary Power
than 5700 kg. Excluded are, reciprocating-engine Unit installations
aircraft, seaplanes and ski planes. Appendices A-J.
EASA CS-25 consists of: Section 2 Acceptable means of compliance and
interpretations
Section 3 Reserved
Section 4 The basic code (part 25 of the federal
aviation regulations of the USA, up to and
including amendment N°53).
From the structural point of view sub-parts C and D
are the most important. They give the applied loads or
the procedures to obtain the applied loads. They also
give requirements for design other than loads.
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1.1 Structural Classification

When designing airplanes, loads to which the various
parts are exposed must be taken into consideration.
These loads are different for each part of the
construction. A difference is made between primary,
secondary and tertiary constructions. When choosing
materials for maintenance work, this must be taken
into account.
1.1.1 Primary Construction

The primary construction consists of those parts of the
airplane construction that bear the loads
(see figure 1).
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figure 1, Structures Classification

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1.1.2 Secondary Construction

The secondary construction generally gives the
aerodynamic shape to the airplane construction. On
the basis of the main sections, the difference between
primary and secondary can be clearly illustrated. For
example, a wing section consists of a primary part and
a secondary part (see figure 2).
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figure 2, Wing Construction

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1.1.3 Tertiary Structure

Lightly stressed parts such as fairings, wheels shields
and minor component brackets. Failure of which would
not be serious.
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figure 3, Wheel Shield Boeing 737

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1.2 Loads
Normal load on the aircraft and every component
during horizontal cruise flight and maximum weight.
Limit Loads are the maximum loads expected in
service. FAR Part 25 (and most other regulations)
specifies that there be no permanent deformation of
the structure at limit load.
Ultimate loads are defined as the limit loads times a
safety factor. In Part 25 the safety factor is specified
as 1.5. The structure must be able to withstand the
ultimate load for at least 3 seconds without failure.
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figure 4, Wing Load Test figure 5, Boeing 787 Stress Test

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2. FAIL-SAFE DESIGN
The fail-safe design principle uses multiple load paths Fail-safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well
to ensure structural integrity. lf one load path cracks for many decades. In fact, fail-safe design still provides
completely through, or sustains accidental damage, the basis for most new airplane designs.
the remaining load paths carry the additional load. This
type of design is common on modern jet airplanes. However, operational experience shows that some of
the assumptions of fail-safety do not hold true.
Examples include:
Cracks usually develop in several elements at the same
-- M ultiple stringers and ribs in wings. Multiple wing time, making the alternate load paths weaker. This
panels is called “multiple site cracking”. Corrosion weakens
-- Multiple stringers and frames in fuselage alternate load paths, and accelerates crack growth.
construction. This construction also breaks the (see figure 6 and figure 7)
fuselage skin into redundant panels
-- Bonded and bolted fittings (often called back- To compensate for these deficiencies in fail-safe
to-back fittings), and bonded and bolted landing design, the damage tolerance philosophy was
gear beams developed.
The fail-safe principle also requires that any damage

will be detected during an inspection, and then
repaired. Some types of damage produce effects that
are obvious, such as flapping fuselage skin panels, or
wing tank leaks. This obvious damage is considered
part of the fail-safe inspections.
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figure 6, Fail Safe Design figure 7, Corrosion Damage

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2.1 Safe-Life
The discovery of fatigue cracks, and failures of major
structural elements on airplanes in the late 1930s and
early 1940s, forced the development of the safe-life
design principle. The safe-life design principle requires
that major structural elements be replaced after a
fixed number of flight cycles. These parts cannot be
repaired or refurbished to extend the components life.
The basis for safe-life design is fatigue analysis.
The safe-life of a structure is that number of events,
such as flights, landings, or flight hours, during which
there is a low probability that the strength will degrade
below its design ultimate value due to fatigue cracking.
These parts cannot be repaired or refurbished to
extend the components life.
Safe life design is based on the prediction that the risk
of fatal failure is zero or negligible.
The basis for safe life design is fatigue analyses. One
example is the landing gear (see figure 8)
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figure 8, Main Landing Gear

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2.1.1 Fatigue
Soon after the first jet transport aircraft (Comet)
started flying in the early 1950s, three of them broke
apart in the air under mysterious circumstances, two
of them in relatively non-turbulent air. An extremely
thorough investigation disclosed that the cause of the
break-ups was metal fatigue brought about by the
flexing of the structure during the pressurization and
depressurization cycles.
When the British Comets were put into service with
their pressurization of 8 PSI, real problems arose.
The continued flexing of the structure caused by the
pressurization and depressurization cycles fatigued
the metal to such an extent that a crack developed
at a square come of a cut-out in the structure, and
the large amount of pressure differential caused the
structure to virtually explode. When the cause of the
structural failure was determined, new emphasis was
placed on fail-safe design of aircraft structures. Stress
risers, or portions of the structure where eliminated.
Joints and connections were carefully pre-stressed to
minimize the cyclic stresses from the flight loads.
figure 9, Comet Crash

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figure 10, Dehaviland Comet figure 11, Comet Pressure Test

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The life of a structure may depend more on how it is However, if loads of from 0 to 111 kN were applied, it
loaded than on the total number of times it is loaded, would last about 25,000 cycles. Loadings from 111 kN
or on the maximum amount of the loads themselves. tension to 111 kN compression (commonly called plus
This is best shown by loading a 5 cm2 bar of aluminium to minus 111 kN) it would fail at about 4,000 cycles.
alloy that breaks at 370kN when loaded once.
figure 12, Fatigue Demonstration
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figure 13, Aloha 737 Fatigue Failure
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3. DAMAGE TOLERANCE
The damage tolerance principle requires that any

airplane damage is detected, and repaired before the
strength is below a minimum level.
Damage Tolerant Design
Fail-safe structure forms the basis for damage tolerant
design. Damage tolerance improves on fail-safety by
considering multiple site cracking, and the residual
strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage
tolerance also considers the effects of environmental
damage (corrosion), and discrete damage (accidental).
figure 14, Multiple Site Cracking
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Damage Tolerance Concept

Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the
beginning of an airplanes life. The operating loads
are much smaller than the ultimate strength. As the
airplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to
crack growth and/or corrosion damage.
Before the strength becomes less than the residual
requirement, the damage is detected and repaired
back to original capability.
This process continues throughout the life of the
airplane.
Load Dropping Construction
Aluminum is used for tension structure such as
lower wing skins, pressure critical fuselage skins
and minimum gage applications. This material has
excellent fatigue strength, fracture toughness and
notch sensitivity. 7075-T6 aluminium has the highest
strength with acceptable toughness. It is used for
strength critical structures such as fuselage floor
beams, stabilizers and spar caps in control surfaces. It
is also used for upper wing skins.
figure 15, Damage Tolerance Graph
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4. ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS
4.1 Zonal Identification Systems Major zones are identified by hundred as follows
(see figure 16):
The location identification system is used to pinpoint
the various locations in an airplane. The station -- 00
1 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION
numbers make it possible to indicate the location of -- 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION
the center of gravity, the distribution of the load, the -- 300 STABILIZERS
location of the compartments and of parts. To localize -- 400 NACELLES
parts more easily and to localize where work must be -- 500 LEFTWING
done, the airplane is divided into: -- 600 RIGHTVV1NG
-- 700 LANDING GEAR
-- Major zones
-- 800 DOORS
-- Major sub-zones
-- Unit zones
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figure 16, Major Zones #1
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Major sub-zones are identified by the ten of the majors Where necessary, the uneven zone number refers to
zones (see figure 17). A three-digit number identifies the left-hand zone, and an even number indicates a
unit zones. An example of a location identification right-hand zone. Large construction sections, including
system is 212 (See figure 18): doors and control surfaces, have their own zone
numbers.
-- 200: Upper half of body (major zone)
-- 10: Cockpit (major sub-zone)
-- 2: Zone number on the right-hand side
(unit zone)
figure 17, Major Zones #2
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figure 18, Major Subzones
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The number of the zone in which the panel is installed -- =top (upper) surface
T
followed by a two-letter suffix identifies access doors -- B=bottom (lower) surface
and panels. These two letters are used to indicate the -- R=right side
doors and panels. -- L=left side
-- Z=internal
The first letter indicates which access door or panel it -- F=floor panel
is, starting from the reference axis (A=first, B=second, -- W=sidewall panel
..., G=seventh, etc.). The second letter indicates the -- C=ceiling panel
access door or panel location (see figure 20):
figure 19, Fuselage Zones
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figure 20, Access Panel Numbers

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4.2 Station Identification Systems Other manufacturers use the following abbreviations:
In order to determine a particular location in an -- X Sta. (X Stations) - the X coordinate
airplane, it is divided into three (imaginary) planes that -- Y Sta. (Y Stations) - the Y coordinate
are at angle of 90° to each other (see figure 21). -- Z Sta. (Z Stations) - the Z coordinate
The first plane cuts the airplane horizontally (based on
There is a number following these abbreviations, which
a cross section). These planes are called water lines or
indicates the distance of the part from the zero point.
Z stations.
For airplanes built by Boeing, these distances are given
The second plane cuts the airplane vertically (based on in inches, airplanes built by Airbus, in centimeters.
a cross section). These planes are called buttock lines
The zero point of the Sta. (X Sta.) is in front of, behind
or X stations.
or on the point of the fuselage nose (see figure 22). In
The third plane cuts the airplane vertically (based cases where the station number 0 is behind the point
on a side view). These are called body stations or Y of the nose, the station number that are in front of the
stations. By means of these three planes, any and zero point have a minus sign, for instance: Sta. - 60.4.
every point in the airplane can be given an X, a Y and
The zero point of the W.L. (Z Sta.) depends on the
a Z coordinate. Some airplane manufacturers use
type of airplane. The zero point of the W.L. in a B-747
abbreviations for these coordinates as follows:
is 91 inches below the lowest point.
-- Sta. (body stations) - the X coordinate
The zero point of the B.L. (Y Sta.) is the centerline of
-- B.L. (buttock lines) - the Y coordinate
the airplane (see figure 23). Looking in the direction of
-- W.L. (water lines) - the Z coordinate
flight, there are left-hand and right-hand buttock lines.
The left-hand buttock lines are identified by a minus
sign and the right-hand ones with a plus sign.
The wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and
powerplants of most airplane types have their own
location identification system.
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figure 21, Axis System
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figure 22, Stations Diagram
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figure 23, Zero Point Of Stations figure 24, Wing Stations
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figure 25, Engine Stations
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figure 26, Stringer Arrangement Airbus figure 27, Stringer Arrangement Boeing
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5. STRESSES ACTING ON AN AEROPLANE STRUCTURE
Aircraft are unique in their structural requirements. 5.1 Torsion

They must be lightweight and at the same time
Torsion is a combination of tension and compression
withstand flight loads, landing loads, and a wide range
acting in the same object. The shaft in figure 28 has
of vibration. In this study of all-metal structure, we will
a tensile stress and compressive stress acting 90
consider the five basic stresses that act on all physical
degrees to each other and they are both acting at 45
objects: tension, compression, torsion, bending, and
degrees to the shaft. Propeller shafts and helicopter
shear. Tension and compression are the basic stresses
rotor shafts are both subjected to torsional stresses.
and the other three are combinations of these two.
A stress is a force that is set up within an object that
tries to prevent an outside force changing its shape. A
strain is a deformation or a physical change caused by
a stress. A material that is strained within its elastic
limit will return to its original size and shape after the
stress is removed, but if it has been strained beyond
this limit, it will be permanently deformed.
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figure 28, Torsion
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5.2 Bending
Bending is also made up of tension and compression.
The wing of the airplane in figure 29 is under a
bending stress. When the airplane is on the ground,
the top skin of the wing is under a tensile stress and
the bottom skin is under a compressive stress. In flight
these forces are the opposite. The top skin is under
a compressive stress and the bottom skin is under a
tensile stress.
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figure 29, Bending figure 30, Bending On An Aircraft
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5.3 Tension
Tension tries to pull an object apart. Consider the
hoist in figure 31. The chain is under tension, or more
properly stated, it has a tensile stress in it.
figure 31, Tension
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5.4 Compression
Compression tries to squeeze the ends of an object
together. The rivet in figure 32 is distorted or strained
by a compressive stress between the rivet gun and the
bucking bar.
figure 32, Compression
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5.5 Shear
A shear stress tries to slide an object apart. The rivet
bolt in figure 33 is subject to a shear stress. The force
on one sheet puts a tensile stress in the rivet toward
the right while the fixed other sheet puts a tensile
stress into the bolt toward the left. These two tensile
stresses act beside each other rather than opposite
each other, and the result is a force that tries to shear
the rivet, or to slide it apart.
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figure 33, Shear
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6. DRAINS AND VENTILATION PROVISION
At places in airplane structures where collection of 6.1 Drainage

fluids may be expected, drainage points are provided.
External and internal holes and drain paths are
To prevent unintended pressure differentials and provided in aircraft structures to prevent water and
the accumulation of hazardous gases, structures are other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids
supplied with means of ventilation. could cause a fire or corrosion.
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces
of the fuselage, wing and tail unit to drain any fluids
overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the
pressure cabin. These drain valves are open when the
aircraft cabin is un-pressurized, but closed when the
cabin is pressurized to prevent loss of cabin pressure.
In the simplest type, a rubber diaphragm forms the
seal. Other types of drain valve are illustrated in figure
34.
Sometimes a leveling compound is used to prevent
fluid collecting in cavities (see figure 34). The
compound directs fluid to the drains. The internal
structure of an aircraft is provided with tubes,
channels, dams and drain holes to direct the flow of
fluid towards external drain points. An example of this
is the holes drilled in stringers to allow fluids to drain
down to the bilge area.
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figure 34, Pressure Zone Drain Valves
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7. SYSTEM INSTALLATION PROVISIONS
Consideration needs to be given to the construction of Firewalls prevent the spread of fire from hot sections of
the fuselage where it may be necessary to increase its the aircraft such as engine nacelles and APU housing.
structural integrity.
Some system fluid lines, ducting and controls have to
For example: be routed through the aircraft structure. This weakens
the structure so the manufacture will keep this in mind
The installation of brackets for the attachment during the design stage and keep it to a minimum.
of system components such as hydraulic system
reservoirs, fuel filter modules and system shut off Control cables are used extensively throughout the
valves etc. aircraft to operate different aircraft systems, these
control cables will be routed through the aircraft
Increasing structural strength will be required in areas structure and special consideration will need to be
of high load; landing gear and engine attachments given to the routing of these cables to protect the
would be a good example of this. aircraft structure from the cables. This is accomplished
by the use of grommets, fairleads and pressure seals.
Not only is the routing of control cable important,
the routing of hydraulic system fluid lines, electrical
cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and
air-conditioning distribution must be considered and
provisions made for the attachment and correct routing
of these system components.
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8. LIGHTNING STRIKE PROTECTION
Aircraft require electrical contact between all metallic

and composite parts in order to prevent arcing or fiber
damage. Aluminium is used to provide a conductive
path for the dissipation of the electrical energy. The
aluminium may be provided in a number of ways
depending on the manufacture of the aircraft.
No matter whether an aircraft is aluminium or
composite, when lightning hits it, a path is needed for
the electricity to flow through. On an aluminium skin,
the electricity will flow through the skin and discharge
out of the aircraft structure, very possibly a static
discharger. Since composites do not conduct electricity,
lightning protection has to be built into the component.
If there is no lightning protection in the composite and
the lightning exits through the composite component,
the resins in the composite will evaporate, leaving
bare cloth. Carbon/graphite composite was at first
believed to conduct enough electricity to dissipate the
electrical charge, but this was later found not to be
true. Aluminium lightning protection may be found
in carbon/graphite parts. A barrier, such as a layer
of fiberglass, should be used to prevent a galvanic
potential between the carbon/graphite and aluminium.
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figure 35, Lightning Strike On Fuselage figure 36, Lightning Strike On Carbon Fiber
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Static discharging
The aircraft behaves like a Faraday Cage. During flight
the aircraft can become charged with static electricity,
caused by the constant rubbing of the air molecules
against the fuselage. Static dischargers placed at
specific position at the aircraft structure discharge the
static electricity off the aircraft. Static electricity, which
is not discharged by the static dischargers, can cause
interference in the communications (HF, VHF) and
navigation systems.
Another effect of the static dischargers: Although not
a design feature; in case of lightning strike they can
lead the electrical energy off the aircraft. In this case
the static dischargers might be damaged but they are
easy to change. After a lightning strike the dischargers
must be inspected for damage. It is however possible
that the lightning exited the aircraft via another part
of the structure and none of the static dischargers are
damaged.
figure 37, Static Discharger Damaged By Lightning
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figure 38, Static Discharger Installation figure 39, Static Discharger
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9. AIRCRAFT BONDING
Normally the structure of an aircraft consists of Different manufacturers use different methods to
metallic assemblies which ensure an excellent electric dissipate the electrical charge on composite structures.
conductibility; however certain insulating intermediate These are a few different methods:
parts stop the continuity in large zones. The continuity
is restored by means of strips, screws or grounding -- A luminium wires may be woven into the top layer
lugs fitted between metallic assemblies. Hinged parts of composite fabric. This is usually done with
(control surfaces, doors, hatches, etc.), removable fiberglass or Kevlar and not with carbon/graphite
parts (unhinged inspection doors, etc.), are provided -- A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under
with one or several bonding means shunting each the top layer of fabric. lf this method is used
part where conductibility may be interrupted. For on a carbon/graphite component, it is usually
particular zones such as fuel tanks, engines and APU, sandwiched between two layers of fiber glass to
the bondings provide an efficient circulation of static prevent a galvanic potential
potential; bonding strips and screws are connected to -- A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the
the main structure. outer layer of composite during the manufacturing
process
External protruding parts, metallic or not, are provided -- Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the
with electrical leads connected to the main structure. component. This is molten aluminium that is
Antennas and other equipment are not bonded due to sprayed on like paint. Some companies will just
the fact that a flash of lightning could damage only the paint the component with an aluminized paint
element struck without endangering the other parts of -- In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded
the aircraft. to the composite to allow the dissipation of the
electrical charge out to another metal component
or static discharger
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9.1 Primary bonding

Primary bonding strips are connected between the
hinge point and the structure, some manufactures are
using special washers (copper/aluminium or cupal).
Primary bonding is also to provide efficient circulation
of static potential.
figure 40, Cupal Washers
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figure 41, Bonding Of Access Panels

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figure 42, Primary Bonding

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9.2 Secondary bonding

Secondary bonding eliminates potential differences
between the metal structures.
figure 43, Secondary Bonding
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figure 44, Secondary Bonding Examples

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EASA P66 MOD 11A.2(a) L2

2. Fail-Safe Design ......................................................... 18

4. Zonal and station Identification Systems..................... 28

5. Stresses Acting On An Aeroplane Structure ................ 40

6. Drains And Ventilation Provision ................................ 48

7. System Installation Provisions ................................... 50

8. Lightning Strike Protection ......................................... 52

9. Aircraft Bonding ......................................................... 56

EASA P66 MOD 11A.2(a) L2

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ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

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1. AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH

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1.1 Structural Classification

1.1.1 Primary Construction

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figure 1, Structures Classification

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1.1.2 Secondary Construction

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figure 2, Wing Construction

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1.1.3 Tertiary Structure

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figure 3, Wheel Shield Boeing 737

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figure 4, Wing Load Test figure 5, Boeing 787 Stress Test

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The fail-safe principle also requires that any damage

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figure 6, Fail Safe Design figure 7, Corrosion Damage

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figure 8, Main Landing Gear

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figure 9, Comet Crash

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figure 10, Dehaviland Comet figure 11, Comet Pressure Test

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figure 12, Fatigue Demonstration

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figure 13, Aloha 737 Fatigue Failure

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The damage tolerance principle requires that any

figure 14, Multiple Site Cracking

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Damage Tolerance Concept

figure 15, Damage Tolerance Graph

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4. ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEMS

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figure 16, Major Zones #1

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figure 17, Major Zones #2